Full text of "Memoir of the life and public services of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles : particularly in the government of Java, 1811-1816, and of Bencoolen and its dependencies, 1817-1824 : with details of the commerce and resources of the Eastern archipelago, and selections from his correspondence"

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Cibrarjp of t:he trheological ^mimvy

PRINCETON . NEW JERSEY

-vvv y//,

PRESENTED BY

Rev. Cortland Van Renesselaer

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2016

https://archive.org/details/memoiroflifepublOOraff

T.J

MEMOIR

OF THE

LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES

SIR THOMAS STAMFORD RAFFLES, F.R.S. &c.

PARTICULARLY IN THE GOVERNMENT OF JAVA, 1811—1816,

AXD OF

BENCOOLEN AND ITS DEPENDENCIES, 1817—1824;

WITH DETAILS OF THE

COMMERCE AND RESOURCES OF THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO,

AND

SELECTIONS FROM HIS CORRESPONDENCE.

BY HIS WIDOW.

iou

LONDON:

JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

C\\oW )

MDCCCXXX.

gilbekt

ST.

AND RIVINGTONj PRINTERS,
JOHN’S SQUAIIE, LONDON.

THE RIGHT HONOURABLE

GILBERT, EARL OF MINTO.

My Lord,

The friendship with which the late Earl of Minto
honoured Sir Stamford Raffles from the first period of their
acquaintance, and the affection and gratitude with which that
friendship was returned, and its remembrance always cherished,
render me desirous of dedicating this Memoir to the Son of his
Patron. I trust, my Lord, that you will peruse it with an
hereditary interest, and accept it as a proof of my earnest desire
to acknowledo“e the obliofations which can no lonofer be ex-
pressed by him on whom they were bestowed.

SOPHIA RAFFLES.

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IN TRODUCTION.

The following Memoir of Sir Stamford Raffles, it is hoped, will afford
an outline of the public life of one who was placed in situations of no
common responsibility, and filled them with no common firmness, talent,
and success. His exertions to promote the honour of his country, the
happiness of the people committed to his charge, and, therefore, the best
interests of his employers, can only be duly estimated by a knowledge of
the peculiar difficulties with which he had to contend : these difficulties,
in many instances, it has been found impossible to detail, without reflect-
ing upon individuals, many of whom are now no more. On this account
the Editor has omitted various circumstances which severely tried his
mind and his principles, and has touched only slightly upon others.
To the exertions and anxieties of his public duties, his life fell, eventu-
ally, a sacrifice.

The loss of all the papers with which, after his last government, he
was returning to England, and which were destroyed in the calamitous
burning of the ship, has added much to the difficulty of the task of re-
cording the details of his public life.

INTRODUCTION.

It is owing, indeed, to this misfortune, that the undertaking has fallen
u}3on the present Editor, who would otherwise have gladly availed herself
of the abilities of those better qualified to perform the task. The wreck
of Sir Stamford’s papers — those previously sent to England, or those col-
lected after the destruction of his complete materials, — it was found could
only be fully made use of by one well acquainted with the events of his
life. From peculiar circumstances, the Editor had the happiness to parti-
cipate in almost all the scenes described during his last administration in
India, and also to become generally acquainted with the events of his
former government.

Duty to her husband has been the Editor’s first consideration ; and
if in stating some facts which are necessary to justify and uphold his cha-
racter, she may appear to reflect upon public authorities, she trusts it will
be evident she has endeavoured to avoid doing so, wherever it has been
possible.

If any observations appear to reflect upon the Dutch nation and cha-
racter generally, the Editor can only repeat Sir Stamford’s own declara-
tion “ That such observations are intended exclusively to apply to the
Colonial Government and its officers.”

Though the Editor is conscious that her thanks can be of little value,
she feels it her duty publicly to record the sense which Sir Stamford
always entertained of the attachment of his private Secretary, the late IVIr.
Assey, and of his personal staff. Captains Travers, Garnham, Dalgairns,

* See History of Java, 4to. Preface, p. ix. 8vo. p.vi.

INTRODUCTION.

VII

Watson, and Methven, during his government of Java. The enthu-
siasm of this little band of friends, in all that concerned his honour and
happiness, tended to soften the troubles in which he was involved.
To Captain Travers, who, in a moment of difficulty, and at a consider-
able personal sacrifice, volunteered to take a voyage to England, for the
purpose of defending the character of Sir Stamford, and who has now
permitted the Editor to make use of his Journal, her first thanks are due.

Of the friends who assisted Sir Stamford in some of those pursuits
which formed his delight and relaxation from public duty. Dr. Arnold, Dr.
Jack, Dr. Horsfield, and Dr. Wallich, the world has a better knowledge
than the Editor can give. Though Dr. Arnold soon fell a sacrifice to
the climate, his amiable character had won Sir Stamford’s friendship,
and his death was mourned with the truest sorrow. Sir Stamford
loved Dr. Jack as a brother; and the society of this highly-gifted and
accomplished young man, was a never-failing resource of pleasure : his
early death blighted many anticipated plans of future usefulness. The
Editor has to regret, that the necessity of compressing this volume has
prevented her doing more justice to the unwearied efforts of Dr. Horsfield,
in promoting Sir Stamford’s views. The collection now in the Museum
at the East India House is the best testimony of the success of those
efforts ; a success which, without Dr. Horsfield’s aid, would not have
equalled Sir Stamford’s wishes.

Dr. Wallich, who, for a time, personally assisted Sir Stamford in his
study of Natural History, will feel, that however highly Sir Stamford
prized his professional abilities, it w^as for the qualities of his heart, and
for his strong and devoted attachment, that he was still more valued.

Vlll

INTRODUCTION.

To the Friends who have aided and encouraged her in the perform-
ance of this duty ; to Sir Robert Harry Inghs, to Captain Basil Hall, R.N.
to IMr. Murdoch, to IVIr. Barrow, and to Dr. Raffles, the Editor offers this
public testimony of her gratitude for the assistance and advice which
they have afforded her ; a gratitude which is brightened by the con-
sciousness that it is their friendship for her husband which has thus been
extended in kindness to her. To the Duke of Somerset, Mr. Marsden,
and Mr. Wilham Brown Ramsay, (the favourite companion and friend of
Sir Stamford’s early life,) she owes her thankful acknowledgments, for
the letters which they have allowed her to make use of ; without these,
she could hardly have completed this Volume.

The Editor cannot conclude without expressing her hope that the
motives which induced her to compile this Memoir, (a desire to do justice
to her husband’s memory, and possibly, in some degree, contribute to the
information of the public on topics of great national importance,) will
justify the attempt, and procure for her the indulgence of wdiich she stands
so much in need.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

PAGE

Early life of Mr. Raffles — Labours and relaxations — First tastes — Appointment under the new Go-
vernment of Penang — Duties there — Goes to Malacca for his health — Malay literature — Paper
on the Malayan nation — Woolly haired people scattered among them — Game of chess — Orders
for the destruction of Malacca — Countermanded at his representation — Native account of the
Portuguese arrival at Malacca — the Dutch — Lettej: from Dr. Leyden - - - 1

CHAPTER II.

Mr. Raffles proceeds to Calcutta — Proposes expedition to Java — Lord Minto appoints him Agent to
collect information on the subject — Instructions of the Court of Directors to expel the French,
and to give up the Island to the natives — Consequences of such a measure — Lord Minto objects
to it — Determines to proceed in person to Java — Letters of Dr. Leyden — His account of an ex-
cursion in the Malay Peninsula — Mr. Raffles reports to Lord Minto his communications with the
Javanese Chieftains — The state of the Archipelago — Bali — Military preparations of the enemy —
Discovery of a new passage for the expedition — Banca — Its mines — Pirate States — Queda —
Penang - - - - - - - - 22

CHAPTER HI.

Account of the Eastern Islands — Products of Borneo — Settlements of Europeans 'in the Island —
Celebes — Traffic in Slaves — Policy of the Dutch, different policy of the English — Dutch factory
at Japan — Trade with — Views connected with the acquisition of Java — Countries from the Bay

CONTENTS.

PAGE

of Bengal to New Holland — Proposed policy, chain of posts — Chinese in Java — Monopoly of
farms, &:c. — Arabs, use they make of tlieir religion — Americans, regulation of trade — Dutch
orders respecting trade and navigation — Means taken to keep up their monopoly of spice — Cause
of the failure "of their trading ports — Former policy of the English objected to — Neglect of the
British Government — Dutch views of Colonies — Causes of deterioration of Malay' character —
Piracy — Laws — Slavery, sources of in the Malay countries — Laws, want of — Propagation of
Christianity — Advantages likely to accrue to the British nation from the acquisition of Java and
the Eastern Isles - - - - - - -59

CHAPTER IV.

Lord Minto’s anxiety as to the passage from Malacca to Batavia — Naval men opposed to Mr.
Raffles — Lord Minto confides in Mr. Raffles — New passage attempted — Arrival off Batavia —

Mr. Raffles gives a Sketch of the events which led to his being employed in the expedition —
Establishment of the French power in Java— Sir Samuel Achmuty’s account of the capture of
Batavia, and of tlie battle of Cornelis — Capitulation of the Island — Intercepted letter from
Governor Jansens — Lord Minto’s opinion of the value of the conquest — Death of Dr. Leyden —
Lord Minto places Mr. Raffles in the government of Java — Leading principles of the Dutch
government — Projected change of system — English Residents appointed at the native courts —
Ancient temples — First Colony of Hindus — Upas poison — Journey to the eastern district. - - 86

CHAPTER V.

Expedition to Palembang — Arrival of the troops — Gallantry of the attack — Horrors of the scene —
Colonel Gillespie’s account of the Sultan — Measures adopted by Colonel Gillespie — Sultan of
Djojocarta — Mr. Raffles collects troops, and proceeds to Samarang — Account of treaties with
die Sultan — General confederacy of the native states — Unexpected and fortunate return of Colonel
Gillespie — Assault and capture of Djojocarta — European power first paramount in Java - - 110

CHAPTER VI.

Difference of opinion between Colonel Gillespie and Mr. Raffles — Re-establishment of Society of Arts
— Importance of connection between Java and China to the East India Company’s interests — Con-
sequence of a King’s government upon their monopoly — Lord Minto’s anxiety to provide for Mr.
Raffles, in the prospect of die Island being transferred to the Crown — Lord Minto’s approval of
the measures of Government — Calling in depreciated paper — Promise of an official approbation —
Account of the Colonies — Depreciated state of paper currency — Want of specie — Land rental —
Revenues of Government — Proposed literary work — Lord Minto’s return to England — His last
letter on leaving Calcutta — Expedition to Sambas - - - - -

132

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VII.

PAGE

General Nightingall appointed to relieve General Gillespie — General Gillespie brings charges against
Mr. Raffles — Decision of the Court of Directors on them — Ancient characters on stones from the
temples — Establishment of the improved system of government — Principles on which it was
founded — Institutions of Majapahit, his division of society into classes — Mr. Raffles’ reasons for
introducing the change in the tenure of the land — His anxiety and fatigue during its progress —
Support of General Nightingall — Eventual fate of Java — Hesitation of Supreme Government to
give any rule for the guidance of the Government — Forced to act in every measure of importance,
in consequence, on his own responsibility — Suppression of piracy — Slave-trade declared to be
felony, by a colonial law — Can only be repealed by the mother country — Leading inhabitants con-
cur, and registered their slaves — Mission to Japan — Opening of trade with it — Disapproved by the
Bengal Government — Approved by the Court of Directors - - - - 200

CHAPTER VIII.

Domestic afflictions — Tour of the Island for the benefit of his health — Native companions — Malay cha-
racter— Origin of their race — Their literature — Civilization — The Moluccas — Celebes — Expedi-
tion to Bali and Macasar — People of Bali— Casts — Funeral ceremonies — Wives burning — Account
of eruption of Tomboro mountain — Prospects of the restoration of Java to the Dutch — Letter to
Lord Buckinghamshire on advantages of retaining it— Value of the Moluccas — Banca — Character of
the East insular tribes — New government proposed for Java — Merits of the individuals employed
— His own labours — Javanese language — Ancient sculpture and remains- — Intention to write the
History of Java — Review of his administration in Java — Close of it . _ - 234

CHAPTER IX.

Mr. Raffles hears he is to be relieved in the Government — Residency of Bencoolen secured to him —
Forced to return to England by ill health — Arrival of Mr. Fendall — Reception of him^ — General
regret at Mr. Raffles’ departure — Presentation of plate — Endeavours by a last memorial to secure
justice to the native princes and people — The objects of their treaties with the English — Objects
neglected by the English Government — Island restored without conditions to the Dutch — Embark-
ation— State of mind on quitting Java — Extract from Captain Travers’ Journal during the voyage
— St. Helena — Interview with Buonaparte — Arrival at Falmouth — Mines in Cornwall — Journey
to London - - 269

a 2

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER X.

PAGE

Mr. Raffles appeals to the Court of Directors — Their opinion — Writes his History of Java — Princess
Charlotte — Visits the Continent — Meditates the establishment of a society on the principle of tlie
Jardin des Plantes — Is appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Bencoolen and its dependencies — Em-
barks for India — Death of Princess Charlotte — Arrival in Sumatra — Description of the Settlement
— Dispute with the Dutch Government — Earthquakes — State of Bencoolen — His opinion of the
effects of former government — Emancipates the slaves — Cultivation of pepper declared free—
Murder of Mr. Parr — Instructions from the Court of Directors to Sir Stamford to watch the pro-
ceedings of the Dutch — Lord Hastings’ opinion of the conduct of the Netherlands’ Commissioners
— Sir Stamford’s view of the state of affairs — Recommends a line of stations for the protection of
trade, and the command of the Straits of Sunda — Appeals in favour of the native population —
Penang the only spot between the Mauritius and China where the British flag could be raised —

His habits of intercourse with the natives . - _ . _ 284

CHAPTER XI.

Sir Stamford Raffles determines to penetrate into the interior of the country — First excursion to the
Hill of Mists — Account of journey to Pasumah — Discovery of gigantic flower — Vegetation of
Malayan forests — Reason for visiting Pasumah — Ceremony of a funeral — Traces of ancient Hindu
mythology — Description of the people — Small-pox — Fatigue of the journey — Descends in rafts —
Return to Manna — Proceeds to Cawoor — Success of first attempt to cross the Island of Sumatra
— Extract from Mr. Presgrave’s Journal — Description of the sacred mountain — Disappointment
in not reaching the crater — Return to Manna — Mountain’s temperature — Large lake — Sufferings
of the people for want of salt, prohibited by the Dutch Government — People of Pasumah Lebar —
Descendants of the Javanese — Villages — Language — Religion - - - - 313

CHAPTER XII.

Sir Stamford Raffles at Bencoolen — Proceeds to Padang — Appeal of the native Chiefs against the Dutch
— Is anxious to go to Menangkabu — Considered impracticable — Dangers represented — Deter-
mines to make the attempt — Difficulty of the road — Beauty of the country — Course up the river
— Thermometer — Height of the mountain — Description of the Tiga Bias country and people —
Cattle — Horses — Clothing of the people — Houses — View of the Lake of Sincara — Description of
it — Town of Simawang — Country compared to that of Java — Arrival at Suruasa — Discovery of an
inscription in the Kawi character — Description of Menangkabu — Hindu image similar to those of
Java — Height of the city — Return to the Lake — Description of crossing it — Minerals — Vegeta-
bles— Agriculture — Return to Bencoolen — Death of Dr. Arnold . - - 339

CONTENTS.

xiii

CHAPTER XIII.

PAGE

Sir Stamford’s arrival at Bencoolen — Improvement in the feelings of the inhabitants — State of affairs in
the Eastern Archipelago requires him to proceed to Bengal — Wrecked on the passage — Attention
of the Government already directed to the subject of the Dutch encroachments — Lord Hastings
determines on another line of policy, and to secure the command of the Straits of Malacca — Sir
Stamford appointed Agent to the Governor General for this purpose — Account of the discovery
of the Tapir — Departure from Calcutta — Anticipation of Singapore as the spot for the new settle-
ment— Arrival at Penang — Proceeds dowTi the Straits of Malacca — Hoists the British flag at Sin-
gapore — Acheen — Decides on the right to the Crown — Description of Acheen — Reformation in-
troduced at Bencoolen — Journeys — General politics — Conquest of Java — The first convention for
the unconditional restoration of it to the Dutch only communication from Europe — Representa-
tions made in England — Apprehensions realized on return to India — Bornean States — Dutch at
Palembang — Acheen affairs — Title to the occupation of Singapore — Bible Society — Opinions of
Captain Horsburgh and Mr. Carnegie on the settlement of Singapore — Accident to the vessel off
Rhio - - - - - - - - - 367

CHAPTER XIV.

Sir Stamford returns to Bencoolen— Endeavours to induce the inhabitants to take an interest in the im-
provement of the country — Irregularities which formerly prevailed — School for the children of the
slaves — Its success — Missionaries — Religion of the people — Effect of an institution for the educa-
tion of the higher orders — Anxiety for Mr. Wilberforce’s assistance — Bible Society — Schools —

Sir Stamford resolves to proceed again to Calcutta — Billiton — Lord Hastings on the subject of
Eastern arrangements — Leaves Calcutta to return to Bencoolen . _ _ 404

CHAPTER XV.

Sir Stamford did not succeed in introducing a more economical and simple mode of government for the
Eastern Islands — Difficulties of altering established forms — Illness — Sight of Sumatra — Tappa-
nooly — Battas — Population — Language — Manners — Civilized cannibals — Eating their prisoners
in war, criminals, and parents, alive — Description of eating a person as a punishment — Padries —
Cholera morbus — Camphor tree — Laws of the Battas — Succession of nephews — Mr. Ward’s opi-

nion

424

XIV

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XVI.

PAGE

Pulo Nias — Easy communication with Palembang across the Island — Sir Stamford’s description of
his children — His confidence that he has pursued a right course — His defence of his conduct —

His opinion of the powers he was invested with — Arrival of Missionaries — Mr. Burton settles in
the Batta country — Sir Stamford not supported by the Ministry — Introduction of British manufac-
tures into China — Agricultural Society — Expense of Singapore — Manufacture of sugar — Coloniza-
tion— Lake of Korinchie — Cultivation of rice — Nutmeg-trees — Malayan plants — Political specu-
lation— Death of the Editor’s brother 435

CHAPTER XVII.

Sir Stamford forms an establishment on the Island of Nias for the suppression of slavery — Sufficient
spices raised at Bencoolen for the supply of Great Britain — Description of the Island of Nias — Its
population, exports, slaves — Period of proposed return to England — Poggie Islands — Description
of tlie people — Death of Sir Stamford’s eldest boy — Death of Captain Auber — Missionaries en-
gaged in printing Malay Bible — Illness of another child — Intended publication on commercial pros-
pects— Deaths of two children — Youngest child sent to England — Retired life — Expectation of
Mr. Canning as Governor-General — Sir Stamford’s opinion of the state of England — Arrival of a
party for the measurement of the pendulum at the Equator — Death of Dr. Jack — Voyage to Sin-
gapore --------- 483

CHAPTER XVIII.

Arrival at Singapore — Description of the settlement — Grounds of right to its retention — Occupation at
Singapore — Selection of site for college — Value of land — Contrast of Bencoolen and Singapore —
Number of vessels arrived in the first two years and a half — Bungalow on Singapore hill — Botanic
garden — Description of plant discovered by Dr. Finlayson — Mission to Bali — Drawing up laws and
regulations for the settlement— Magistrates — Memorial against slavery — Resolution of the Bengal
Government — Instructions to Mr. Crawfurd — Addresses from the inhabitants — Singapore the only
place in India where slavery cannot exist — Leaves Singapore — Touches at Batavia — Correspond-
ence with the Baron Van de Capellen ------ 524

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIX.

PAGE

Arrival at Bencoolen — Plans for the future — Freedom of the port of Singapore — Account of the Pa-
dries — State of health — Death of friends — Death of child — Anxiety about the arrival of the ship
Fame — Determines to embark in the Borneo — Arrival of the Fame — Embarkation — Burning of
the ship — Appeal to the Court of Directors — Extract from memorandum book, for regulation of
time — Embarks in the Mariner — Storm off tlie Cape — Arrival at St. Helena — Landing at Ply-
mouth 555

CHAPTER XX.

Sir Stamford lands at Plymouth — -Interview with liis child — Resumes his labours — Interrupted by ill
health — Views of the civilization and conversion of the heathen — Retrospect of the proceedings
of the Bible Society in Sumatra — Malay schools preparing the way for the Scriptures — Transla-
tion of St. John’s Gospel — Effect of the transfer of the Island to the Dutch — Access to China —
Singapore Institution — Sir Stamford’s life at home — The magistracy — Sudden illness — Purchase
of High Wood — Judgment of the Coiu't of Directors on his administration of Java, Sumatra, and
Singapore — His death - - - - - - -581

Letter from Dr. Horsfield ------ 602

Catalogue of Zoological Specimens 638

Prospectus of Zoological Society - - - - - -699

Correspondence with Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel - - - - - 702

APPENDIX.

On the administration of the Eastern Islands in 1819 - - - - - 3

Minutes by Sir T. Stamford Raffles, on the establishment of a Malay College at Singapore - 23

Local laws and regulations for Singapore - - - - " - 39

Singapore Institution - - - - - ■ -74

LIST OF PLATES

With directions to the Binder for placing them.

Frontispiece, Portrait.

View of Buitenzorg . _ .

View of Lord Cathcart’s monument at Anjir
View of Gunung Gidi, from Garden at Buitenzorg
View of Gunung Saluk, near Buitenzorg
Culombyan Harbour _ . .

Rafflesia Arnoldi ...

Route from Padang to Menangkabu

Map of Singapore ...

View of Singapore ...

Map of Eastern Archipelago

to face page 107
148
191
225
311
317
345
377
525

after the Index

ERRATA.

Page 110, note t,/br Sambas, read Banjir Masing.

287, note, /or T. W. Hull, Esq. read. I. W. Hull. Esq.

MEMOIR

SIR THOMAS STAMFORD RAFFLES, F.R.S.

CHAPTER I.

Early life of Mr. Raff.es — Labours and relaxations — First tastes — Appointment under the new Government
of Penang — Duties there — Goes to Malacca for his health — Malay literature — Paper on the Malayan
nation — Woolly-haired people scattered among them — Game of chess — Orders for the destruction of Ma-
lacca— Countermanded on his rejnresentation — Native account of the Portuguese arrival at Malacca —
The Dutch — Letter from Dr. Leyden.

There is a general desire to become acquainted with the early life and habits of those
who in maturity have distinguished themselves by the display of superior talents.
From that knowledge we derive a practical benefit, and gain a clue which enables us
to trace that most interesting subject, the course and progress of the human mind,
amid the moral and the physical influences by which it may have received its bias.
It is chiefly in public characters that we have adequate opportunities of engaging in
such researches. The retirement of private life conceals the connecting hnks by
which the mind gradually advances, though the same course of self-denial and vigor-
ous perseverance may even there produce in the same proportion the same happy
results.

It is on this account that some brief notices of the private hfe of Sir Stamford
Raffles have been prefixed to what was at first intended merely as a record of the
course of his public services.

It was at one time proposed to have commenced this work with a general view
of the state of politics, in those regions of the East where the subject of this Memoir
first became known, and soon afterwards rose to very high station. But when it was
considered, that the interest of such remote scenes almost invariably depends upon
that of the incidents which are connected with individual persons, it was deemed
most advisable to commence firom the birth of him who is the immediate subject of
the narrative.

EARLY LIFE.

Thomas Stamford Raffles was born at sea, on board the ship Ann, off the har-
bour of Port Morant, in the Island of Jamaica, July 5, 1781. He was the only sur-
viHng son of Benjamin Raffles, one of the oldest captains in the West India trade
out of the Port of London. His paternal grandfather held a situation in the Pre-
rogative Office, Doctors’ Commons, with unblemished reputation, for a long course
of years.

Little beyond this is known of his family. The name frequently occurs in the
oldest registers at Beverley in Yorkshire, both in those of the minster and St. Mary’s
church, from which it appears that three centuries ago his ancestors resided there,
and of one of them it is recorded that he died during his mayoralty in that borough.
From thence it is believed they removed to Berwick upon Tw’eed; and at length, in
the time of Mr. Raffles’ gi'eat grandfather, to London.

Mr Raffles was baptized at Eaton Bishop, in Herefordshire, whilst his mother
was on a visit to the Reverend J ohn Lindeman, her brother, who was at that time
the incumbent of the living.

In his childhood, and in his early youth, he displayed a thoughtffdness, and a
closeness of apphcation above his years, and wiiich many of his friends now remem-
ber as the first indications of that \igor of mind, and that devotion to whatever
demanded the exertion of his powers, by wJiich in after life he was so eminently
distinguished.

What education he obtained was chiefly under Dr. Anderson, who for many
years kept a respectable academy at Hammersmith. But at the early age of fourteen
he was removed fi-om that seminary, and placed as an extra clerk in the East India
House. The disadvantages which he suffered from this removal he deeply felt, and
never failed to deplore. Referring to this period in his history, in a letter wi'itten
many years after to his cousin, the Reverend Dr. Raffles, he says, With regard to
the attention which may be considered to have been paid by me to objects of a still
more general and interesting nature, whether hterary, scientific, or benevolent— I have
only a few w'ords to say. The deficiency of my early education has never been fully
supplied ; and I have never ceased to deplore the necessity wLich withdrew me so early
from school. I had hardly been two years at a boarding-school, when I w^as wth-
drawm, and forced to enter on the busy scenes of public life, then a mere boy. My
leisure hours, how^ever, still continued to be devoted to favourite studies ; and with
the httle aid my allow^ances afforded, I contrived to make myself master of the French
language, and to prosecute enquiries into some of the branches of literature and
science ; this was, however, in stolen moments, either before the office hours in the
morning, or after them in the evening. I look back to these days of difficulty and
application with some degree of pleasure. I feel that I did all that I could, and I
have nothing to reproach myself with.

“ This statement will account for my deficiencies in education : and all I ever

EARLY LIFE,

presumed to consider myself was — a lover and admirer of all that I could reach in
literature and science. The varied, important, and incessant duties of my public life
have always deprived me of that calm and retirement which I have desired, and to
which alone I look as the ultimate end of my ambition on earth. To qualify myself
for the enjoyment of such a state, I omit no opportunity. The high stations which
I have held, have enabled me to foster and encourage the pursuits of others ; and if
I have any merit, it has rather been as the patron of science, than in any other
capacity.”

He then proceeds to a rapid enmneration of his various labors and productions of
a hterary and scientific nature, which will be more appropriately noticed in subse-
quent portions of these pages. They are for the most part already before the world ;
and they have obtained for him a far higher rank, even amongst men of letters and of
science, than that to which his own modesty allowed him to aspire.

It wall be seen from this sketch, that the early youth of Mr. Raffles was a period
of obscurity and labor, without friends to aid him, as well as without the hope of
promotion : his family only searching for that mode of life in which he was most
likely to acquire the greatest pecuniary success, without regard to the natural bias of
his mind, or to the talents which he possessed. At fourteen he was chained down to
the duties of an offlce : at this early age, and a friendless boy, it is not likely that he
w^ould at first be entrusted with much which w^as interesting ; but his was a master
mind, and soon burst its shackles, and manifested a high and noble resolve to devote
itself to the good of others, and a yearning to obtain the station for which it felt
itself best fitted.

His attention to his dull routine of duty was unremitting ; he worked early and
late ; he studied, as he himself says, in stolen moments : by his extra labor at his
offlce he obtained an addition to his salary, which was not appropriated to any selfish
pm'pose ; but all he earned w'as carried home to his parents, as they were at this time
in difficulties. His affection to his mother was always one of the strongest feel-
ings of his heart. At this time, with that self-denjdng devotion to the happiness
of others, which was his distinguishing quahty through life, he deprived himself
of every indulgence, that he might devote to her his hard-earned pittance : and
in after-days of comparative affluence he delighted in surrounding her with every
comfort.

Such a sedentary life of labor was, how^ever, ill adapted to the delicacy of his
frame ; and it w'as feared that symptoms of consumption were becoming confirmed : he
w^as ordered to relax his exertions, and to leave his offlce for a time ; he obeyed, and
obtained a fortnight’s leave of absence. The use which he made of this short period
of recreation is very characteristic : he seized on the moment to indulge that love of
mountain scenery so strong in most youthful minds, so happily undying and unfad-
ing in its exciting joyous feeling. He resolved to go into Wales, set off on foot, and

EARLY LIFE.

walked at the rate of thirty and forty miles a day, accomplished his object, and re-
turned to his desk with restored health. As a school-boy, his garden was his delight :
to this was added a love of animals, which was perhaps unequalled. It has been ob-
served, that it is one of the characteristic properties of a great mind, that it can con-
tract as well as dilate itself ; and the mind which cannot do both, is not great in its
full extent ; this observation was forcibly realised in him ; he spent hours in fondling
and domesticating those objects of his care and attention. He entered with the most
child-like simplicity into occupations and pleasures which many woul^ consider be-
neath their notice : a mountain scene would bring tears into his eyes ; a flower would
call forth a burst of favourite poetry ; it was perhaps peculiar to himself to be able
to remark on his last return to England, that he had never seen a horse race, never
fired a gun.

His facility in acquiring languages was extreme. He made himself master of
French, with scarcely any assistance, ‘on his first going into the India House ; and as
he never forgot any thing which he had once attained, he always continued to speak
this language with great fluency, though he had little opportunity of practice. As
an instance, in the year 1818, during his government in Sumatra, a lady W'as singing
in his house one of Moore’s Melodies, “ Rich and rare were the gems she wore,” when
some French gentlemen present regretted that the beauties which he was so admiring
were lost to them : he immediately translated the whole into French verse, much to
the siu’jirize of all present.

His taste for drawing was shewn at an early age, though he never had leisure to
indulge it as he wished. In music, he was always fonder of melody than of har-
mony ; perhaps because he did not sufficiently cultivate this delightful science.

His studies, fi'om his facility of acquirement, were desultory ; but he was always
acquiring something ; and was never for one moment unoccupied ; later in life, if
obliged by illness to relinquish his occupations, he covered his couch with papers on
the first cessation of pain, and was immediately engaged, either in reading or dictating.

Little is known of his religious feelings on first entering the world. Early reli-
gious instruction was not then, perhaps, so general as at present, and he was not one
of the happy few who received it ; but, as he advanced in life, prosperity warmed his
heart towards the God who led him forward in his course of usefulness ; adversity
taught him to look to another state of being for the happiness which he felt himself
capable of enjoying : perhaps his most prominent feelings on this subject were humi-
lity and faith. From his first setting out in life, he gave the praise to God for all
the blessings which he enjoyed, and was deeply impressed with a sense of his own
unworthiness. He constantly mourned over his own weakness, and deplored his
want of power to do that which he felt he ought to do, and his failure in the per-
formance of every duty : from the earliest period he acquiesced in every privation,
as the wise purpose of an Almighty Father working for His own glory, which.

HIS APPOINTMENT TO PENANG.

though mysterious to the limits of man’s understanding, would be brightly and
clearly known hereafter.

Beginning life under the influence of such principles and feelings, it will not be
matter of surprise, that his own exertions proved his best patron, and procured him
friends, whose good opinion was at once honorable to his talents, and favourable to
his advancement. Such fi-iends, at a very early period of his connection Avith the
East India House, he had obtained; for a vacancy having occurred in the esta-
blishment, his peculiar qualifications were allowed to secure his accession to it, not-
withstanding the claims of others, who possessed an interest of which he could not
boast.

The Court of Directors in 1805 determined on sending out an establishment to
Penang. India seemed to open before him the field for which his ambition panted ;
and when the appointments for the new government were arranged, Mr. Ramsay,
then secretary to the Court of Directors, aware of the peculiar fitness and talents of
Mr. Raffles for office, named him to Sir Hugh Inglis, who, from this strong recom-
mendation, and also a discovery of extraordinary qualifications, gave him the appoint-
ment of Assistant Secretary, and ever afterwards watched his progress through life with
the deepest interest for his success. Mr. Ramsay, in performing this generous act,
expressed his feeling in the strongest terms that, although in parting with so useful
an assistant in his department, he should suffer the greatest inconvenience ; that it
was like the loss of a limb to him ; yet he felt bound to further the views and
promotion in life of one who possessed strong claims from such superior talents and
amiable private character. This appointment must, in lecollection, when a few
short years had passed, have been as gratifying to the patron as it had already proved
honorable to Mr. Raffles, and important to the service of the East India Company.
Of the new estabhshment Mr. Philip Dundas was appointed Governor, Mr. John
Oliphant, first Member of Council, Mr. Pearson, Secretary, with a long list of
cirilians. It is not necessary to enter here into the reasons which induced the
Court of Directors to form this settlement, particularly as not one of their high-
raised expectations w'as realized ; experience soon proved that the place w^as unfa-
vourably situated to attract either the European or the Indian trader ; and high duties
checked the natives whom the hope of gain had induced to leave their beaten track.

In the month of September, 1805, Mr. Raffles arrived at Penang, in the Company’s
ship Ganges, which w'as commanded by Captain Harrington, a brother of the late
member of council in Bengal. The progress which he had made in the Malayan
language, during his voyage, enabled him to enter with efficiency on the duties of his
office as soon as he arrived. It gave to him those manifest advantages which an
enlightened man, on his introduction to so interesting a people, must derive from
the immediate interchange of ideas and feelings, and procured him the marked ap-
probation of the Court of Directors.

ARRIVAL AT PENANG.

The pre\ious insight which he had acquired into the mode of preparing and
arranging public records and proceedings, rendered his services in the formation of a
new establishment highly valuable : but whilst he zealously devoted himself to the dis-
charge of public duties, which, by the illness of the secretary, ]\Ir. Pearson, were
rendered unusually laborious, he still found time to pursue the study of the Eastern
languages, and to prosecute his researches into his favourite science of natural history.

An extract from the journal of Captain Travers thus describes him at this
period : “ It was in the year 1806 I first became acquainted with Mr. Raffles, at the
Island of Penang. He was then deputy-secretary to the new government, which
had been recently sent out to that place. At this time, which was soon after his
aiTival, he had acquired a perfect knowledge of the Malay language, which he had
studied on the voyage out, and was able to write and speak fluently. The details of
the government proceedings, as far as related to local arrangements and regulations,
together with the compilation of almost every public document, devolved on Mr.
Raffles, who possessed gi'eat quickness and facility in conducting and arranging the
forms of a new government, as well as in draudng up and keeping the records.

“ The public dispatches were also entrusted to him ; and in fact he had the entire
weight and trouble attendant on the formation of a new government. This, however,
did not prevent his attending closely to improve himself in the Eastern languages :
and whilst his mornings were employed in his public office, where at first he had but
little assistance, his evenings were devoted to Eastern literature. Few men, but
those who were immediately on the spot at the time, can form any idea of the difficult
task which he had to perform, in conducting the public business of such a government
as existed on the first establishment of Penang as a Presidency. It would be in'e-
levant here to allude to, or attempt any description of the different characters of
whom this government Avas formed, the more particularly so, as they are all now
dead, but it is due to IMr. Raffles to state, that he Avas respected and consulted by
every member of it. In his official capacity he gave most general satisfaction, Avhilst
the settlers looked up to him for assistance and advice in eA'ery difficulty ; and Avhen
he afterAAards became chief secretary, the most general satisfaction Avas eAnnced
throughout the Settlement.

“ Being of a cheerfrd liA'ely disposition, and very fond of society, it Avas surpris-
ing hoAv he Avas able to entertain so hospitably as he did, and yet labour so much as
lie AA^as knoAAm to do at the time, not only in his official capacity, but in acquiring a
general knoAvledge of the history, government, and local interests of the neighbouring
states ; and this he was greatly aided in doing by conversing freely Avith the natives,
Avho Avere constantly A'isiting Penang at this period, many of Avhom Avere often found
to be sensible, intelligent men, and greatly pleased to find a person holding Mr. Raffles’
situation able and anxious to converse Avith them in their OAvn language.”

It Avas at this early period (1806) that Mr. Raffles formed an acquaintance Avith

GOES TO MALACCA FOR HIS HEALTH.

Dr. Leyden, whose health had obliged him to quit Calcutta, and to try the effects of
a voyage to Penang. He resided in Mr. Raffles’ house for several months. The
similarity of their pursuits, and the congeniality of their sentiments, soon led to an
unreserved intimacy, which, as the knowledge of each other increased, strengthened
into an attachment that was only severed by death.

In consequence of the absence of Mr. Pearson, Mr. Raffles had to perform the
duties of that gentleman as well as his own, and succeeded to the office of secretary
on the nomination of Mr. Pearson to a seat in council.

On the introduction of the Charter of Justice, for the purpose of establishing a
supreme court of judicature, there was no professional person who could be employed
as Registrar. Mr. Raffles offered to act in this capacity, and rendered most essential
assistance in the duties of arranging and opening the Court.

The fatigue and responsibihty attaching to the office of secretary, in the organiza-
tion of a new government, in a climate which in a very short period proved fatal to
two Governors, all the Council, and many of the new settlers, brought on an alarm-
ing illness. The attack was so severe, that for some time little hopes of his life were
entertained. Throughout sufferings by which his strength was nearly exhausted, he
e\inced the utmost patience and resignation. When the disease abated, and he could
be removed without danger, (1808) he was recommended to go to Malacca for the
recovery of his health.

It is difficult to convey an idea of the constant and laborious duties which, at
this period, he had to perfonn. It has already been stated, that the compilation and
composition of almost every public document devolved upon him ; that he had to
draw up and keep all the records of the Government ; and that the public despatches
were entrusted to him to frame. There were no half-caste persons, as at the present
day, to assist in performing the duties of transcribing, which greatly increased the
labors of his office. As Registrar he had to arrange all the details of the Recorder’s
Court. Yet after devoting the whole of the day to these public duties, it was ob-
served at the time that he passed his evenings in the study and acquirement of Eastern
literature. Trifles often denote the pecuharity of character which distinguishes the
individual from the surrounding crowd ; and a circumstance which occurred during
Mr. Raffles’ visit to Malacca, developed the leading features of his disposition — the
forgetfulness of self, the determination to sacrifice every private consideration to a
sense of public duty, — the activity and energy of mind which overcame every diffi-
culty that obstructed his course.

“ * Whilst he was thus usefully employing himself, and improving his health, a
circumstance occuired which proves his zeal and assiduity as a public servant ; a
ship arrived at Malacca from Penang, bringing intelligence of her having left a vessel

Extract from Captain Travers’ Journal.

SERVICES AT PENANG.

in the harbour about to proceed to England. Mr. Raffles, knowing the necessity of
sending despatches by the first opportunity, and w^ell aware that in his absence the
Government w ould find gi'eat difficulty in preparing them, determined on proceeding
there without delay, although strongly m'ged to remain whilst his health was so fast
improving ; hut it was impossible to dissuade him from what he thought to be a public
duty ; and, at any risk or inconvenience, he was resolved on going. At the moment
there was no vessel in Malacca roads going to Penang, nor any which could be hired
for the purpose ; but still so detennined was he on proceeding, that at length he got
a pleasure-boat, formerly the long-boat of an Indiaman, and in this small craft he
went, and reached Penang in good time to relieve Government from a weight of care
and anxiety, which I believe w'ere freely acknowledged at the time.”

It w'as dm-ing this risit to ISIalacca that Mr. Raffles first enjoyed the opportunity
of obserring, and joining with the varied popidation congi’egated from all parts of the
Archipelago, and from the distant countries of Asia ; from Java, Ambojma, Celebes,
the Moluccas, Borneo, Papua, Cochin China, China Proper, &c.

M’ith many he conversed personally, with others through the medium of inter-
preters. To this early habit, w'hich he ahvays retained, of associating with the na-
tives, and admitting them to intimate and social intercourse, may be attributed the
extraordinary influence which he obtained over them, and the respect with which
they always received his adrice and opinions.

The knowledge w'hich he thus acquired of the different products of the neigh-
bouring countries, of the natm'e and extent of their trade, of their customs, manners,
and feelings, greatly assisted him in the discharge of those high and responsible
duties to which he w'as subsequently called.

The following extract of a letter of the Governor of Penang erinces the import-
ance attached to his services, by the authorities of that settlement. (1808.)

To Mr. Raffles,

“ A thousand thanks to you for your kind letters which I had the pleasure
to receive some days ago, and hearing then that there was a small vessel sailing for
Malacca, I wrote you a few humed lines by her, to inform you of the arrangement
I had made for your coming back in the event of your not meeting with a better
conveyance. The Scourge sailed five days ago, and is to call at Galangore and
Siak, before she goes to Malacca. Captain Bairett is desired to place himself under
your orders whenever he arrives, and unless a more favorable conveyance offers,
I sincerely hope you will find yourself w'ell enough to come back to us in the
Scourge.

‘‘ It is distressing to me, my dear Sir, to be under the necessity of stating in this
pointed manner, the unavoidable exigence of the case, but such is the case, that we
shall not be able to make up any despatches for the Court without yom- assistance.

MALAYS.

This is truly hard upon you, under the present circumstances of your delicate state
of health, but I trust you will believe that nothing else would induce me to press so
hard on you at this time. And with the exception of Mr. Phillips, the rest of the
board can give but httle assistance in making out the general letter ; none, however,
so little as myself.”

Soon after the formation of the settlement of Penang, Mr. Dundas, the Governor,
received from Mr. Marsden, Author of the History of Sumatra, a letter which con-
tained some queries on the subject of Malayan literature. These were immediately
referred to Mr. Raffles, as the person best qualified to answer them ; and in conse-
quence of Mr. Dundas enclosing the following letter of reply, a correspondence was
commenced between Mr. Raffles and Mr. Marsden, which continued until Mr.
Raffles’ return to England in 1816, when a personal acquaintance led to an intimacy
of friendship, which was never interrupted.

To the Honourable P. Dundas.

“ Penanst July 6, 1806.

Dear Sir,

“ I should have taken an earlier opportunity of communicating with you
on the subject of Mr. Marsden’s letter, which you were pleased to refer to me, if I
had not expected a few leisure hours, in which I could have given sufflcient attention
to his queries to reply to them with the satisfaction I desired.

Another reason prevented my replying to your flattering reference : I had
planned a short excursion of a few days to Queda, and expected from the observa-
tions I might make there, to have confirmed several particulars respecting the Malays,
which I could have communicated to Mr. Marsden.

In this also I have been disappointed, from the circumstance of Mr. Pearson’s
having obtained leave of absence from the Presidency at the very time I intended
applying to you for permission to go to Queda. The length of time Mr. Pearson
may be absent, and the little prospect I now have of the leisure which I so anxiously
desire, can alone induce me, at this time, to hazard my inexperienced opinions on
any subject connected with Oriental literature.

On the interesting subject of the Chronology of the Malays, I fear but little
light will be thrown from the discovery of their using a cycle in their dates. I am
convinced of the justness of Mr. Marsden’s conclusion, that the cycle amongst the
Malays has been adopted from the Siamese.

I have not, however, observed in any of their books that the cycle alluded to
is used with the religion of Mahomet ; the epoch of the Hegira has been introduced,
and with the Arabian months and days is universally used in their manuscripts.

The first I knew of their using a cycle, or particular names for their years,

WOOLLY-HAIRED RACE.

was from a very old MS., half in Bugguese, half in the Malay or Arabic character, in
which were inserted the Relika or times, (lucky and unlucky), with tables for com-
puting time, according to the ISlahomedan calendar.

“ The Siamese, I believe, in conformity with the Indians in general, as well as
the Chinese, have a cycle of 60 years, containing five lesser cycles of 12 years each.
Loubec, I make no doubt, in his embassy to Siam, states in what way these cycles
are computed ; and I regret I have not his work, or any other guide, to correct and
assist me in tracing the exact similitude between the Siamese cycle and those alluded
to as used by the Malays. That the names for the years used by the Malays are
borrowed from the Siamese is e\ddent.

“ Of the Menangkabus, after a good deal of inquiry, I have not yet been able
decidedly to ascertain the relation between those of that name in the Peninsula and
the Menangkabus on Pulo Percha. The Malays I have met affinn, without hesita-
tion, that they all come originally from Pulo Percha : the circumstance of the nation
of that name in Sumatra being so great and ancient, leaves but little doubt, however,
on my mind, that the nation (if any) hardly known on the Peninsula, must have
emigrated from thence, although the contrary may, as we are at a loss to account
for the former, appear at first sight most probable.

“ I hope I may hereafter have it in my power to fuimish ]\Ir. Marsden with still
fm'ther additions to his Semang Vocabulary, although I am not much inclined to
think that from this nation, or rather race of men, much interesting information can
be derived, beyond that of their actual existence and extent.

“ The men are said to wear a small piece of the bark of a tree, tied with a string
above the hips. The women wear leaves sewed together in the form of a short
petticoat from above the hips to half way down the thighs. They are decidedly
Caffres, or people Avith woolly hair — to appearance a distinct race in every respect
from the Malays, from whom they cannot have in any probability descended. Those
inhabiting the skirts of the woods have considerable intercourse with the Malays, but
never leave the woods, unless taken by force, which they sometimes are, and sold as
slaves. Many of these, from their holding communication with the Malays, speak
that language tolerably well ; but the language of these people is considered by the
Malays as a perfect jargon. Their talking is by the Malays looked upon as the chat-
tering or chirping of large birds, and bears no similitude whatever to their own.
They are found very useful ; if the Malay is in want of deer, herbs, particular woods,
or the like, from the interior of the forests, he goes into the skirts, generally alone,
directing his course towards the interior : as he advances he blows a kind of horn,
when the Caffre, if near at hand, and in the habit of meeting him, cautiously ap-
proaches, and agrees to bring whatever is required by the Malay, from whom he
receives in return a small quantity of pounded cocoa-nut, or patches of cloth ; but
he is remarked never to take rice, or the articles of food generally used by the Malays ;

CAFFRES.

from which he is conceived to live entirely on roots and leaves of trees, on the boughs
of which he is said to leap and chng with equal agility and expertness as his degrading
semblance, the monkey.

I have not yet met with any of these Caffres. I observe Mr. Marsden, in his
History of Sumatra, speaks of the Caffres of the Philippines, who appear to resemble
those alluded to in the Malay Peninsula. These last are called by the Spaniards
Negritos del Monte, and are many of them as black as the natives of Guinea.

“ I am inclined to think the subject of these Caffres being thus found in the
interior of these eastern countries merits considerable attention ; as, at any rate, they
afford a presumptive evidence that the country which they inhabit cannot for many
years have been advanced in civihzation ; and therefore, that the highest state of it
existing among the Malays must have been on or near the coasts, and not the inte-
rior. In Java there are said to be remains of a religion, which may, very probably,
be corrupted Hindu.

“ With respect to Mr. Marsden’s query on the terms used by the Malays for the
different pieces in the game of chess, I will state the result of my inquiries among the
Malays themselves. The chatter, or chess-board, is avowedly and evidently received
by the Malays from the Chuliahs, or men of the Kaling country. The terms which
they could understand they soon altered to their own fashion. * From the above
it will appear that the Malays have altered some terms, and not the others. All I can
learn respecting the term ter, is, that it is a name given by the Hindus to a small
temple, in which is placed the image of one of their deities, which they carry about
at different times of the year. This term being given to the pieces, if derived from
this origin, may lead one to imagine that when the Hindus went to war, they sup-
posed themselves flanked by their gods ; and in reducing the art of war to a game of
amusement, they could not do less than pay this compliment. Sir William Jones,
speaking of the Indian chess-board, states, I think, that there are numerous treatises
on the game in the Sanscrit, not yet translated : from them, I have no doubt, the
origin of the word ter will be easily ascertained. I regret that I have not a complete
Sanscrit vocabulary by me ; but in referring to Forster’s Bengallee Vocabulary, which
is, I believe, almost pure Sanscrit, I am enabled to state something satisfactory. The
word ter there signifies ^ border, verge, utmost a sufficient proof, I think, that the
term used for the chess-man is borrowed from the Sanscrit, the place of the ter on the
board being at the border, verge, utmost, or corner.

“ In observing, however, upon the manner in which the Malays have altered
the names given by the Chuliahs, I must notice that they sometimes use the word ter,
in speaking of the wings of an army, in preference to sarsup.

“ Many of the books and popular narratives of the Malays I find to have been
rendered from the Kaling language, a term by which they call all the popular dialects
on the Coromandel coast. That the astonishing number of Sanscrit words in the

c 2

JAVA.

Malay language should have been introduced by the commercial intercourse of the
Chuliahs, is not likely, any more than that they should have entered from the Guze-
ratty, whose intercourse must have in like manner been purely commercial ; but a
portion, no doubt, may have been received from each. I think, (wth the Malays,)
that they must have received their knowledge from the Island of Java. I have not
been able to obtain, as yet, any knowledge of the Javanese language ; but my friend
Dr. Leyden, while he was here, paid some little attention to it ; and his opinion I
know was, that the Javanese language must be a dialect of the Sanscrit, very little
cormpted.

“ I take the hberty of annexing a Javanese alphabet : I also add a Bugguese
alphabet ; I have never been able to trace one before, and if it is new to Mr. Marsden
I shall be much gratified. I have hitherto learnt but httle about this nation. They
are, I believe, in general Mahomedans, those who refuse the doctrines ha’vfing been
obhged to seek shelter in obscurity. All I can trace of a former religion is, that they
beheved in a heaven and a hell.

“ I have to apologize for having carried my letter to so great a length, without
knowing whether the observations it contains will be acceptable. Should you deem
the rephes to Mr. Marsden’s queries in any way satisfactory, and worthy of communi-
cation, I hope you vail, at the same time, state them as coming from a young man,
who never made Oriental Hterature his study, and is but lately arrived in the place
which furnishes the means of his observations,” &c. &c.

Mr. Raffles’ risit to Malacca contributed very essentially to the promotion of the
public interests. Orders had been issued that the fortifications should be demolished,
and the whole town abandoned. With regard to the public buildings, these orders
had been already executed. Their object was twofold ; first, by the destruction of
the w'orks to deter Europeans from setthng there ; and, secondly, by transferring the
trade and population, to improve the station of Penang, or Prince of Wales’ Island.

Mr. Raffles represented that the population of Malacca far exceeded any idea
which had been formed respecting it ; that it comprised not less than 20,000 souls,
(1808), some few of whom were Em’opeans, chiefly Dutch and Portuguese, the rest
were their half-caste descendants, Chinese and their descendants by Malay women,
Arabs, Javanese, and Chuliahs, of whom more than three-fourths were born in Ma-
lacca, where their families had been settled for centuries. Attached to the place from
their birth, they were accustomed to the local regulations, and in the bosom of their
families they felt that they were at home, their peculiarities w^ere attended to, their
rank respected, and their wants supplied. Many were proprietors of the soil, or
attached to those who were so. From their gardens, which produced pepper, vege-
tables, and all kinds of fruit in* abundance, and from the fisheries they derived com-
fort and independence ; no reasonable expectation could be entertained that such a

MALACCA.

10
O

population would emigrate to Prince of Wales’ Island ; — they were, in fact, insepa-
rable from the soil ; and of the offers of free passage which had been made, not one
had been accepted. At Penang, on the other hand, three-fourths of the native
population were adventurers, men ready to turn their hands to any employments,
who, having no fixed home or permanent property, might by a very little encourage-
ment be induced to remove.

The manner in which these representations were received, and the sense enter-
tained of the value of Mr. Raffles’ services, will appear sufficiently from the following
extract of a letter from the Governor of Penang to the Court of Directors wiitten
at this time.

I have it now in my power to submit to your Honourable Committee a compen-
dious but comprehensive report from the hand of our Secretary, Mr. Raffles, expla-
natory of the present circumstances of that Settlement, and illustrative of the ill con-
sequences that would result from the adoption of either of the measures that have
been heretofore contemplated regarding it. Such information as I have myself been
enabled to collect from intelligent persons here, and from other sources, entirely
confirms the judicious observations and conclusions contained in this very valuable
document ; and it is my intention at an early period to point out to the Supreme
Government the policy, if not necessity, here made sufficiently manifest, of continu-
ing the present establishment, no branch of which can admit of reduction, but the
charge thereof is amply provided by the revenues of the Settlement alone.

“To the services and merits of Mr. Raffles, as well as in duty to my employers,
I should feel alike wanting were I to omit this opportunity of pointing out to the
favourable notice of your Honourable Committee, the unwearied zeal and assiduity
\rith which he has since the formation of the establishment devoted his talents to
the furtherance of the Company’s interests ; his unremitting attention to the duties
of the most laborious office under this government, added to those of Registrar to
the Recorder’s Court, which, at the period of its establishment, he voluntarily and
gratuitously undertook. Having lately endured a severe indisposition, and the neces-
sity of a visit to Malacca, he occupied the leisure thus afforded, although under
great bodily suffering, to collect the information furnished in the accompanying
report, which entitles him to my approbation, and will, I trust, obtain for him that
of your Honomable Committee. The situation of Secretary affords facilities to the
person holding it of acquiring a better knowledge of your affairs here than any other
officer below council ; and I can with truth say, that Mr. Raffles’ abilities and general
conduct give him a right to my recommendation, in as far as being eminently well
qualified to assist in your councils. I understand that he has submitted to his friends
an application to be provisionally appointed to the first vacancy, and I shall be happy
if my recommendation may weigh with the Honourable Court in his behalf.”

When these representations were received, the orders were countermanded :

ON THE MALAYAN NATION.

and Malacca, though ahenated for a time, was restored to Great Britain by the
treaty with the Netherlands’ Government, in 1824, and now (1829) forms part of
the consohdated government of Penang, Singapore, and Malacca.

Respecting the whole of the Eastern Islands, at that time (1808) httle known
or attended to, Mr. Raffles collected much interesting infonnation. It was princi-
pally on this subject that he carried on a con*espondence with Dr. Leyden. His
letters were occasionally submitted to the notice of Lord Minto, the Governor-Gene-
ral, in whom they excited so much interest, that they led to a personal acquaintance ;
and Mr. Raffles had thus again the gratification of obtaining, purely from his own
talents and character, another and a still more powerful patron and friend.

To W. Marsden,Esq.

“ Runemede, Penang, March, 1809.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ Two very long and severe illnesses, during which I was under the neces-
cessity of denpng myself the use of the pen, and all kind of study, and from the
effects of which I am hardly recovered, even at this time, must plead my excuse for
not answering, or, indeed, acknowledging the receipt of your polite and friendly
letters of the 18th of June and 15th of November last, both of wliich arrived when I
was confined to my room.

^ ^ ^

“ With respect to the Menangkabus, I am more than ever confident that those
in the Peninsula derive their origin from the country of that name in Sumatra.

“ Inland of Malacca, about sixty miles, is situated the Malay kingdom of
Rumbo, of which you have no doubt heard. The Sultan and all the principal officers
of state hold their authority immediately from Menangkabu, and have even ^vrit-
ten commissions for their respective offices ; this shews the extent of its power, even
now, reduced as it must be in common with that of the Malay states in general.

* * 7^

“ In the Asiatic Researches you will perceive a long disquisition on the Indo-
Chinese nations, by my friend Dr. Leyden, which will no doubt interest you very
much. I wish w^e had the good fortune of his local information ; he w^as to the east-
ward but a few months, during which time he hved with me ; you will see what use
he made of his time.

I have by me a sketch of a grammar which I have drawn out, and wffiich I will
send you as soon as I get time to correct and copy it ; and I am gradually compiling
a dictionary, which you shall be welcome to, if it can be of any service to you.

***** *

" I must now conclude, and apologise for the hasty style in which this is written,
the fleet haring this day put in here, intending to sail for England to-morrow. You,
my dear Sir, have been a Secretary yomself, and will make due allowances.”

PAPER ON THE MALAYAN NATION.

The first literary essay of Mr. Raffles was a paper on the Malayan nation, with a
translation of its maritime institutions, which he communicated to the Asiatic Society
in Calcutta, and from which the following extracts may prove interesting :

“ The Island of Sumatra, as well as the Islands of Java, Jana Uyi, or Bugisland,
(Celebes), Sulu, and the Moluccas, which, with Borneo, compose what may be pro-
perly termed the Malayan groupe, are peopled by nations radically distinct from the
Malays, who speak languages entirely different, and use various written characters,
original, and pecuhar to each. These nations are governed by their several laws
and institutions ; and if we except the state of Menangkabu, in the Island of Sumatra,
it is on the shores of these Islands only, and in the Malay Peninsula, that the Malays
are to be foimd. Whatever may have been the origin of the Malayan nation, the
primary population of these various and extensive islands could never, according to
any natural inference, have proceeded from the Malays, though the reverse may
probably have been the case.

“ I cannot but consider the Malayan nation as one people, speaking one language,
though spread over so wide a space, and preserving their character and customs, in
all the maritime states lying between the Sula Seas and the Southern Ocean, and
bounded longitudinally by Sumatra and the western side of Papua or New Guinea.

“ The Malayan language may no doubt be traced to a still further extent, and
particularly among the South Sea Islands ; but that point belongs to a dissertation on
the origin of the nation and its language, and need not be attended to here. Inde-
pendently of the laws of the Koran, which are more or less observed in the various
Malay states, according to the influence of their Arabian and Mahomedan teachers,
but seldom further than as they affect matters of religion, marriage, and inheritance,
the Malay states possess several codes of laws, denominated Undang Undang, or
institutions, of different antiquity and authority, compiled by their respective sove-
reigns : and every state of any extent possesses its own Undang Undang. Through-
out the whole, there appears a general accordance ; and where they differ it is seldom
beyond what situation, superior advantages and authority, have naturally dictated.
Many of the Undang Undang contain the mere regulations for the collection of the
duties on trade, and the peculiar observations of the port, while others ascend to the
higher branches of civil and criminal law.

“ From the comparative rude and uncivilized character of the Malay nation,
learned disquisition is not to be looked for ; but simple ideas, simply expressed, may
illustrate character better than scientific or refined composition. And in this point
of view, however local or particular the subject may be, the institutions and regula-
tions of so extensive a maritime nation must be interesting. Considering, there-
fore, that a translation of these codes, digested and arranged according to one general
plan, might be as useful in facilitating and ensuring a more secure intercourse

PAPER ON THE MALAYAN NATION.

among this extraordinary and peculiar nation, as it might be interesting in illus-
trating the unjustly degraded character of so extensive a portion of the human
race, hitherto so little known, either -with respect to what they are, or what they
were, I have long been engaged, as far as the severe duties of my public situa-
tion would admit, in collecting Malay manuscripts of every description, and in par-
ticular, copies of the Undang Undang Malaya, which, with the curious collections of
Addat, or immemorial customs, and what may be usefully extracted from the Sejarat
Malaya and Akal Malaya, or annals and traditions of the Malays, comprise what
may be termed the ^vhole body of the Malay laws, customs, and usages, as far as
they can be considered as original, under the heads of government, property, slavery,
inheritance, and commerce.

“ On the eastern side of Sumatra, the Malay states of Acheen, Siak, and Palem-
bang, may be considered as of the most importance.

“ The laws of Acheen are peculiar, on account of the severity of the criminal
law ; and although it may be presumed that they were borrowed from the more
ancient inhabitants of the Island, they are interesting, in as far as they may have been
generally adopted by the Malays in the Straits of Malacca, and may have given
rise to that sanguinaiy disposition, by which the Malays are usually supposed to be
characterised. Those of Siak have a peculiar interest, from the long-established
connection between that state and the Menangkabus in the interior of Sumatra.
The Siak river takes its rise in the Menangkabu country, and has obriously been the
principal outlet from the rich and populous countries in the interior, of which so
little is knoAMi.

“ Of the Malay Peninsula, the principal states entitled to notice, on the western
side, are those of Queda, Malacca, and Johore ; and in the eastern those of Trin-
gano, Patani, and Pahang.

“ The states on the eastern side of the Peninsula, with the exception of Patani,
which has been considerably influenced by the Siamese, seem generally to have
admitted the superiority of the Malay government first established at Singapore, and
afterwards at Johore.

“ On the Island of Borneo, the several Malay states have regulations and insti-
tutions pecuKar to each, though not differing in any material degree, from those of
the Peninsula.

“ M’ith respect to the internal regulations of government, police, property, and
what in all Malay codes occupies so large a share, slavery ; the Malay states in the
Peninsula have been selected, as well on account of their connection >rith the Enghsh
Government at Penang and Malacca, as for the still more important reason, in a phi-
losophical point of riew, of the Malays being, according to the theory I have laid
down, to be found here the least adulterated in their character, usages, and manners.
They are bounded by the Siamese, to the north, whose encroachments and esta-

PAPER ON THE MALAYAN NATION.

biishments in the Peninsula, as they have from time to time taken place, may easily
be defined. The Malays seem here to have occupied a country previously unappro-
priated; for if we except an inconsiderable race of CafFres, who are occasionally
found near the mountains, and a few tribes of the Orang Benua, there does not exist
a vestige of a nation anterior to the Malay in the whole Peninsula.

“ As the population of the Malay Peninsula has excited much interest, my atten-
tion has been particularly directed to the various tribes stated to be scattered over
the country.

“ Those on the hills are usually termed Semang, and are woolly headed ; those
on the plain Orang Benua, or people belonging to the country ; the word benua
being applied by the Malays to any extensive country, as benua China; but it
appears to be only a sort of Malay plural to the Arabic word ben or beni, signifying
a tribe. The early adventurers from Arabia firequently make mention in their writings
of the different tribes they met with to the eastward; and from them most probably
the Malays have adopted the term Orang Benua.

“ I had an opportunity of seeing two of these people, from a tribe in the neigh-
bourhood of Malacca ; it consisted of about sixty people, and the tribe was called
Jokong- These people, from their occasional intercourse vrith the villages depen-
dent on Malacca, speak the Malay language sufficiently to be generally under-
stood. They state that there are two other tribes, the Orang Benua and the Orang
Udai. The fonner appears the most interesting as composing the majority ; the latter
is only another name for the Semang, or Caffres.

From the vicinity of the Jokong trihe to Malacca, and intercourse with its
inhabitants, they may have adopted many Malay words not originally in their lan-
guage. They are not circumcised, and they appear to have received some instruc-
tion regarding Nabi Isa, or as they pronounce it Isher. They, however, have no
books, nor any word for God, whom they designate by the Portuguese Deos. The
men are well formed, rather short, resembhng the Malay in countenance, but having
a sharper and smaller nose. They marry but one wife, whether rich or poor, and
appear to observe no particular ceremony at their nuptials. The consent of the
girl and that of the parents being obtained, the couple are considered as man and
wife.

The Malays of Remban, with whom I have had frequent commmiications,
adopt the broad dialect of the Malays of Sumatra, changing the a at the end of a
word into o ; this pecufiarity may be still observed among many of the inhabitants of
the southern part of the Peninsula.

“ The following is a translation of the Malayan history of the first arrival of the
Portuguese at Malacca :

“ ‘Ten Portuguese vessels arrived at Malacca from Manilla, for the purpose of
trade, during the reign of the Sultan Ahmed Shah, at a time when that country pos-

CONQUEST OF MALACCA BY THE PORTUGUESE.

sessed an extensive commerce, and every thing in abundance, when the affairs of
government were well administered, and the officers properly appointed.

^ For forty days the Portuguese ships traded at Malacca ; but still the Portuguese
commander remained on shore, presenting dollars by the chest, and gold ; and how
many beautiful cloths did they present to the illustrious Shah Ahmed Shah, so that
the Sultan was most happy !

‘ After this Sultan Ahmed Shah said to the commanders of the Portuguese,

‘ What more do you require fi'om us, that you present us such rich presents V To
this the commander rephed, ‘ We only request one thing of our friend, should he be
weU inclined towards the white men.’ Whereupon Sultan Ahmed Shah said, ‘ state
what it is that I may hear it, and if it is in my power I will comply ^vith the request
of my friend.’ The Portuguese answered, we wish to request a small piece of ground,
to the extent of what the skin of a beast may cover.’ ‘ Then said the Sultan, let not
my friends be unhappy, let them take whatever spot of ground they hke best, to the
extent of w'hat they request.’ The captains w'ere highly rejoiced at this, and the
Portuguese immediately landed, bringing with them spades, brick, and mortar ; the
commander then took the skin of the beast, and haring rent it into cords, measured
out therewith four sides, within which the Portuguese built a store-house of very con-
siderable dimensions, leaving large square apertures in the walls for guns ; and w'hen
the people of Malacca enquired the reason of the apertures being left, the Portuguese
returned for answ'er, ‘ these are the apertures that the w^hite men require for win-
dows.’ The people of Malacca were satisfied and content.

‘ Alas ! how often did the Bendahara and Tumungungs approach the Rajah
with a request that the white men might not be permitted to build a large Rouse :
but the Raja would say, ‘ my eyes are upon them, and they are few in number: if
they do any wrong, whatever it may be, I shall see it, and will give orders for their
being massacred, (literally, I will order my men to amoTc, or, as it is vulgarly termed,
run a muck among them.)’ Notwithstanding this, the Bendahara and Tumungungs
remained dissatisfied in their hearts, for they were wise men.

‘After this the Portuguese, during the night, conveyed cannon into their store-
house, and they landed small-arms, packed in chests, saying their contents w^ere cloths ;
and in this manner did the Portuguese deceive and cheat the people of Malacca !

“ ‘ What the Portuguese next did, the people of Malacca were ignorant of, but it
was long before the store-house was completed; and when all then* arms w'ere in
order, then it was at midnight, at a time when the people of INIalacca w^ere asleep,
that the Portuguese began to fire off their guns from the fort of Malacca !

“ ‘ They soon destroyed all the houses of the people of Malacca, and their Nibong
fort; and it was during this night, when the Portuguese first attacked the people of
Malacca, that Sultan Ahmed Shah, with his people fled in all directions, for no one
could remain to oppose the Portuguese.

ATTACK OF THE DUTCH ON MALACCA.

“ ‘ Thus did the Portuguese take possession of Malacca, whilst Sultan Ahmed
Shah fled to Moar, and from thence in a short time, to Johore, and afterwards to
Bentan, to establish another country. Such is the account of the Portuguese taking
the kingdom of Malacca, from the hands of Sultan Ahmed Shah.

“ ‘ During thirty-six years, three months, and fourteen days, the Portuguese were
employed in the construction of the fort, and then it was completed.

“ ‘ From this time the Portuguese remained in quiet possession of Malacca for
about nine years and one month, when the country once more began to flourish, on
account of the quantities of merchandise brought there from all quarters. Such is
the account of the country of Malacca under the Portuguese.

“ ‘ After this period, a Dutch vessel arrived at Malacca for the purpose of trade ;
the vessel’s name was Afterlenden, and that of the captain, Ibir. The captain per-
ceived that Malacca was a very fine place, and had a good fort ; therefore, after the
Dutch vessel had traded for fifteen days, he set sail for Europe, and arriving after a
considerable time at the great country, he gave intelligence to the great Rajah of what
he had seen, of the country of Malacca, the extent of its commerce, and the ex-
cellence of its fort. On this, the Rajah of Europe said, ^ If such is the account of
Malacca, it is proper that I should order it to be attacked.’ Twenty-five vessels were
thereupon ordered by the Rajah of Europe, for the purpose of attacking Malacca,
and troops being embarked in each, they first set sail for the kingdom of Bantam, in
the country of Java, where the Dutch were on terms of friendship.

^ At Bantam they found two Dutch ships, and a ketch, and after having taken
on board buffaloes, and provisions for the use of the persons on board, the vessels then
sailed for Malacca.

“ ‘ As soon as the fleet arrived at Malacca, the Dutch sent a letter to the Portu-
guese, telling them to hold themselves in readiness, as it was the intention of the
Dutch to commence the attack on the morrow, at mid-day. To this the Portuguese
replied, ‘ Come when you please, we are ready.’

“ ‘ On the next day the Dutch commenced the attack, and the war continued
for about two months ; but the country of Malacca was not carried, and the Dutch
returned to Bantam, where they remained quiet for some time, in the intention of
returning to Europe ; all the great men on board feeling ashamed of what had happened.

‘ The great men in each of the vessels, having afterwards held consultations
respecting another attack on Malacca, they proceeded against it a second time, but it
did not surrender. The Dutch now sent a letter to Johore, in terms of friendship, to
the Sultan, requesting his assistance, in the attack of Malacca. With this the Rajah
of Johore was pleased, and an agreement was entered into between the Rajah of
Johore and the Dutch, which was sworn to; so that the Dutch and Malays became
as one, as far as concerned the taking of Malacca. An agreement was made, that
the Dutch should attack from the sea, and the people of Johore from the land. If

D 2

PAPER ON THE MALAYAN NATION.

the country surrendered, the Dutch were to retain the country, and the cannon ; and
every thing else that might be found uitliin Malacca was to be equally divided
between the Dutch and the people of Johore.

“ ‘ When these terms were agi'eed upon, the men of Johore and the Dutch sailed
for Malacca, and after attacking it for about fifteen days, from the sea, many were
slain, as well Portuguese as Malays and Dutch. The Malays then held a consultation,
and began to think, that if they fought against the white men according to this fashion,
Malacca would not fall for ten years. It was therefore agreed upon by all the Malays,
that fifty men should enter the fort of Malacca, and run a muck or meng-amok.

‘ The Malays then selected a lucky day, and on the twenty-first day of the
month, at 5 o’clock in the morning, the fifty Malays entered the fort, and commenced
amok, and every Portuguese was either put to death, or forced to fiy into the interior
of the country, without order or regularity.

“ ‘ On this, the Malays exerted themselves in plundering Malacca, and the whole
was divided between the men of Johore and the Dutch, according to their agreement.

“ ‘ The men of Johore then returned to the coimtry of Johore, and the Dutch
remained in possession of Malacca.

“ ‘ This is the account of former times.’

“ To return to the subject of the Undang Undang Malaya, the collection of Malay
laws, as far as regards the Malayan nation separately, is nearly completed; but it is
advisable to adopt a more extensive plan, embracing the origuial institutions of the

various nations among the Eastern Islands.

* *

“ The most obvious and natural theory on the origin of the Malays is, that they
did not exist as a separate and distinct nation until the anival of the Arabians in the
Eastern Seas. At the present day they seem to differ from the more original nations,
from which they spmng in about the same degree, as the Chuhahs of Kiling differ
from the Tamul and Telinga nations on the Coromandel coast, or the jMapillas of
Malabar differ from the Nairs, both which people appear in like manner with the
Malays, to have been gi-adually formed as nations, and separated from their original
stock by the admixture of Arabian blood, and the introduction of the Arabic lan-
guage and Moslem religion.

“ The word jahui is the Malay teim for any thing mixed or crossed ; as when the
language of one country is written in the character of another, it is termed b’hasa
jahui, or mixed language ; or when a child is born of a Kiling father and Malay
mother, it is called anah jahui, a child of mixed race. Thus the Malay language,
being wiitten in the Arabic character, is termed b’hasa jahui ; the Malays, as a nation
distinct from the fixed population of the Eastern Islands, not possessing any \vritten
character but what they borrow from the Arabs.

“ With respect to the maritime institutions which I have now the honour to lay

LETTER FROM DR. LEYDEN.

before the Asiatic Society, they have been selected on account of their singularity
and characteristic peculiarities. The power of life and death, vested in the Nak-
hodah, or captain of a vessel, may be considered as purely Malay, or at any rate to
have had its origin in the Eastern Islands : the Arabs, from whom alone they could
have borrowed a foreign sea-code, not possessing, as far as I have been able to ascer-
tain, any treatise whatever on maritime law, or in any instance admitting the authority
of the Nakhodah, to inflict capital punishments. In this point of view, the paper,
even in its present state, may not be uninteresting ; and it may tend, in some degree,
to account for some of the numerous peculiarities of a nation generally believed to
act, on most occasions, solely from individual will, and ferocious passion.”

The following letter from Dr. Leyden to Mr. Raffles was written at this time,
and has reference to the foregoing paper.

“ Calcutta, October 9, 1 809.

“ My Dear Raffles,

I have received both your letters, and with great vexation have to inform
you that Lord Minto is at present gone to the unfortunate presidency of Madras,
where I believe he has got his hands full. I laid before him without delay the
manuscript concerning Malacca, with which he was greatly pleased, and desired me
to say he should be gratified in receiving immediately from yourself any communica-
tions respecting the eastern parts of a similar nature. I shall not fail to write to
him as soon as I am a little recovered, for I have been for some time (days I mean)
confined to bed by a smart attack of fever. However, I am to-day up for the first
time, but not at all able to write letters, so you must excuse me for the present.

My literary studies were quite knocked on the head for some time, by .the
duties of a magistrate in so large a district as the twenty-four Pergunnahs, and I was
afterwards for some months also magistrate of Nadeah, where I was constantly engaged
in bush-fighting in the jungles. I have now more time, and have again begun my
literary avocations with vigour ; nor have I given up my eastern researches quite.
Now pray do contrive to tell me what you are doing in the literary way, and to get
me a few copies of the best Malay manuscripts ; above all try and get me the works
of the famous Bugis bard, Saveri-yading, and any thing you can in Bali and Siamese.
You have never, I presume, been able to get the Batavian Researches into your
clutches, but do try and get me the best alphabets of all the eastern tribes. Have
you no Bafla that can read the hngo of the man-eaters ? I have got a book bnt
cannot read it. I must be done however and go to bed, or encrease my fever.

“ Yoius, ever truly.

‘‘ J. Leyden.”

CHAPTER II.

Mr. Raffles proceeds to Calcutta — Proposes expedition to Java — Lord Minto appoints him agent to collect
information on the subject — Instructions of the Court of Directors to expel the French, and to give up
the island to the natives — Consequences of such a measure — Lord Minto objects to it — Determines to
jiroceed in person to Java — Letters of Dr. Leyden — His account of an excursion in the Malay Peninsula
— Mr, Raffles reports to Lord Minto his communications with the Javanese Chieftains — The state of
the Archipelago — Bali — Military preparations of the enemy — Discovery of a new passage for the
expedition — Banca — Its mines — Pirate States — Queda — Penang.

Lord Minto was anxious about this time to place Mr. Raffles in the government of the
Moluccas, considering it a wider field for the exercise of his talents (1809.) Previous
arrangements interfered with this intention ; and the com'se of pubhc events was about
to open a field of still gi’eater importance. In the mean time Mr. Raffles went to
Calcutta, and was received with great kindness by Lord Minto, who ever afterwards
continued his firm and steady friend, and reposed in him the most unreserved
confidence.

The ambitious views of Bonaparte began, at this period, to be more fully deve-
loped. The annexation of Holland to France placed at his disposal aU the valuable
and extensive possessions of the Dutch in the Eastern Seas ; possessions as important
to Holland as those on the continent of India are to Great Britain. France looked to
Java as the point from whence her operations might be most successfully directed,
not only against the political ascendancy of England in the East, but likewise against
her commercial interests both abroad and at home.

Mr. Raffles, aware of the plans which the English Government had fonned for
the reduction of the French islands, the Mauritius and Bourbon, and feeling certain,
from his local knowledge, that the resources of the enemy would be formidable so
long as the Dutch supremacy was even nominally permitted in the eastern seas,
communicated to Lord Minto information of so important a nature, that his Lord-
ship was induced to undertake, without delay, the reduction of Java and its depen-
dencies. Lord Minto decided on this measure on his own responsibihty ; but
had the satisfaction to receive from England an approval of the measure before the
departm-e of the expedition.

LETTER FROM LORD MINTO.

As this operation was dependent upon the success of the attempt against the
French Islands, it was deemed advisable that, in the mean time, Mr. Raffles should
be sent as Agent of the Governor-General to Malacca, from whence he might
superintend the necessary arrangements, and apprize the Government of Bengal
of the extent and nature of the force required, and open such a communication
with the native chieftains of the Archipelago as would, at any rate, facilitate the
extension of the British influence in the Eastern Seas.

The confidence which Lord Minto reposed in Mr. Raffles will be perceived from
the following letters that were addressed to him during the progress of the expedition.

From Lord Minto to Mr. Raffles.

“ Calcutta, February, 1811.

“ The Mauritius and all the French islands being now in our possession,
there is nothing to retard the execution of our further views to the eastward. The
expedition, comprising 4,000 European infantry, with a suitable proportion of artil-
lery, and 4,000 native Bengal infantry, with about 300 cavalry, will sail from India
the beginning or middle of March.

I am now to acquaint you with my own intention to proceed in person,
at least to Malacca, and eventually, I may say probably, to Java. The impossibility
of your returning to Bengal, in time, with the information which can alone enable
me to frame instructions for the conduct of this expedition, and for setthng the con-
sequent arrangements, has been very obvious for some time. The expediency, not to
say necessity, of my approaching the scene, and bringing the authority of Government
at least within reach of reference, is evident. That resolution is, therefore, taken.

“ I count upon meeting you at Malacca; and then, in communication with
yourself and Sir Samuel Achmuty, the final plans, military and political, will be
settled.

“ I have no doubt that the communications you will have opened with the
Island of Java and adjacent countries, will have furnished authentic knowledge of
the dispositions we shall meet there, and enable us to place our enterprise upon a
footing which will ensure the concurrence and co-operation of the native states, if it
does not procure the acquiescence of the Dutch themselves in our views.

“ I must tell you in confidence, that I have received the sanction of govern-
ment at home for this expedition, but that the views of the Directors do not go
beyond the expulsion or reduction of the Dutch power, the destruction of their
fortifications, the distribution of their arms and stores to the natives, and the eva-
cuation of the island by our own troops. I conclude, however, that the destructive
and calamitous consequences of this plan to so ancient and populous an European
colony, the property and lives of which must fall a sacrifice to the vindictive sway
of the Malay chiefs, if transferred suddenly and defenceless to their dominion, have

LETTER FROxM LORD MINTO.

not been fully contemplated ; and I have already stated my reasons for considering
a modification of their orders as indispensable.

“ The points on which I have been able to fonn a judgment, with any con-
fidence, are ; first, that we must estabhsh pro\dsionally an administration to supply
the protection which will have been lost by the abohtion of the Dutch authority ; —
this applies more particularly to Bata\'ia; — That the Dutch may themselves be
employed, in a gi*eat and principal proportion, in this new administration, under the
control of a presiding British authority; — that the two principal ports of Samarang
and Gressie must be retained, with the territories dependent upon them, at least
till we can form an adequate and infoiTned judgment of the advantage or prejudice
to be expected from abandoning them ; — that it may be considered as doubtful, in
the present state of the investigation, whether any and what other stations should
be kept in our possession ; and these are points to be reserved for consideration
when we meet, or when our information is more complete.

“ To the native princes and people the abolition of Dutch power would alone
afford a gratification of rooted passions, and a prospect of substantial rehef and
advantage, which may be expected to withdraw them from the Dutch and unite
them to our cause : and a system of connection between them and the English
Government may be founded on principles so manifestly beneficial to the people of
the island, as to attach them to our alliance, and ensure tranquillity between us.

‘‘ All this remains to be discussed when we meet ; in the mean while, take this
as a sketch and colour of my present views.

“ I am, sincerely and faithfully,
“ Minto.”

It will be perceived, from the foregoing letter, how difficult it is to legislate for
distant countries ; and how careful those in power ought to be not only in the
selection of proper men to fill public stations far removed from the source of autho-
rity, but also not to tie them down too closely to any specific rule of action.

It can never be supposed for a moment, that a body so respectable as the
• Court of Directors could deliberately sanction such an expedition, without taking
into account all the probable consequences. The mere object of destroying the
ascendancy of an ancient European colony, however legitimate in itself that object
might be considered, as a means of weakening a declared enemy, could hardly be jus-
tifiable, if it were to be followed up by a transfer of that enemy’s power to the hands
of milhons of uncivilised people, who would instantly annihilate the whole popula-
tion of their ancient masters. Such, however, would inevitably have been the conse-
quence of an exact obedience to the orders of the Court. It is precisely on such
an occasion that the talents, the prudence, and the local knowledge of a distant
authority are necessary to be called into action.

It is tme that, by incurring the responsibility attached to such a departure from

LETTER FROM DR. LEYDEN.

his orders, the individual may sometimes risk both his fortune and fame ; but no man
is fit for high station any where, who is not prepared to risk even more than either
fame or fortune, at the call of his judgment and his conscience.

The name of the writer of the next letter would alone give an interest to the
whole of it ; but parts are so purely personal and private, that they have been
necessarily omitted. It was written while the expedition was still in preparation.

From Dr. Leyden to Mr. Raffles.

“ In Campbell’s case, I experienced a sad vexation, because I was com-
pelled to send my letter up to Barrackpore, for his lordship’s revision, so that it did
not return till Campbell was gone entirely. The military queries which I send you
enclosed, I regret any delay in yoiu* receiving, but the letter itself was only to say
that his Lordship was exceedingly well-disposed towards you, desirous of giving you
every opportunity of distinguishing yourself, and rewarding you as highly as the
imperious nature of circumstances would permit. This you knew very well before,
and I was very glad that his Lordship thought it unnecessary to cause me to wTite
you a formal letter on the subject. Indeed, Raffles, he has always talked of you to
me, with a kindness very uncommon in a Governor-General, and says, that he is
pleased wth thinking he will be able to arrange matters very much to your satis-
faction, when he arrives. I am glad that I have been able to keep him tight up to
this point. He is still fluctuating between the two old plans of keeping the country
or rendering it independent. The orders which he has received from home are
entirely and positively in favor of the last. He is required to expel the French and
Dutch, and leave the country entirely to itself. This his own good sense directly
saw to be impossible, fi'om the shoals of half-castes at Batavia. Colebrook and
Lumsden have succeeded in making some impression on him by talking of accus-
toming the Malays to independence, and all that ; but may I never be a second
Draco, nor write my laws in blood, if they succeed. Succeed they shall not, that is
flat, for the Malays must neither be independent, nor yet very dependent, but we
must have a general Malay league, in which all the Rajahs must be united like the
old Ban of Burgundy, or the latter one of Germany, and these must all be repre-
sented in a general parliament of the Malay States, like the Amphictyonic council of
the Greeks, and this council should meet in the Island of Madura, or some celebrated
ancient place, and under the protection of the Governor of Java. We ought to
retain in some shape or other, all the Dutch possessions at first, while we make our-
selves known; and you should write to all the Rajahs of the Malays, however far, . or
wherever situated, to come in person, to meet the Good Maha Rajah of Bengal :
and state in yom* letters, that the Malay States are expressly invited to send their
most ancient and sagacious men, to assist at a general meeting or congress, to take
into consideration aU their laws, institutions, government, religion, and policy.

•26

LETTER FROM LORD MINTO.

Publish broad and wide the coming of the good Maha Rajah hke another Secunder
Zulkaram, to reign in Malacca, and conquer Java, and drive out all the cruel Dutch,
and treacherous French, and take away all embargos and restrictions on trade,
abolish piracy, and bring peace and happiness to all the anah Malaijas. In short,
make a gi*eat and mighty noise, for we will compel his Lordship to be a gi-eater man
than he w^ould wish to be, if left alone.

“ All are utterly confounded by his Lordship’s resolution, of which nobody had
the slightest suspicion ; and so completely were they all taken aback, that nobody
volunteered for service, till the whole aiTangements were settled. Indeed, more than
the half are as yet thunder-struck ; and are very far from believing that he has any
real intention of visiting Jav^a. ‘No,’ say they, ‘to go and take such a httle paltry
place vvoidd not be decorous, no, no; there must be an insinTection breaking out
again at Madras.’ The selection of your humble servant is another very ominous
circumstance ; and I dare say has deteiTed a gi'eat many smart bucks from coming
forward. The civihans of the mint committee have already discovered me to be a
very devil incarnate, and the gi'eatest mischief-maker in the land. They will be very
glad to see the back-seams of 7ny hose at all events. I volunteered of course, as
soon as his Lordship signified his desire of having me with him, to come off directly
to join you; but he told me that he should prefer having me at his elbow. You
may be sure no possible delay but will be avoided when I am of the party. We go
first to Madras, to see the whole force off from that quarter. The Bengal force will
be shipped directly. In the Modeste go with his Lordship from Madras to Malacca,
Mr. Seton, the present Resident at Delhi, w^ho goes to be Governor of Penang. He
is an excellent character: Mr. Elliot, Captain Taylor, Mr. Gordon, surgeon to the
body-guard, Mr. Hope, whom you saw when he came from the Mamitius when you
were here, and your humble servant. Pray be most particular in your mihtary
queries against the time of our arrival, and be able to teU where the disposable force
is stationed, for that will be of main utility. I have secured Greigh to be mider your
command, and that is giving you a fine fellow in every sense of the word, active and
alert, and brother-in-law of Lord Rollo besides, and you owe not me, but a good
many, for the circumstance.”

In March, (1811,) Lord iVIinto wrote again from Calcutta to Mr. Raffles, as to
the progi'ess of the expedition.

“ I still hope we may take our final departure from Malacca in April. The
resolution will be taken there respecting the point to w^hich we should first direct
our operations ; and this must depend greatly on what you tell us concerning the
position of Daendels. If he remains in the West, w'e must no doubt begin there;
and, under the circumstances of the season, I should not think that unfortimate,
for the affair once settled with him, and if he is either beat, capitulates, is deserted,

LETTER FROM LORD MINTO.

or is driven to the hills, our game is won ; and we are independent of the monsoon.
If he is concentrated in the East, our passage will be longer ; hut we shall have
enough of the dry season left to spare. We shall also determine at Malacca what
course to steer; whether to march up along the North coast of Java, to make the
passage nearer to Borneo, or to go north about at once.

“ You know that I am an Argonaut myself in this adventme. I embark here
on the 7th for Madras. * * * I bring Hope and Leyden with me, in the Dutch

and Malay departments. I bring also Mr. Seton, late Resident at Delhi, an admirable
man, and now Governor of Prince of Wales’ Island. I shall probably instal him at
Penang ; and, then, it is equally probable that he may accompany me to the east-
ward for counsel and general assistance. Not to alarm you, however, he will have
no further relation with the Javanese affair, than as amicus curice ; and as such he is
invaluable in head, heart, and hand.

“ I have another colleague, of whom I cannot speak in too exalted terms. I
mean Sir Samuel Achmuty, whom I have never seen ; but I have conceived the
highest opinion of his talents, judgment, and, above all, character, from his cor-
respondence. It is impossible that any thing can disturb the harmony of this im-
portant service, as far as he and I are concerned ; and I am most happy to discern
in his mind the soundest judgment, and the most enlarged ways of thinking, on the
very points which are likely to abound in this grand and dehcate transaction.

“ You will be glad to find my friend Greigh in this affair ; he is placed at your
disposal, and is peculiarly suited, as well as his ship, to many useful purposes. 1
bring Commodore Hayes, with high command, as an efficient and intelligent mem-
ber of such an enterprise.

* Jif

“ It is proposed to style you Secretary to the Governor-General when we come
together ; for then your character of agent will naturally merge ; secretary is the
highest office below the council, and was lately held by Mr. Edmonstone at Madras.
I hope you do not doubt the jirosiiectwe interest I have always taken, and do not
cease to take, in your personal views and welfare. I have not spoken distinctly on
that subject, only because it has been from circumstances impossible for me to pledge
myself to the fulfilment of my own wishes, and, I may add, intentions, if prac-
ticable. The best is, in truth, still subject to one contingency, the origin of which
is earlier than my acquaintance with you; but I am happy to say that I do not
expect an obstacle to my very strong desire upon this point ; and if it should occur,
the utmost will be done to make the best attainable situation worthy of your ser\ices,
and of the high esteem I profess, with the greatest sincerity for your person.

“ Your’s very faithfully,
Minto.”

LETTERS FROM DR. LEYDEN.

It is impossible to read this Letter of Lord Minto’s without beine- strono-lv
impressed by the kind interest for the welfare of others, the uprightness of intention,
and the sincerity of heart, which it breathes throughout.

Dr. Leyden announced Lord Minto’s amval at Penang, in the follo'wing letter
to Mr. Raffles.

Penang, April 19, 1811.

“ My Dear Raffles,

"" Here we are safe at Penang. AVe anchored here last night about nine
o’clock. Philips came aboard with Erskine and Clubley at six this morning, and
we have just had time to get ashore, proceed to his house at Suffolk, and finish
breakfast. Lord Minto has just retired to wite to you ; and Mr. Seton, of Delhi,
your new Governor, requests me to send you a very Scotch shake of the fist, which
he is eager to give you. You will find him a man of the right sort, I promise you.
^Ve had a very tedious passage to IMadras of thirty days, during which nothing
befel, except one very unlucky incident. Mr. WiUiam Elliot, his Lordship’s youngest
son, was very ill all the passage to Madras ; and when he reached the latter place
he was as nearly as possible given up by the physicians, who pronounced him in the
last stage of a decline. This has distressed his Lordship exceedingly. He has
been obhged to send him back to Bengal, and to send for his brother, J. Elliott,
his secretary, to accompany him.

“ The first diHsion of Madras troops had sailed a week before us, and we have
been just sixteen days on our passage. The last diHsion was to sail on the 2nd
of May.”

During the period of his stay at Malacca, preHous to the amval of Lord
Minto, Mr. Raffles was joined by his friend Dr. Leyden ; who, in making an excursion
into the interior of the ]\Ialay peninsula, VTote him the following characteristic letter.

From Dr. Leyden to Mr. Raffles.

Gappam, I\Iay 31, 1811.

“ My Dear Raffles,

“ I take the opportunity of Mr. Kock’s return to inform you that I have
safely reached Gappam, and to-morrow I shall proceed to the Ayer Panas. Me
made, on the whole, a very pleasant journey, considering my expectations on the
subject ; and I had the mortification not to be once compelled to have recourse to
any of my old moss-trooping habits. To compensate this, however, we had a very
severe rain for a gi'eat part of the way ; and the roads, which pass down some very
pretty declirtties, were so plaguy slippery, that they gave me no opportunity of
admiring them, excepting once, that my courser-wight pitched head-foremost over

LORD MINTO’S ARRIVAL AT MALACCA.

one of them, and I head-foremost over him : when, thanks to my thick skull and
stiff neck, I sprung to my feet as alert as a rope-dancer, and had a very pretty peep
at the landscape before the horse was able to rise. The country, as far as I have
yet seen it, is most excellent ; and it would grieve Mr. Seton to observe the devas-
tation and dilapidations visible every where. I believe, however, I should have said,
deUgnifications, instead of dilapidations, for never a stone is used in the construc-
tion of a Malay house. I am very much pleased with the inhabitants of the
Campong, or vale of Gappam. They are a clean, healthy, stout-looking race ; and
appear to me to be as excellent peasants as I have ever seen. They seem, from
the great superabundance of fniit, to be pretty well provided in the article of food ;
but how they procure their clothing is not quite so ob\dous. The soil of the ridges
is a hght marl, and of the bottoms a deep black mould ; and I am sure there is not
a more fertile country in all Malabar.

“ As far as I can learn, the Pangulu of Naning is as nearly as possible in a
state of open rebellion ; and the people here say that he has got a signet from
Menangkabu, with which he flourishes away famously. If I were Mr. Seton, I
would give him an opportunity of contemplating a company of Sepoys for a couple
of days. The supineness of the former government of Malacca is only equalled by
the wickedness of the maxims under which it acted. Tell Mr. Seton that I earnestly
entreat him to give me a grant of a couple of hundred of ruined villages, for here
there is nothing else to be met with.

“ If any thing occm's which any way requires my presence, let me be sum-
moned without delay, and let me hear of your arrangements when they are formed.
I And myself here completely at my ease ; and that Mr. Kock has made only a great
deal too many preparations. I have walked about all day, and done nothing but
look at the country. I meant to have put Mrs. R. into a postscript, but have
desisted on considering that this is generally the most valuable part of a lady’s letter,
and have reserved that honor for Miss R. ; apropos of ladies, I have already become
an immense favourite of that goodly old damsel, the Pungulu of Gappam’s wife,
from having dined entirely on curries, &c. of her own dressing ; the lady has not
yet ventured to shew herself ; but I have been informed of the fact, which I hold
for Gospel. The only thing in which I have been disappointed is in the non-arrival
of the fatong whom we summoned. But such a place as Gappam for musquitos
certainly never was seen ; in spite of my thick boots I And it quite impossible to
keep my ground, or indeed to write a single word more than that I always am,

“ Your’s very truly,

“ J. Leyden.”

On the 18th of April (1811) Lord Minto arrived at Penang, and on the 9th of
May at Malacca, where Mr. Raffles had been long waiting for him in great anxiety,

:30

MR. RAFFLES’ REPORTS TO LORD MINTO.

as the south-east monsoon was every day increasing in violence, and rendering the
passage more and more uncertain.

From the moment of his an'ivalat Malacca Mr. Raffles had devoted himself \vith
all his usual ardour to the acquirement of information on every point calculated to
promote the conquest of Java, and communicated the result of his enquiries to Lord
Minto in the following letters :

To the Right Honourable Gilbert Lord Minto, Governor-General, ^'c.

‘‘ My Lord,

“ Haring shortly after my despatches to Mr. Edmonstone, under date the
31st January and 10th Febmary last, received intimation of your lordship’s intention
of visiting the Eastward in person, it has been unnecessary for me to forward to
Bengal any fiulher accounts in detail; and as I have, since your Lordship’s arrival at
Malacca, had the honor of personally coimnunicating on every point to which my
attention has been directed, it may now be only requisite that 1 should throw into
official form a short statement of my proceedings since the date of my last letter,
and request your Lordship’s attention to some important objects, concerning which
sufflcient information has not as yet been procured, to enable us to decide promptly
on the measures which are requisite to be pursued with regard to them.

“ Accompanying my letter of the 31st January, I had the honor to transmit for
your lordship’s information translations of the letters which I had deemed it adrisable
to addi'ess to several of the principal chieftains in Java, in the Malay and Javanese
languages; fmdher letters in these languages were fomarded to the Eastward by
every opportunity that offered, and on receiring authentic intelligence of the fall of
the Maiuitius, which gave me a more certain expectation of the speedy departm'e of
the present expedition from India, these intimations of the intended approach of the
British forces were thrown in more generally : as I conceived that some intimation of
our intentions would also be acceptable to the Dutch inhabitants, in the present un-
precedented situation in which they are placed, I likewise addressed to them a short
proclamation in the Dutch language, various copies of which I have reason to think
have safely reached their destination ; a translation of this proclamation, with a copy
of the original Dutch, I formerly had the honor of transmitting to your Lordship, and
hope that it has met your approbation.

“ In these, 'as well as every communication addressed to the Eastern chieftains,
I endeavoured to adhere as much as possible to general terms, feehng satisfied that
we shall hereafter find it of importance, to be as free from prerious obligations and
stipulations as possible. The whole nature of our relations with the native chief-
tains will be so completely changed on our becoming masters of the Dutch empire
of the Eastern Isles, that in many cases we shall find it necessary to interfere mate-
rially with the very powers with wiiom it has hitherto been our interest to establish

COMMUNICATIONS WITH THE JAVANESE CHIEFTAINS.

terms of friendship ; and as there seemed to remain no doubt whatever of the favour-
able reception which the English might expect to meet on the island of Java, both
from the native and European inhabitants, it became less necessary to hold out
extraordinary encouragements and assurances, which might possibly stand in the
way of the future arrangements which the state of the country after the conquest
may oblige us to adopt.

“ With respect to the communications which I have attempted to open directly
with the different Javanese chiefs, through the medium of native agents, I feel it
necessary to state to your Lordship that these have been materially impeded by the
position taken off Batavia, and along the coast of Java, by the different vessels of
his Majesty’s navy that have been lately employed on the Eastern station. I do not
mean to insinuate that this has happened by a direct and intentional interference,
but rather indirectly, by exciting an universal alarm in the minds of the natives,
whether Malays or Javanese. As few of the Eastern nations are at all acquainted
with the English language, and almost as few of the officers of his Majesty’s navy
are able to communicate directly with the natives in the Malay language, the danger
of not being able to make themselves understood always appears very formidable to
the natives, and there is reason to suppose that, in various instances, it has led to
consequences of the most fatal kind. It must also be admitted that the objects of
his Majesty’s navy, in visiting the coast of Java, were calculated to excite in the
minds of the Javanese and Malays a very different impression of the intentions of
the English from that which it was my wish to convey to them, and which has not
only excited in my mind considerable alarm for the safety of some of my native
agents, but likewise the fear that these proceedings may render our proclamations
susceptible of an injurious interpretation.

“ Independently of the native agents employed to convey to the eastward
favourable intimations of our intentions, I deemed it necessary to despatch directly
to the Isle of Bali, in the first place. Lieutenant Smith in the Arethusa cutter, and
afterwards Mr. Greigh of the brig Minto. For my instructions issued to Lieutenant
Smith, and subsequently to Mr. Greigh, I beg to refer your Lordship to enclosure
No. 1, which also contains translations of my letters addressed to the Bali Rajahs,
and the different answers which have been received from them.

“ Mr. Greigh’s report on his return from Bali Baliling, as well as the letters of
the Bali Rajahs, which evince the warmest and most sincere attachment of these
chieftains to the English cause, will I have no doubt prove highly satisfactory to
your Lordship. The Rajah of Bali Baliling, with whom I first opened a communi-
cation, has not only on all occasions exhibited the greatest demonstrations of friend-
ship towards the English, but zealously co-operated with me in conveying letters
and intelligence to the Eastern chiefs, with whom I have found it most difficult to
open a communication, particularly the Susuhunang, the sultan of Mataram, the

BALT.

sultan of Madura and the Panambuhan of Samanap. The sultan of Carang Asam
and Lombok, to whom I had not addressed a letter in the first instance, as soon as
he was informed of our intentions of invading Java, came immediately forward and
offered his sernces in the most friendly manner. The other Rajahs of Bali, with
whom a direct communication has not as yet been opened, are all I understand
equally well affected to the English cause.

“ As the success of the measures adopted with regard to the Bali Rajahs has
])een so complete, that we may safely count on every kind of assistance which the
islands of Bali and Lombok are capable of furnishing, I think it of some importance
to advert somewhat more particularly to their present state and resom'ces, than in
my former despatches to your Lordship.

The island of Bali is inhabited by a pecuhar nation, differing in language and
manners from all the other races of the East, and very few of whom have ever
adopted the religion of Islam. As a nation they are not so numerous as to be
dangerous to the Enghsh, and yet sufficiently numerous to be in the highest degi'ee
useful. As the Dutch, fi-om similar causes and motives of policy, chiefly employed
the natives of hladura, who are like'srise a peculiar nation, in maintaining Java, so
we have it in our power to employ the Bali nation, who have ne^’er been on friendly
tenns -with any European nation but ourselves, and who by their language and re-
ligion are separated fi-om all other nations of the East Indies; the only people uith
whom they have any considerable coiTespondence or connexion, are the Bugis and
Macassar nations, whose traders are in the habit of rtsiting the islands of Bali and
Lombok, and uith both of whom there are similar and obrious motives of policy for
our cultivating the most intimate and close connexion. The religion of Bali, which
insulates them almost entirely from either the INIalays or Javanese, and which
renders them proof against all the deceptions and influence of the Arab traders,
tends materially to dispose them to enter into the most intimate connexions with
the English.

“ Another point of essential importance to the English is, that the island of
Bali, which was first visited by the English, has never been conquered by any other
nation, and even the Dutch have never been able to establish any claims to it, of
either territory or authority. In 1684 they established a resident in Bali, for the
piu-pose of trading in rice, cotton and slaves: but they speedily withdrew the re-
sidency. The Rajah of Badong, on the south coast, has since that period allowed
them several times to return and settle a factory, but in the course of a few )-ears
they have always found it necessary to abandon it. None of the other Bali Rajahs
have ever pennitted the Dutch to have any establishment among them, and there-
fore whatever connexions we form with the Bali nation at present, are the more
likely to sunive any aiTangements which might be the consequence of a peace
in Europe.

BALI.— BANTAM.

oo
OO

“ The Rajah most respected for his antiquity on Bali, is the Rajah of Kasamba,
who in ancient times had dominion over the whole island ; at present his power is
greatly diminished. The most powerful is the Rajah of Carang Asam, who possesses
the island of Lombok, and can bring readily into the field upwards of 30,000 men in
arms. After him ranks the Rajah of Bali Bahling, who can muster from lO to
15,000 men. The other Bali Rajahs are those of Taman, Bali, and Badong. All
these Rajahs, with the great mass of their subjects, adhere to the ancient and
peculiar religion of Bali. The Rajah of Badong is the only one that has ever
formed any connexion with the Dutch, and at the instance of the Rajah of Carang
Asam, he lately seized every Dutchman, and every man in their interest, and sent
them out of the island.

“ In a political point of view, at the present juncture, I apprehend Bali must be
admitted to be of the first importance. The facility of procuring from the islands
of Bali and Lombok whatever quantity of fresh provisions and live stock may be
required for our armies in Java, must be admitted to be a point of the first importance,
especially if the campaign should be unexpectedly prolonged, or considerable supplies
of men and arms be received from old France by the enemy, before it can be brought
to a termination.

In the event too of such an occurrence as the latter taking place, or from
any other causes, our forces being greatly outnumbered by the enemy, there is no
doubt that any number of men, certainly not less than 15,000, or perhaps 20,000,
could be procured in Bali and Lombok with the utmost expedition, to co-operate
with our troops, which might prove of the most essential service, in a war carried
on amid the mountains and jungles, to which all the operations of Marshal Daendels
indicate an intention of transferring it.

‘‘ Another advantage, however, which we have actually derived from the
favourable disposition of the Bali Rajahs, is the good impression respecting our inten-
tions which by their means has been conveyed to the more eastern nations, espe-
cially the Bugis and Macassar tribes, concerning whom I shall have occasion to say
more in the sequel. But it is not confined to these tribes alone, but extends like-
wise to the tribes of Sambawa, Bima, Ende, and the whole chain of low islands
which extend from Java to the Moluccas, while at the same time it puts us in con-
dition to hold in check, should we find it necessary, the whole Dutch force of the
division of Surabaya, by a comparatively small number of troops placed in Bali.

“ With respect to the west of Java, it appears from the latest accounts that the
Panambahan Anom and the Pangerang Ahmed, the near relations of the late king of
Bantam, are still in sufficient force in the mountains to maintain a determined resist-
ance to the Dutch, and even the Bantamese, who have ostensibly submitted to the
Dutch, have taken every occasion to manifest their favourable disposition to the
English, and only request that they would not land in the country till they land

JAVA.

in sufficient force. The same disposition has been manifested by the Lampungs on
the east of Sumatra, who are intimately connected with the Bantamese. I have not
hitherto been able to learn whether the communications forwarded by me to that
quarter have reached the chiefs of Bantam, but the demonstrations of a favourable
disposition towards the English, wEich they have made wherever an opportunity of
communicating with the ships of his Majesty’s navy has presented itself, is sufficiently
satisfactory.

“ With respect to my communications with Madm'a, Solo, and Mataram, though
I can entertain httle doubt that some of them have reached their destination, yet I
have not been able to learn what effects they have produced, chiefly from the causes
to which I have already alluded as increasing the natural difficulty of commmiica-
tion with these states. My Malay intelhgence, how'ever, states that a ruinoiu* pre-
vails to the eastward that signs of disaffection and a refractory spirit have displayed
themselves, not only in the island of Madura, but also in the interior of Java.
Without attaching much importance to these reports, I presume, from the general
accuracy of my Malay information, that they may not be entirely devoid of foundation.

“ With regard to the military state of the island of Java, I am happy to find
that the latest intelligence fully corroborates the details which I formerly had the
honour of forwarding to your Lordship.

“ Your Lordship is already acquainted with the fact of the French flag ha^^ng
been substituted throughout Java for that of the Dutch. It appears by the latest
accounts from Bata\ia, which are as late as the 12th idtimo, that a small armed
brig had arrived from France about a month previous to that date, bringing out
instructions for this change, which was duly carried into effect by proclamation.
The same brig is stated to have also conveyed to Java intelligence of the fall of the
Mauritius ; but it is not known w'here she had touched, or how she had contrived to
obtain this information.

“ The most active and unremitting exertions appear to have been made by
Marshal Daendels towards securing his defences, and the fall of the Mauritius has
no doubt fully confirmed his apprehensions of the nature of the intended attack.
It seems cun*ently believed in Java that the Marshal expects almost immediate
assistance from France ; and the circumstance of his being able to hoist the French
flag at such a critical moment, and with so httle opposition, strongly indicates that
he relies on more than ordinary means of defence, and confides in resources which
render the sentiments of the Dutch inhabitants of Java a circmnstance of compara-
tively little importance. Indeed, it cannot fail to excite our surprise that a measure
altogether so unprecedented in its nature, and which must of necessity be obnoxious
to so considerable a part of the Dutch population of Java, should have been carried
completely into effect with so little opposition, and nothing can more strongly illus-
trate the fact, that the reign of terror has extended its influence to Java. There is.

STATEMENT OF THE ENEMY’S FORCE.

however, strong reason for thinking that the more respectable part of the Dutch
community have been taken by sm-prise, and that they have in this instance been
overtaken by a crisis, the possibility of which their national pride had scarcely ever
suffered them to contemplate, however obvious it had been to the English nation.
Rumours of strong private discontents have, however, reached Malacca, though there
is no reason to think that any concert prevails among the individuals concerned in
them, or that any thing of the kind will show itself openly till we appear in force on
Java. By this unprecedented measm-e, the tie which bound the Dutch population
of Java to their mother country is broken for ever, and Holland being annihilated,
they have only to choose between the English and French nations, in which case we
may confidently count that their own interest, if all other circumstances were out of
the question, would be sufficient to determine them to adhere to the Enghsh. The
information of your Lordship’s intention of accompanying the present expedition to
Java, of which I have taken care to convey them notice, will, I have no hesitation
to say, tend materially to tranquillize the minds of the Dutch inhabitants, and to
determine the part which they will take on the appearance of om* armament.

“ With respect to the actual force of the enemy, it does not appear that any
very considerable augmentation, beyond what might have been calculated upon, has
been made since the date of the last accounts which I had the honour to transmit.
The reinforcements which the Marshal has received, both in officers and men, from
the different garrisons at the Moluccas, have no doubt enabled him to complete
several of his defective coi-ps ; and as he appears still to retain a very considerable
force in native Javanese, his numbers in this description of troops may exceed the
fonner estimate, and perhaps a general estimate may be taken at about 30,000 men,
according to the following account, which may be taken as the stated strength of
the army of Java, as it would be when completed agreeably to the accounts of the
beginning of the present year :

Cavalry, one regiment, consisting of five squadrons . . . 1,200

Chasseurs, one regiment of two battalions of five companies each 3,007
Artillery, one regiment of two battalions of five companies each . 2,007

Three companies of Horse Artillery . . . . . .720

Infantry, three regiments of the line, each regiment of three bat-
talions of five companies each ...... 9,024-

Four garrison regiments of the same strength .... 12,032

27,990

with about 2,000 Bugguese, Ball^unen, and Timorese, armed as pikemen.

" The accounts last received of the particular disposition of these corps do not
materially differ from those I formerly transmitted; on the whole, it appears abso-

F 2

POSITION OF THE ENEMY’S FORCES.

lutely certain that Marshal Daendels is concentrating his best rtoops on the western
part of the island and in the rtcinity of Batarta. As to Batarta itself, it obrtously
holds no consideration either in the cirtl arrangements of the Marshal, or in his
intended plan of defence. It has been dismantled of all its fortifications ; its public
stores, ammmiition, and archives have all been removed, and every means have been
employed to induce the inhabitants, both Em-opean and native, to desert it entirely-
The temporaiy seat of government is estabhshed at Weld de Freeden, where the
public functionaries of every description are obliged to reside for the present ; but
an-angements are making for the transfer of the whole administration to Buitenzorg,
at the distance of about thirty-five miles from Batarta, in the vicinity of the Blue
Mountains. M'eld de Freeden, the first military post of importance on the rear of
Batavia, can only be considered as a fortified camp ; Cornelis, at the distance of a
little more than five miles from Batarta, is the first fortified post of importance ; it
consists of a fort which stands on the centre of several batteries, the fi-ont covered
by a canal and the fianks by a river, while a battery placed on a rising ground com-
mands the rear. Buitenzorg is situated in a fine healthy position, on an elevated
plain at the foot of the Blue Mountains, and its natm'al defences are susceptible of
being gi'eatly improved. Before the present crisis it was only defended by one
hea^y battery, but for some months it appears that gi'eat exertions have been made
to fortify it, and that immense stores of ordnance and anunmiition have been con-
veyed to the spot. It also appears that batteries of more or less strength have been
very generally erected along the coast of Java, in the bays and inlets most likely to
inrite a landing ; but the only other works of importance besides those already men-
tioned are the fortress of Marak Bay, on the west of Bantam, and that of Fort Ludo-
wick, on the east of Java, which commands the channel of approach to Surabaya.
The works of ]\Ierak were lately in an imperfect state, though gi'eat exertions were
making to complete them, when they may probably be able to contain about three
thousand men. Besides affording a rendez^mus for the division of Bantam, Merak
seems calculated for the protection of shipping or supphes which may amve through
the straits of Sunda. Fort Lodouick is completed, and capable of containing up-
wards of three thousand men. Besides serving as a depot for the eastern dirision,
and protecting the toums of Gressie and Surabaya, it is obviously calculated for the
ready reception of supphes which may arrive through the straits of Bali. From this
short riew of the Marshal’s military works an idea of his projected plan of defence
may be deduced. As he has confined his defences almost entirely to mere strong
posts, we may infer that he does not mean to stand a regular siege in any fortified
})lace, but trusts to prolonging the campaign by a war of posts till the setting-in of
the rainy season, or the an'ival of his expected succours from France. This mode
of w arfare, it must be allowed, is well adapted to the nature of the country, prorided
he could depend on the fidelity of his troops and the attachment of the Princes of

LANDING PLACES ON THE SOUTH COAST OF JAVA.

the interior, particularly the Susuhunang and Sultan of Mataram. In order to
secure this fidelity, he is represented to have collected and hoarded up for the
present exigency considerable stores of gold and silver. We may therefore expect
that a landing may be effected on Java without any very serious loss; and though
every advantage will probably be taken of the ground to cut off our troops in detail,
it is rather incessant and harassing skirmishes and night attacks, than a pitched
battle, that we have to expect. When the enemy falls back on Buitenzorg, the
resistance will probably be more obstinate ; and if he is able so long to secure the
fidelity of his troops, and the attachment of his allies, it will be in his power, when
that position becomes untenable, to take refuge in the strong hill countries of Suka-
pura and Bagilen, on the southern side of Java, in order to await his supplies from
France, to carry on a harassing and vexatious war in the difficult central districts of
Mataram and Carta Sura, or passing through these countries, to renew the war in
Surabaya, the eastern division of the island. The latter of these operations will
probably be attempted at any rate, if the Marshal be seconded by a single officer of
ability that can be detached from the main army. This is what an enterprising
enemy might perform, commanding all the resources of the island of Java; but in
the present case the fault would plainly be ours if he were permitted to avail himself
of the whole, or even of any considerable part of these resources. This suggests
the ob\ious propriety of endeavouring as soon as possible to establish an intercourse
between the English and the two principal chiefs of the interior of Java, the Susu-
hunang of Solo, or Carta Sura, and the Sultan of Mataram, without the permission,
or rather the co-operation of whom, it would be impossible for the Marshal’s army
either to take post amid the mountains, or by that way retreat to the eastern division
of the island. To these may be added the Sultan of Madura and the Panambuhan
of Samanap on the island of Madura, the junction of either of whom with us would
neutralize a great part of the native force of Marshal Daendels, which are stated to
be chiefly composed of Madurese. It is also to be considered, that however fiiendly
disposed in the main, it is inconsistent with the long-established usages of the eastern
states to make the first overtures to a power \vith which they are so little acquainted
as with the English ; but this custom is rather to be placed to the account of mauvaiae
Iwnte than of haughtiness.

“ There is another, circumstance, however, to which it is of the greatest import-
ance to advert, and which is also suggested by the arrangements of the Marshal
Daendels. His arrangements seems to indicate the expectation of receiving supplies
from the back of the island of Java ; yet, according to all the accounts which have
been published, the southern coast is supposed to be rocky, dangerous, and devoid
of roads, as well as totally unfrequented by shipping. It appears, however, that
this is not exactly the case, and that there are at least three places on the southern
coast which may be safely visited by ships. One of these is only ten miles south of

PRECAUTIONS RESPECTING THE NATIVES.

Mataram, another in the bight to the S.W. of the mountain Solah, and a third
directly south of Buitenzorg. At the latter place a French frigate touched about
eight months ago, and had some communication with Marshal Daendels. Indeed,
if we only consult the map, it v,i\l appear that Buitenzorg is admirably situated for
procming supplies either from the southern coast or the straits of Srmda, and is, if
there be any difference, situated nearer the southern than the northern coast of Java.
It will therefore be of the utmost importance to take precautions that no supplies of
either men or arms are thro\m into Java from the southern coast of the island ; and
this can only be effected by stationing ships of war for the pui’pose on the south coast
of Java.

“ Another matter of very serious consideration is the impression which the
conduct of our amiies is hkely to make on the ISIalays and Javanese, in commencing
oiu* operations in Java ; and this deserves the more attention, because it may add ,
^'ery materially to the nmnber of our enemies in the field, as well as abridge their
comforts and increase the natural and necessary distresses to be encountered in the
campaign. It must be admitted that we are going to commence oiu operations in
Java Anth the majority of oiu troops, whether European or native, entertaining the
most unfavourable ideas of the Malay character. These sentiments in the minds of
our soldiers, irtll not natm’aUy tend to induce a line of conduct on their part calcu-
lated to convey to the natives of Java any strong impressions either of our justice
or humanity. It is not to my present piupose to enter into a indication of the Malay
character, and it may be proper to mention that these ideas of the Malays have in a
gi'eat measm'e originated with the Dutch, who may be suspected, if the character be
regarded as just, as haing contributed eminently by their cruelty and oppression to
its foundation. As the connexion of the English with the Malay states has always
been the subject of the gi'eatest anxiety and jealousy to the Dutch, it may be sus-
pected that they have not given to the Malays and Javanese a more favourable idea
of the English than they have given the English of the Malays. These untoward
prejudices may certainly be attended in the ensuing campaign with very unpleasant
and troublesome consequences, unless proper precautions be taken to guard against
them fi'om our very first landing in Java, and I therefore feel it my duty to direct
your Lordship’s attention particularly to this subject, for a tame submission to per-
sonal injury is certainly not characteristic of either the Malays or Javanese. All the
eastern tribes are skilled in the use of the blow-pipe, or sumpit, for throiring poisoned
arrows ; and in the event of any retaliation, this weapon always becomes a most
mischievous instrument of warfare in the hands of the most undisciplined savages.

“ As your Lordship is already in possession of the latest accounts from Java,
and the best information yet attainable respecting the roads and distances, the actual
state of the military posts and fortifications, ivith the character, nmnber, and distri-
Imtion of the different corps of the enemy, it is unnecessary for me to exhibit them

SAFEST PASSAGE FROM MALACCA TO JAVA.

here in detail, especially as they now fall more particularly under the attention of the
engineer department, conducted by Lieutenant-Colonel Mackenzie, to whom, since
his arrival in Malacca, I have supplied every information regarding them that was in
my power, and directed him to the best sources of intelligence.

" I shall reserve the remainder of the information I have to communicate for
another letter.”

The Reader must bear in mind that these Letters were WTitten at a time when
scarcely any thing w^as known either of the hterature, or of the people, or of the
countries, of this part of the East. It is necessary to recall this ignorance, fully to
appreciate the numerous points, to which the inquiries were directed, the various
objects which they embraced, the minuteness of the details, as well as the com-
prehensiveness of the \dews. Mlien these are remembered, the correctness, as well
as the mass of information collected, the discrimination, as well as the actmty, of
Mr. Raffles, will be acknowledged.

To Lord Minto.

“As soon as I was thoroughly satisfied that the principal force of the enemy
was concentrated in the western part of Java, I directed my attention to the subject
of ascertaining the best and safest mode of effecting the passage. Perceiving
that the favourable monsoon would necessarily elapse before the amval of the expe-
dition at iSIalacca, to ascertain this became a matter of the highest importance, as
it appeared ob\dous that any considerable delay would not fail to retard the campaign
to the setting in of the wet season, which is also the unhealthy one in October and
November ; I therefore applied ^^ithout delay to every person within my reach that
seemed likely to be able to supply the requisite information, but here I was surprised
to find the utmost degree of obscurity and contradiction prevail. The alternative of
only two routes was presented, the first of which, or the direct course along the
south-west coast of Borneo, was very generally represented as remarkably difficult
and uncertain, if not altogether impracticable. The second course, round the north
and east coast of Borneo, and through the straits of Macassar, though supposed to
be practicable, was admitted by all to be eminently dangerous as well as tedious.
Had the main force of the enemy been concentrated in the east instead of the west,
perhaps it might have been ad\isable, if not absolutely necessary, to have attempted
this passage at all risks ; but as the disposition of the enemy did not require it, and
the dangers of the passage did not appear to be aggravated by report, while the
delay was pregnant with dangers of another kind, I endeavoured to avoid it, if it
could be done without risking the success of the expedition. It w^as generally
admitted that the N. E. passage could not be effected in less than tw^o months ; and
when we take into consideration the dangers of the nairow passage of Balabac, the
almost untried navigation of the Sulu Archipelago, amid innumierable rocks, shoals,
and inlets, the excessive micertainty of the winds and currents in the channel

INSTRUCTIONS TO CAPTAIN GREIGH.

between Sulu and Manado, as well as in the straits of Macassar, there appeared no
probability whatever that this na\igation could be effected by a large fleet even in
the course of two months.

‘‘ With respect to the S.W. passage, its difficulties appeared fi-om the very first
to be greatly magnified through ignorance. Few of the eastern traders are in the
habit of visiting these seas at the present season ; yet it appeared clearly that it had
been accomplished almost as frequently as it had been attempted. The principal
difficulties obviously were the clearing the straits of Malacca and the Caramata pas-
sage off Sucadana in Borneo. The first, it was generally admitted, might be over-
come, but the difficulties of the second were reckoned insuperable, because they
were not understood. As Mr. Greigh, of the brig Minto, had procured some valuable
information from the Bugis traders respecting this passage in his voyage to Bali, on
his retmm I immediately despatched him to Pontiana ■with the necessary instmctions,
and a letter to the Sultan of Pontiana, requesting that Prince to fuimish him with
the requisite assistance for examining the passage between the island of Caramata
and the main land of Borneo. The following instructions indicate the objects to
wiiich his attention was particularly directed.

“ ‘ The object of ascertaining the nature of the passage between Caramata and
the main is of such moment, that I think it cannot be confided to any person better
than yourself, and as you are fully aware of my sentiments thereon, it is unne-
cessary that I should repeat them here.

‘‘ ‘ Enclosed you ■^^^ll receive two letters for the Sultan of Pontiana, the contents
of which have been made known to you ; and I recommend your employuig the
ser^ices of Captain Burn, now residing at Pontiana, should you be of opinion that
they can be useful to the sendee on which you are proceeding. You can easily
arrange with him with respect to the remuneration that he will be entitled to : and in
the event of your enquiries and smveys being attended ^vith success, and the safety
and certainty of the passage being established, it may be advisable to leave him at
Matan or Sucadana, to complete any points that may have been commenced, but left
unfinished, by you from w'ant of time.

‘‘ ‘You shoidd be most particular respecting the facilities for w'atering, and may
go to the extent of advancing five hundred or a thousand dollars to individuals who
may be likely to afford supplies.

“ ‘ You should on no account delay your return beyond tw^enty days from this
date, at w^hich time the armament must no doubt be ready to start ; should you be
longer than that period, or than seventeen or eighteen days, I w'ould recommend
your touching at Rhio on your return, where intimation shall meet you respecting the
movement of the fleet.’

(Signed) Thos. Raffles.

Malacca, ^th May, 1811.

MALACCA.

“ Soon after Mr. Greigh’s departure, I fortunately procured the opinion of
Messrs. R. Scott and Stewart, two of the best informed and most respectable of our
Eastern traders in the Malay Seas, both of whom were decidedly of opinion that the
S.M’. passage was not only practicable at this season of the year, hut infinitely less
dangerous and tedious than the N.E. passage. Both of them had passed through the
Caramata passage at different seasons of the year, and both of them affirmed the
practicability of effecting a passage between Caramata and the main land of Borneo.
The report of Mr. Greigh (Avhich with the other papers connected with this short but
very satisfactory voyage form enclosure No. 2) sufficiently establishes the practica-
bihty of the Caramata passage, and he has likewise ascertained both the facility of
working along the coast of Borneo, by the sea and land breezes, and likewise that of
making Borneo through the straits of Singapore. On the whole, therefore, I am
happy to say, that no doubt can now be reasonably entertained, that the S.W.
passage may be effected by the fleet sailing in divisions, in the space of a month or
six weeks at farthest, although it will certainly be desirable in case of accidents, that
the whole should be \ictualled and watered for two months.

“ Such were the precautions which I deemed it necessary to take, in order to
ascertain the practicability of the S. W. passage, but other measures were likewise
requisite to secm'e to the armament pro\isions of live stock, wood and water, on its
anival at Malacca, and this appeared to he the more necessary, as Penang, from its
very limited resources, as well as from its oblique situation, at the mouth of the
straits of Malacca, seemed objectionable in many respects, and certain of producing
considerable delay. The delay occasioned by entering the harbour at Penang, and
tlie uncertainty of being able to work out again, is entirely avoided at Malacca, and
indeed the disadvantages of the former are so well understood, that it may now be
stated as a positive fact, that no vessel ever touches at Penang, unless fi'om particular
instructions or the expectation of procuring cargo; a ship touching at Malacca is
generally able to procure water and necessaries, and get under way in the course of
a single day; whereas touching at Penang, in common cases, generally causes a de-
tention of five or six days. As a place of rendezvous, Malacca from its position so
far up the straits, is obviously greatly superior to Penang. The supplies of live
stock procurable at Malacca are very much superior to those which can be obtained
at Penang, for Penang in reality possesses no resources of its own on the island, but
is compelled to bring them from the territories of Queda, on the opposite continent.
In the easy supply of water, perhaps Penang may be thought superior to Malacca,
but this is not owing to any deficiency of water at Malacca, but from the difficulty
of coming off to the shipping at low water. With regard to water, however, it is
abundantly ascertained that it is to be procured on almost every island, either in the
straits of Malacca or towards the eastward.

“ Anxious, therefore, to avoid the delay which I foresaw would certainly be occa-

PALEMBANG.

sioned by the fleet touching at Penang, I endeavoiu*ed to call forth the resources of
Malacca, so as to meet the occasion, by encom-aguig the Malays and other inha-
bitants of Malacca to bring doAvm ample stores of hve stock, forage, and fire-wood,
despatching agents into the interior for the same pm*pose, and commimicatmg every
information that might be deemed useful to the mihtai*y conunissaries that had been
despatched before the anny. The Malays are a people whose habits in many
respects are so pecuhar, and so httle understood by the Enghsh in general, that
\\ithout some precautions of the kmd considerable embarrassments were likely to
have occim-ed. The result has been that gi-eater quantities, both of hve stock and
forage, have actually been provided than were requisite for the di\'isions of the
armament that came direct to Malacca, and it has been demonstrated m the most
satisfactory manner, that the whole army might have been amply supplied there
^ntliout touching at Penang, by wliich means its subsequent detention might have
been altogether avoided. This, however, at present can only be mentioned as a
subject of regi'et.

“ Having deemed it adHsable, in order to seciu'e the requisite supplies for the
araiament, to address letters on the subject to some of the Malay Rajahs, I beg to
refer your Lordship to enclosure No. 3, for translation of these, and of the answers
received in return.

" Having thus stated to your Lordship the result of the intelhgence procm’ed
respectmg the forces of the enemy, and his plan of defence, together wth the
measm'es taken to ascertain the practicabihty of the passage and ensm-e supplies for
the troops, I have still to mention the result of the correspondence commenced
with some of the native states.

“ Palembang being one of the most important of the Malay states, I shall
begin ^^■ith stating the result of the negociation, which I mentioned in my last
despatches as hartng commenced \rtth its Sultan. Of the importance of Palembang
to the Dutch govennnent of Batarta, succeeding inquuies had only tended to con-
vince me the more. Large balances had long been avowedly due to the Dutch
regency ; the Sultan of Palembang was knoiMi to be extremely rich in long-hoarded
heaps of the precious metals, and it was greatly to be feared that the energy and
rtgom* of ^Marshal Daendels might so intimidate him as to induce him to pay up
these balances, which would have been of the utmost importance to the finances of
the Marshal at the present crisis. I knew that the Marshal had not only severely
threatened the Sultan, but was taking active measm'es to compel him to accede to
his terms. Upon this circumstance I founded the project of opening a negociation,
considering it as certain that, whether the Sultan accepted or refused the terms pro-
posed, the proposal alone would be sufficient to prevent liim coming to any accom-
modation ^^•ith Marshal Daendels : a circmnstance which was sure of inspiring fresh
spirit into the Bantamese and Lampungs, disheartened by their recent defeat. If

PALEMBANG.

the Sultan acceded to the propositions offered, we would not only acquire a powerful
ally, by whose assistance a formidable demonstration might be made on the side of
Bantam without weakening our main attack, and whose voluntary alliance would
prevent his being subjected to the fate of war in Europe, but we would also be
put in possession without further trouble of the grand monopoly of the tin trade.
This, however, I was scarcely sanguine enough to expect, as I knew that not only
several of the Sultan’s ministers were decidedly in the Dutch interest, but that the
whole state of Palembang had been too long accustomed to a contraband traffic to
consent readily to resign its advantages. As I expected, the Sultan demurred and
adopted a temporizing policy, endeavouring by every means in his power to spin out
the negociation till he should perceive what was likely to be the course of events,
although I had taken care to explain to him in the most particular manner the
important difference that would occur in the political situation of a dependent state
that should submit after the conquest of Java, and one that should voluntarily enter
into an alliance with us previous to that event. Though I beheve the fact to be
incontrovertible, that the Sultan of Palembang is bound to the Dutch by various
agi'eements and treaties, and though it is certain that various acts of hostility have
been committed by the Dutch, in concert with his subjects, on the English shipping
within his boundaries, yet he has assumed the character of an independent and
neutral power ; and because some of the English ships have at times managed to
prociure cargoes of tin at Banca, in spite of the Dutch prohibition, he wishes to
avail himself of this circumstance, to represent that he has always been on terms of
amity with the English. The true reason, however, I was soon informed of by
means of my agent, Tunku Radin Mahammed, who states that some of the Sultan’s
counsellors, especially the Tamungung Lanan, had persuaded him that the Enghsh
interests were in the utmost jeopardy, not only in Europe, but in Bengal and the
rest of India, and that therefore we were anxious to acquire new settlements to the
eastward. For the letters which I addressed to the Sultan, and the replies received
from him, as well as some other papers connected with the subject of Palembang, I
beg to refer your Lordship to enclosure No. 4.

“ Suspecting from the procrastination of the Sultan of Palembang, the turn which
the negociation was likely to take, and being aware of the immense importance ot
the island of Banca, I directed my agents to use every means in their power to ob-
tain the most particular account of the island and its productions, as well as the
nature of the government and the disposition of the inhabitants. The regular report
on this subject I have not as yet obtained, but the following particulars relative to
the island have been fully ascertained. Banca has a population of about 10,000
souls, who are a mingled mass of Malays, of Javanese, and Chinese, all of whom
have been resident on the island for many generations. In some places, as at
Minta, the Malay population is the most numerous, in others the Chinese. The

G 2

4'4

BANCA— PIRACIES.

government of the island is entirely in the hands of the natives, and the Sultan of
Palembang interferes no further with them than to secure a monopoly of the tin, for
which purpose he has a resident on the island. The present resident is the Tamun-
gung Hasein, an inveterate enemy of the Enghsh, and accused of harfng been lately
concerned in various piratical practices, particularly in the late murder of Captain
Ross, and the piratical capture of the ship ^Malacca belonging to Mr. Hare. The
two datouks, Rangga and Songgar, who at present govern Banca, as well as the mass
of the native inhalhtants, are highly disaffected towards the Sultan of Palembang, and
it is believed Avould claim the protection of the English Company, if there were any
hopes of their being received, if it were only to secure them from the ravages of the
pirates and Lanuns, who have desolated the eastern part of the island, and from
which the Sultan of Palembang is altogether unable to protect them. Indeed, from
what I have been able to learn, I think it most probable that an apphcation to this
purpose will be made at all events by the native inhabitants of Banca, who have no
natural connexion udth Palembang, and are more oppressed by the Sultan’s mono-
poly than if they were under any European power.

“ M'ith respect to the resources of Banca, it produces rice, but not sufficient for
the subsistence of the inhabitants. Iron and loadstone are found on the island, but
tin is the gi'eat staple which it produces, and in the production of this valuable metal
there is probably no place in the world to be compared to Banca, for the whole
island may be considered as an immense tin mine. The production of tin in Banca
is only limited by the number of people employed in mining, but it is understood to
be capable of producing at least 100,000 peculs per annum, on the most moderate
computation. The miners at present are chiefly Chinese, and it is thought that by
adopting more scientific methods, the expense of mining might be gi’eatly lessened.
It is said, however, that the Sultan of Palembang, under the present system of
management, procures the tin at the expense of from five to six dollars per pecul.
The ordinary selling price of tin in China is from twenty to twenty-five dollars per
pecul, and it has lately risen from twenty-eight to thirty dollars. The consumption
of tin in China, as well as of odoriferous gums in the religious ceremonies of the
Chinese, amounts to a great extent every year, the tin being employed in coating the
gilt paper, gi*eat quantities of which are burnt at all their festivals. Besides this, the
tin is chiefly employed in the manufacture of cooking and domestic utensils, both for
export and the home market in China. These circumstances may serve to convey
some idea of the importance of Banca to the English. Palembang itself produces no
tin, and the only other article which the Dutch derive from Palembang is pepper.

“ Banca, however, demands our attention in another point of riew as connected
with our operations for the suppression of piracy, under wiiich head I have several
details to communicate to your Lordship since my last letter. The suppression of
piracy has long been a subject to which the attention of the Dutch has been rigor-

PIRACIES.

ously directed, and this, \sith the suppression of contraband trade among the eastern
isles, are the chief objects of the establishment of the Bata\ian marine of late years;
however, from the preponderance of the English navy on the shores of all the
eastern isles, the Dutch have been altogether unable to oppose any effectual re-
straint to the ravages of the Lanuns and other pirates, who have of course become
more bold and daring in all the eastern seas. The name of Lanuns, accordingly,
which was originally the appellation of those piratical adventurers from the Bay of
Lanp, in the great island of Mindanari, who formerly infested the coast of Borneo,
has been extended to almost all the sea-rovers of the east, particularly to those
which infest the straits of Banca and Sunda, The Lanuns, therefore, at present
may be considered as an assemblage of the most daring and desperate adventurers
from all the tribes of the east, and their principal haunts are the low eastern coast of
Smnatra between Palembang and the Lampung country, the eastern part of the
island of Banca, the island of Biliton, the eastern coast of Borneo, but especially
Sambas on the N.W. of Borneo.

“ On the eastern coast of Sumatra they have, or lately had, very considerable
settlements, especially at a place named Batch, where they have built houses and
caused their captives to cidtivate the gi'ound. At Sambas too they have settled in
gi’eat numbers, under the protection of the Sidtan and the celebrated pirate the
Pangeran Anom, his half-brother. The ravages which they lately committed on the
eastern part of the island of Banca are stated to have completely interrupted the
working of the tin-mines in that quarter, and caused them to be entirely deserted.
I am at present unable to say whether they have formed any settlement on the
island. One thing, however, may be considered as certain: they are privately
encouraged by the Sultan of Lingen, and almost openly by the Rajah Mudah of Rhio,
and no Malay hesitates to admit that these chiefs, with the Sultan of Sambas, are
the real heads of the Lamms. The Sultan of Lingen, however, does not avow the
connexion, while the Sultan of Sambas admits it openly, and braves all conse-
quences. No doubt can be entertained that in spite of all this, the Lanuns are
permitted on all occasions to frequent both Lingen and Rhio, to provide themselves
with all kind of stores, provisions and ammunition, and to dispose of their prizes.
Of the number of the Lanuns it is difficult to form at present any particular esti-
mate ; I apprehend, however, they cannot in any way be estimated at less than
10,000 fighting men. I have heard those who are settled at Batch mentioned as
about 2,000 strong. The Lamm vessels are the best native craft that appear to the
eastward ; they carry very heavy guns, and have repeatedly succeeded, not only in
taking stout merchantmen, but even Dutch cruizers. These are the class of pirates
at Sambas.

“ But there is another class of pirates on a smaller scale, who have carried
their ravages even very lately up the straits as far as Malacca, though they are

PIRACIES.

neither very powerful nor possessed of large vessels. The chiefs of these are fom-
brothers, the sons of the celebrated Rajah Ali, who was the cause of the Dutch
formerly destroying Sucadana. The names of these are. Rajah Bassick, Rajah Isa,
Rajah Indee, and Rajah Hamed. The most notorious of these is Rajah Bassick,
though the whole of them have been engaged in piratical practices for the greater
part of the last five years. As their depredations have been so very recent in the
immediate vicinity of Malacca, and calculated, had they been suffered to pass
unnoticed, to convey a very ^vrong impression of the English character, I beg to
refer your Lordship to enclosure No. 5, for a translation of the letter which I thought
it expedient to address on the occasion to the Rajah Mudah of Rhio, and which still
remains unanswered. It is unfortunately the practice in some of the Malay states
rather to encourage the young nobles of high rank, especially those of the Rajah’s
oum extraction, whose maintenance would othenvise fall upon the Rajah himself, to
subsist themselves by piratical practices than to discourage such proceedings. This
may in some degree account for the countenance given to this horde of pirates at
Rhio ; but the Rajah Mudah of Rhio had perhaps some additional reasons for endea-
vouring to protect them. It is scarcely six years since his own brother. Rajah Edris,
who in his absence at present is regent at Rhio, was also engaged in piratical prac-
tices. It is necessary to apprize your Lordship fully of the character of the present
government of Rhio, as any strong measm*es which may be adopted in the eastern
seas for the pm-pose of suppressing piracy, will require particular attention to be
directed towards Rhio.

“ One of the latest acts of piracy was the cutting off the ship Malacca, and
the mruder of Captain Ross at Minta, on the island of Banca, by the pirates Abang
Rasib, Inchi Baud, and their confederates, who had afterwards earned the property
to Sambas. In this transaction the Tumungung Hasan of Minta was accused of
being concerned, w'hich was confirmed by the subsequent cutting off the long-boat
of the Thainstone, and the murder of the crew by Demen Minyah, one of his
dependents ; on which occasion Captain Tait, of the Thainstone, very nearly escaped
being cut off himself. As the connexion of the Sultan of Sambas and the Pangeran
Anom was not at this time explicitly known, in order to put the matter beyond all
kind of doubt, I addressed both these chiefs by letter, requesting them to appre-
hend the perpetrators of this piracy and mm’der, the Abang Rasib and his confe-
derates, and to seize the property for the use of the lawful owner. The Pangeran
Anom, w4iom I first addressed on the subject, retmned no answer whatever, but
the Sultan of Sambas at last did, by explicitly avowing his connexion with the pirates
and Lanuns, and positively refusing to comply with my request in any respect.

“ Ha\ing learned that the ship Commerce had about the same time been
disabled on the coast of Borneo by the loss of her rudder, and had drifted upon a
small island near the coast, I addressed a letter to the Sultan of Pontiana, requesting

PIRACIES.

his assistance. The Sultan, in his reply, stated that this vessel had been seized by
the pirates of Serawa, a small dependency on Borneo proper, in conjunction with
those of Sambas. He also communicated various details concerning the operations
of the Pangeran Anom, for the particidars of which I beg leave to refer your Lord-
ship likewise to enclosure No. 5, which also contains the correspondence with the
Sultans of Sambas and Pontiana. The principal facts alluded to in this correspon-
dence are confirmed by the following extracts of letters addi'essed to me by Mr.
Burn, a gentleman who had been for several years resident at Pontiana. The fol-
lowing extract is dated February 12th, 1811.

^ Your letter to the Rajah of Sambas I had sent down to him by one of the
Sultan of Pontiana’s prows, and his answer to you I have delivered to Captain
Tait. The Rajah of Sambas refuses to deliver up the pirates who cut off the
Malacca brig ; but I understand that he has obtained from them the greater part of
the property. The amount of the tin which was sold at Sambas, and afterwards re-
sold here, amounted to about 14,000 dollars ; the piece goods, which amounted to
about 5000 dollars, were disposed of at Sambas, the whole being taken from the
Malacca brig — total 19,000 dollars ; but I am credibly informed the pirates now
retain only a small part, and have connected themselves with the Sambas people,
who are now little better than open pirates. They have two small ships and two
brigs, with a number of prows, and come out occasionally, plundering whatever they
can lay hold of. The ship Commerce has been set fire to by the Rajah of Sarawa,
named Panjeran Samewda ; he is a relation of the Rajah of Sambas : the ship was
left either in his possession or near to the place of his residence, by her commander
Captain Chapman, together with forty-five of her crew and the second mate ; I
believe his name was Hopkins. The Rajah disposed of the cargo, set fire to the
ship, and had the second mate put to death in a private manner, but the crew are
sent to Borneo proper as slaves. Previously to destroying the ship, he offered to
seU her to the Sultan of Pontiana : I myself saw his letter to him, offering to send
her up here, but meeting a refusal, she was set fire to and destroyed.’

“ The following extract is dated March 12th, 1811 ;

“ ‘ A few days ago Pangeran Anom came out from Sambas with two small
ships ; one of them mounts ten gims, and the other eight guns, with some armed
prows. Two Chinese junks just arrived from China, and then l^ing on the bar of
Pontiana river, were attacked by their boats. One of these junks haring a valuable
cargo on board, was boarded and carried off instantly by them, the other was relieved
by the Sultan’s armed prows, who went out to their assistance. They made several
attempts on the other, and some fighting took place, the Sultan being out also.
These vessels are still cruizing off the coast : Assing Basil, the man wiio cut off
Captain Ross, is on board the smallest vessel that mounts eight guns. They some
time ago sent up a formal challenge to Pontiana, declaring they would take not only

PIRACIES.

the China jimks, but also any Enghsh vessel they could. This is what they often
have done before, but little attention was paid to their threats ; all English vessels
now coming to this coast ought to be particularly on their guard against them. I
imagine they will proceed to Banjar Massin river with the same intention, haring
done so last year, where they committed a great deal of mischief outside the bar.’

“ Having communicated these facts, your Lordship uill easily be able to
determine the course of proceeding to be adopted, both with regard to the pirates
and Lamms themselves and their abettors, whether secret or avowed. It is neces-
sary to add, that on the reduction of the Dutch power in the East, the increase of
piracy must necessarily be contemplated, as well as the adoption of rigorous mea-
sures on our part for the protection of our Malay and Javanese subjects, and the
security of the commerce of the Eastern Seas. For this purpose the maintenance of
a marine establishment similar to that of the Dutch will probably be found abso-
lutely necessary. Another measiue of the gi'eatest necessity will be to oblige every
Rajah to refuse to every description of pirates and Lamms any sort of assistance or
protection in his ovm territories, and in particular to become accountable for the
conduct of his own relations. At present piracy is considered as an honourable
profession, especially for young nobles and needy gi'eat men. The numerous unin-
habited islands and tracts of desert coast on all the Eastern Seas, render it very dif-
ficult to put a sudden and complete check to the practice ; but that which chiefly
upholds it is the encouragement given by the Eastern princes to their poor relations
to subsist themselves by piracy. The Malay governments have this, in common
with the feudal states of Eruope, that the chiefs are only rich in hands and in the
rough produce of their grounds. A prow, or war-boat, can easily be constructed
wherever there are hands and timber, and to man her costs no trouble to the chief
of the clan or any of his family. To go a roving is the next step, which implies no
dishonour in the present state of the Malay morals ; and having siu'prised some
unsuspicious merchant, the pirate proceeds coolly to dispose of the goods which he
has thus seized, wherever he can find a market.

“ Having principally alluded to the more formidable pirates infesting the
Eastern Seas, it would be unnecessary to notice those of a still smaller and insigni-
ficant class, had they not for many years been in the constant hahit of cutting off’ the
supplies which are on their way from Queda, and the small states of the Malay pen-
insula to Penang. These naturally owe their origin to the before-mentioned causes,
and must increase in proportion with the decay of Queda, and its neighboiuing
states. The different establishments of police that have heretofore been formed at
Penang, have been found wholly incapable of repressing them, and it is not long
since the very guard-boat constructed and armed by government was attacked and
carried by two or three of the most insignificant prows. The impunity with
which these and similar offences have been allowed to pass has, I fear, much

QUEDA.

committed our military character among the more western Malay states; for, how-
ever insignificant they may be, any degi-ee of supineness on our part is inevitably
referred to fear and want of confidence in our own resources.

“ As soon as I received information of your Lordship’s intention of proceeding
to the eastward in person, I deemed it proper to communicate this intelligence to
the different Rajahs and Chiefs with whom I had commenced a friendly correspond-
ence, being aware that this would tend to secure their more active co-operation, and
at the same time convey a higher idea of the projected enterprize. This intelligence
was soon communicated to the Rajah of Queda, with whom I had not previously en-
gaged in correspondence, considering him as in a particular manner connected with
the government of Penang. The Rajah communicated with me by means of an
agent and near relation named Tunkulung Putch, who formerly was sent as a vakeel
to Penang, respecting the situation and circumstances in which he found his country
placed from the hostilities between the Burmans and Siamese. I, of course, referred
him to your Lordship. From the shortness of your Lordship’s stay at Penang, the
Rajah was disappointed in procuring the expected interview, which I am informed he
regrets, not only as a serious mortification, but as an absolute misfortune. For his
letter addressed to your Lordship on the occasion, and received a few days after your
arrival in Malacca, I beg to refer you to enclosure No. 6. On this occasion he
likewise addressed to me a letter of the same import, requesting me to state to your
Lordship the unfortunate circumstances in which the land of Queda is at present
placed. In the following statement and suggestions, therefore, I consider myself as
merely complying with the request of the Rajah.

“ The situation of Queda is briefly this. It is said to be stated in the Siamese
annals that the Siamese have at several periods of their history overrun the whole of
the Malay Peninsula, then inhabited by barbarous and savage tribes. This they
have construed into a right of conquest, which has since been repeatedly asserted
since the Malays occupied the Peninsida, whenever they found themselves sufficiently
strong, and their neighbours sufficiently weak to be subjected to plunder and aggres-
sion without incurring serious danger. Sometimes they have been altogether baffled,
as in their repeated attacks on Malacca some centuries ago ; but though baffled, it
does not appear that they ever formally renounced their claims even on Malacca,
which has never been conquered by them, but on the contrary, they consider them as
perfectly valid even down to the present day. Queda is one of the Malay states that
appears at some period to have been ovemm by the Siamese, and has accordingly
consented to send, every third year, a gold and silver flower as a token of homage.
The value of these articles is as trifling as need be supposed, the weight of the gold
flower being only twelve dollars, and that of the silver one thirty-two dollars. There
is therefore reason for considering the land of Queda as a dependency on Siam at
present, but certainly none whatever for supposing that Siam has any right of sub-

QUEDA.

jecting Queda to arbitrary impositions of any kind. During the former wars between
the Siamese and Burmans it appears that the Rajah of Queda has presented the sign
of homage, or the gold and silver tree, sometimes to the one power and sometimes
to the other, but it does not appear that he has ever submitted to arbitrary exactions.
In the late wars between the Siamese and Burmans, it is asserted that the Rajah of
Queda furnished some of the Burman prows with provisions, and it is certain that a
fleet of them did actually procure supplies at Penang. These circumstances strongly
irritated the Siamese, who compelled the Rajah of Queda not only to furnish them
with great quantities of supplies, but also with a thousand men, and this he was
compelled to submit to last year to prevent his country being ravaged without
mercy. This year the Siamese have reiterated the same demands, and the Rajah
states that the country will be ruined and impoverished if he complies with the de-
mands of the Siamese government, and not less certainly ruined by the Siamese
armies if he refuses to assent to them. The question, therefore, betw^een Queda
and Siam is obviously a question of might and not of right, for it is not admitted
by the Rajah of Queda that he is subject to the arbitraiy exactions of the Siamese.

“ About the period w^hen Mr. Light first acquired the original ginnt of Pulo
Penang from the Rajah of Queda, he was I beheve directed by the Supreme Govern-
ment of India to examine and report on the nature of the relation between Queda
and Siam, and especially wiiether a grant of the island made by Queda could be
considered as valid without the concurrence of the Siamese government, and from
the following extract from his report it appears that he considered Queda as scarcely
in any degree dependent on Siam.

“ ^ I must now further trespass upon your patience to acquaint you with the
relation Queda has to Siam. It does not appear either by writings or tradition, that
Queda was ever governed by the Siamese laws or customs ; there would have been
some remains, had there been any affinity between them. The people of Queda
are Mahommedans, their letters Arabic, and their language Jawee. Their Kings
originally from Minankabu on Sumatra, but as Queda was very near Ligore, a King-
dom of Siam, they sent every third year a gold and silver tree as a token of homage
to Ligore. This was done to preserve a good correspondence, for at this period the
Siamese were very rich and numerous, but no warriors, and a considerable trade
was carried on between Ligore and Queda. After the destruction of Siam, the
King of Ava demanded the token of homage from Queda, and received the gold
and silver tree ; when Pia Tach drove away the Burmans, and built a new city on
Siam, the King of Queda sent the trees to Siam, and has kept peace with both,
])aying homage sometimes to one, sometimes the other, and often to both.

^ Last year the preparations of the Bm'mans w'ere so gi'eat that the King of
Queda expected the total destruction of the Siamese. The Burmans sent to the
King to demand a supply of arms and ammunition, which he complied wKh, though

QUEDA.

in a very scanty manner, and very politically gave the prows which carried them
two letters, one for the Bimnans and one for the Siamese ! One or two of the
prows went to the Burmans while attacking Salang, the others meeting with the
Siamese dehvered their letters. This has been told to the Siamese General with
much adchtion, so that it is yet a doubt if he will not destroy Queda, for taking and
destroying is exactly the same with these savages.

“ ^ The Siamese General is extirpating Pattany ; all the men, children, and old
women, he orders to be tied, and thrown upon the ground, and then trampled to
death by elephants.

" ‘ The King of Queda has reason to be afraid of such a tyrant, and hopes to
secure himself by an alliance with the Hon. Company ; yet so little confidence is to
be placed in these people, that I should not be surprised at his offering to sacrifice
this new settlement to the avarice of the Siamese, if requested.’ ^^ * ^^ * *

“ It is no new crisis for Queda to be involved in the hostilities of the Burmans
and Siamese ; but there is another cause which has given rise repeatedly to the
interference of the Siamese government with Queda, and that is, the dissensions
concerning the succession, which are constantly occurring there as in every other
Mussulman government. Perhaps to this should be added the desire of the Siamese
to acquire the immediate influence over Pulo Penang, which is now in the hands of
Queda. This desire they seem, fi*om the aforesaid extract of Mr. Light’s report, to
have been early suspected of entertaining, and the same opinions were held on the
subject by the late Mr. Scott of Pulo Penang, than whom no European of the
present day was better acquainted with the habits of the Siamese and the maxims
of their policy, having resided in that country for the space of five years. The
following observations on this subject, which may be deemed both important and
curious, especially as they are corroborated by the suggestions in Mr. Farquhar’s
report on Pulo Penang, were communicated to me by that gentleman some time
previous to his death, and I shall make no apology for their insertion.

‘ The dissensions among the late King of Queda’s sons, and the separate
negociations which the oldest three are carrying on with the King of Siam, directly
or indirectly, through the government of Ligore and Sonera, promises to close in
Queda becoming a province of Siam ; a fear of this happening soon, has induced
the younger of the King’s sons to remove to the Company’s territory, or its \dcinity,
and in the event of such a change taking place, all the Malays wiU remove as occa-
sion offers.

‘‘ ‘ If this change is allowed to proceed without our taking any measures to
provide against the consequences, we shall have the Siamese as our near neighbours ,
who, from the powder of the empire, the rapacity of the governors, and routine of
their laws and pohee, will be fomid both troublesome and useless.

This will appear, if we advert that both persons and property are at th e

H 2

QUEDA.

command of the King, and of course at the command of his officers in succession
from the lowest to the highest ; hence no man uill rear what he cannot call his own.

“ ‘ Certain months are allowed the many to plant and reap their paddy : and
this when stored is sacred, and cannot be taken from their possession ; \\ith this
exception, all the rest of their time, exertions or acquirements, may be taken by the
King or his officers, if so inclined ; hence a society so constructed, never can be sub-
senient to the supply of the prortsions which our population and shipping require,
and thence to us useless neighbours ; and as eveiy Governor commands \rtthout
restriction the population and produce of the country he governs, nothing restrains
their being troublesome but a constant succession of sacrifices made to their avarice ;
and hence are they very troublesome neighbom'S.

“ ‘ The remedy which promises in some degree to prevent the near approach of
such useless and troublesome neighbours, is to acquire, by purchase or otherwise, the
lands of Queda, south of Gunung Gerai, which mountain forms a defined boundary
to the northward ; inland are the high mountains which divide Queda from Tran-
garo, and to the southward the rivers Canian and Edjou; the whole comprehending
a square of about twelve square leagues of fine lands well watered and diversified,
with paddy and rising gi'ounds, and equal to the reception of the Malay population
of Queda, should a Siam government occasion them to remove, and this space so
peopled would be equal to a supply of all our wants in cattle, grain, poultry, or
roots.

‘‘ ‘ Since our possessing Prince of Wales’ Island, sundiy occasions of acquiring
this teiTitory have occurred, which from some misunderstanding have been neglected.

“ ^ The first was when the peace of Praiy was made.

“ ‘ The second, when the King died, and the sum of thirty dollars was due by
the Company at this time ; had Sir George Leith added seventy to the thirty due,
he might have got a right to the lands in question, and liberated the Company from
the annual payment of ten dollars; he was satisfied \rith a stripe three miles inland,
fi'om Quala Mooda River to that of Carrian, which being principally mangrove, is of
little use.

“ ^ Mliat Sir George might have done, a fear of Siam, and the securing a retreat
in case the King and brothers are superseded by a Governor, may now render practi-
cable ; and it ought not to be delayed an hour ; for should the Siamese annex Queda
to the empire, and send a Governor before it is accomplished, there would then be
no hopes of such an acquisition.

‘ As the Company now occupy Prince of Wales’ Island, and the stripe oppo-
site, under grants from Kings of Queda, without any caveat against such grants being
brought forward by Siam, the same deference would be paid to a gi'ant, if procured,
before the King was deprived of his country, and as such a deprivation is apparently
likely soon to happen, the right to the lands described should be immediately pro-

QUEDA.

5;}

cured, if possible, leaving the expediency and mode of occupying it to future con-
sideration.

“ ‘ Because the having the right can do no harm, and as the purchase may be
combined with the liberating the Company from the annual payment of ten dollars,
perhaps the addition would not be much, especially as the King must be convinced,
that in case of Siam occupying Queda, he could have no claim to the tenth, and
therefore more likely to accept of a moderate equivalent ; besides, if he granted the
Company the lands described, he, his brothers, families, dependants, and adherents,
would find a comfortable retreat as subjects, in heu of a precarious one as Kings.’

“ With regard to this important document, which details the opinion of one of
tlie original founders of the settlement of Pulo Penang, to whose activity and
resources, it is acknowledged on all hands, that Mr. Light was greatly indebted, it
may be necessary to observe, in the first place, that the evils contemplated in pros-
pect by Mr. Scott have now actually occurred, and have brought the affairs of
Queda to the present crisis. It is perfectly well known that some time ago
Rajah Bisnoi, the Rajah of Queda’s half-brother, has retired to Siam for the ex-
press purpose of endeavouring to have himself appointed Rajah of Queda, and the
present Rajah dethroned by the Siamese. The residence of this Rajah Bishnu was
formerly at Sittool ; he had contracts from the Penang government or their agents
for procuring timber in the Queda country, and it may be inferred that it is through
means of the money and authority which he has gained by means of these contracts,
that he expects to supplant his brother in the government of Queda, and to procure
it for himself.

“ As to the opinion hazarded by Mr. Scott, with regard to the means of avoid-
ing the evils consequent to a Siamese invasion, it is only necessary to state that the
claims of the Siamese on Pulo Penang are quite as good as on any other part of
the Queda territory ; and that if Queda were subdued, and made a province of Siam,
we woidd find it impossible to defend our thin stripe of mangrove marsh, three miles
broad, and must consequently resign it with its inhabitants, amounting at present to
the number of five thousand persons, to the devastation of the Siamese. I have no
doubts but we should be able to defend our settlement of Pulo Penang against the
whole force of the Siamese territory, but have very serious doubts that the defence
of it would cost us quite as much expense as the defence of the Queda territory.
The tenure by which we hold Pulo Penang at present, is that of a yearly tribute,
which would by no means be creditable to the English Company or the Enghsh
nation, if the obvious superiority of our force to that of Queda did not shew the
whole world that the Rajah of Queda owes this to our national justice, and not to
the power of his arms. This, however, would by no means be equally obvious if
this yearly sum were to be paid to Siam, and would tend to depreciate oirr national
character among all the nations of the Eastern Seas. The difficulty of negociating

QUEDA.

with the Siamese government has always been acknowledged to be gi'eat, and the
English in particular ha^'e been remarkably unfortunate in all their attempts to this
pui-pose. The letter on the Negi-ai’s expedition in 1753, with remarks on the adjacent
comitries, attributed to a IMr, T. Taylor, notices Siam in the following manner : " The
next adjacent country to be mentioned is Siam ; it hardly merits notice, if their be-
ha\iour did not merit chastisement, which may tmn to more advantage than the trade,
w'hile subject to such impositions as at present, under so injurious a government. The
productions of the country are prodigious quantities of gi*ain, cotton, benjamin,
sandal, aquala, and sapan woods ; antimony, tin, lead, iron, loadstone, gold, silver,
sapphires, emeralds, agates, chrystal, and marble. Siam has no force, and
would he a very valuable acquisition to any Em-opean nation, either in w'hole or
in part, though the trade will peld but little advantage under the present circum-
stances.’ These observations, made about sixty years back, apply with equal accu-
racy to Siam at present, and I have little doubt but the same difficrdties must now"
be encountered in every attempt either to negociate or trade with Siam ; unless,
indeed, we were to negociate with anus in our hands, and most probably then like-
wise, after they have experienced the effects of them, Siam and Cochin China may
be considered as miniatm'es of China. The people indeed are less civihzed, and
have made less progress in the arts of life ; but the mlers and officers of government
are equally besotted with childish pride and ignorance, and, if possible, more rapa-
cious and venal. A different opinion, however, seems to have been entertained on
this subject by Mr. Farquhar, in consequence of some communications with the
Siamese governor of Legore, as appears from the following extract from his Report
on Prince of Wales’ Island :

“ The measure most direct and effective for preseiwing the peace of Queda,
w'ould be a letter from the Governor-general to the King of Siam, requesting him
to w"rite to the head men at Sangora, called by the Siamese Son Kra Ligore Patawy,
and Caleutan, not to molest the Queda empire, which the King would instantly
comply with. The Siamese are from interest our finn alhes, because they detest the
Burmans, and entertain a hope that we shall one day or other be obhged to make
w'ar upon Ava. Several letters have been received from the Governor of Ligore, to
send him early notice should such an event be hkely to take place, and the Governor
says he has orders to tender the prorinces of Mergui, Tenasermi, Tavoy, and Mar-
taban to the English as the price for their co-operation against Ava. The Siamese
have never given up their claims to these prorinces, which from time immemorial
formed a part of their natural hereditaiy dominions, and w"ere only lately seized
upon by the Burmans.’

“ Never having seen the letters of the Governor of Ligore referred to by Mr.
Farquhar, nor knowing where to refer to them, I can neither pretend to judge
positively of the crisis w'hich produced such an offer from the Siamese government.

QUEDA.

nor to suggest whether or not some misapprehension may have occurred on our
parts. It must be admitted, however, that any cession of this kind is totally averse
to the usual maxims of the Siamese government. It may, however, be observed, that
if there ever was a crisis which could have induced the Siamese to renounce four of
their ancient and native provinces in our favour, it would be comparatively easy to
procure the cession of Queda. I may even venture to add that, in my opinion, the
cession of all Queda woidd be procured with no greater difficulty than the cession of
Penang alone, and the cession of the whole Malay peninsula with no greater
difficulty than the cession of Queda. Tffie only difficulty in the case will be to pro-
cure any species of cession which will be recognized by a government so constituted
as the Siamese. If our negociations with Siam were for the present confined solely
to the object of opening a trade with that country, I conceive that the very same
difficulties would occur, and that no trade, except of the most limited nature, would
be permitted, the obstructions arising equally fi’om the Chinese maxims of govern-
ment, which they have adopted, the ignorance of the Siamese ministers, their short-
sighted rapacity and jealousy of Europeans, which jealousy will hardly fail to be
increased by their becoming better acquainted with our naval and mihtary resources.
The opinion, therefore, which I ventm'e to express on the subject is, that though
nmnerous circumstances tend to render an affiance with Siam desirable, nothing is
to be expected from any other than an armed negociation. Siam, situated between
two powerfrd neighbours, the Burmans and Cochin Chinese, by each of which her
political existence has been several times endangered, is our natural ally, and might
derive the most essential advantages from forming intimate relations with the
English ; but she is by no means sensible of this, and I am persuaded no overtmes
on our part would be acceptable to that government at present, that had not for
their basis the proposition of mutual hostilities against the Burmans. A proposition
of this kind, I have little doubt, would be favourably hstened to, and if such an
occasion should occur, it would be of the highest importance to embrace it, in order
to procure the complete liberation of the Malay peninsula from the infiuence of
Siam, an arrangement which might be productive of the highest political con-
sequences.

“ In the present state of the matter the Rajah of Queda would certainly assent to
any arrangement acceptable to the English ; the whole difficulty will be in our being
able to commence any kind of negociation with Siam upon a proper basis ; but as
this must probably be attempted soon, we ought certainly to avail ourselves of the
interim to make ourselves accurately acquainted with the territory and resources of
Queda, and to obtain more minute information concerning the nature of the con-
nection which has subsisted between Queda and Siam. With regard to these points,
the government of Penang might immediately procure materials for, and prepare a
report to the Governor-general, for I am pretty certain there are no materials in the

o()

QUEDA.

records of that government which can much illustrate the subject. It may, how-
ever, be proper to add, that during the temporary government of the late Colonel
Macalister an unsuccessful attempt was made to negociate with the Rajah of Queda for
the lands in question. Mr. LauTence, the Malay translator at Penang, who was
deputed to proceed to Queda for the purpose of effecting this object, may be able to
state the reasons which occasioned the failure ; for as the proceedings were carried
on solely by the directions of the Governor, I had not the opportunity of official
reference to the particulars.

“ The following further extract from Mr. Farquhar’s report, will, I apprehend,
tend to elucidate the view of the subject which I have taken the liberty of submitting
to your Lordship, and point out the advantage of a more intimate connexion being
fonned between Penang and the Malay peninsula.

“ Mn all its extensive plans and operations, the British government at Prince
of Wales’ Island should keep in its recollection that the immediate wants of the settle-
ment have considerably increased, and are likely to become greater eveiy day, and
the government should then advert to the important circumstance of supplies from
Queda being more \rithin its reach, cheaper to the community, and subject to fewer
failures than supplies, which by exertions might be elsewhere acquired. Now as
these supplies cannot long be depended upon, under the present conflicting autho-
rities of five or six brothers and an uncle, all equally oppressive and independent, the
Company, in order to command provisions for Penang adequate to any demand, must
adopt one or other of the following alternatives, viz. They must take such a share in
the pohtics of Queda, as to give such a decided preponderance to Tuanku Pau
Erang, as will enable him effectually to curb his brothers, and give efficacy to the
laws for the security of the ryots ; or they must obtain the twelve square leagues
opposite this island, and pm'sue such measures for its government, as promise, with
the gi'eatest celerity, to be the means of peophng and cultivating it. Were my
opinion asked, in regard to the choice of these alternatives, I should certainly adopt
that which places Queda under our own control and management, but both will best
secure the object.’

“ As your Lordship last year despatched Mr. Campbell as yom' agent to Acheen,
I did not deem it necessary to commence any particular negotiations with that
state ; but having reason to think that some mark of attention w^ould be agreeable to
the young King, I wrote to inform him of the object of the expedition, and to apprize
him of your Lordship’s intention of accompanying it ; and beg leave to refer you to
enclosure No. 7, for his Majesty’s reply. After the information which your Lordship
must have received concerning Acheen, it will, I conceive, be needless for me to
enlarge on that topic. The state of the country is still very similar to wiiat it was
last year. Tlie power of the King is daily becoming more precarious, and the
government rapidly breaking up. Almost all the powerful Chiefs, whether of the

ACHEEN.

coast or interior, have assumed a virtual independence without formally renouncing
the King’s authority ; while the power of the young King is too much enfeebled to be
able either to compel obedience, or to levy the usual taxes and duties for the sup-
port of his dignity. One of the principal of these refractory Chiefs is the Pangulu
of Susa, one of the districts formerly most productive in pepper. The young King
of Acheen is by no means deficient in general abilities, but has been designedly de-
prived of a proper education by his mother, whose influence in the country is still
superior to his own. This circumstance has thrown the Prince, in a great measure,
into the hands of about half a dozen of half-caste Portuguese and French; these
personages in themselves are of httle ability or influence; the most important of
them are L’Etoile, a half-caste native of Tranquebar, who is his chief adviser, and
chief of the marine, with the title of commodore; and Silveira, a Brazihan, formerly
engaged in trade at Macao, but who took refuge at Acheen, or rather Talesimo, on
becoming insolvent. The former of these is by no means disaffected to the English ;
the second is their decided and inveterate enemy, and suspected of being a French
agent. His being permitted to reside in the Acheen temtory must inevitably prove
injurious to the English interests, while to remove him would be very easy, as some
of his late proceedings have been very obnoxious to the King. As the country of
Acheen, however, cannot possibly be omitted in the general line of policy which it
becomes necessary to adopt towards the Malay states, I feel it incumbent on me to
state to your Lordship, that without our particular interference to support the
influence of the King, nothing can prevent the breaking up of this state in a few'
years; in which case it will cost us as much trouble, and more expense, to free
the coast from the pirates who will rise fi'om its ruins, as constantly happens in
the event of the breaking up of any Malay state, than it would cost us, at present,
to give effective support to the ancient government, and obtain on amicable terms
from the King, any arrangements that we may deem satisfactory and advanta-
geous. These arrangements will probably relate chiefly to two objects, the cession
of the port of Acheen, and the farming of the import and export duties of the country.
Now, if on the present occasion it shall be our object as far as regards Acheen, merely ‘
to prevent the French or other European nations from settling in the countr}', or
deriving any advantages from the resources of the country, the latter must be
admitted to be the most simple, easy, and effectual mode of accomplishing that
object. The present juncture is the most fortmiate that can be conceived for pos-
sessing ourselves of this advantage, and not more than two hundred men would
certainly be adequate to the attainment of this object, placed under the charge of
a resident that could be confided in. The King upon a proper agreement being
made would, I have every reason to think, assent to the measure; and by this
means w'e should equally preserve the tranquillity of the country, prevent it from
becoming a nest of pirates, and cut off a vast source of illicit trade, which after

BORNEO.

our acquiring the dominion of the eastern isles, is more Ukely to be increased
than impaired.

“ I have now enumerated to your Lordship the result of my proceedings with
regard to the different eastern Rajahs, as connected with the objects of the expedition;
but I have still to sohcit your attention to several subjects, which require almost im-
mediate consideration ; of these, none of the least important is the great island of
Borneo. But I have already made this letter too long, and shall only add that
I am, &c. &c.”

CHAPTER III.

Account of the Eastern Islands — Products of Borneo — Settlements of Europeans in the Island — Celebes —
Traffic in slaves — Policy of the Dutch, different policy of the English — Dutch factory at Japan —
Trade rvith — Views connected with the acquisition of Java — Countries from the Bay of Bengal to New
Holland — Proposed policy, chain of posts — Chinese in Java — Monopoly of farms, <^c. — Arabs, use
they make of their religion — Americans, regulation of trade — Dutch orders respecting trade and navi-
gation— Means taken to keep up their monopoly of spice — Cause of the failure of their trading ports —
Former policy of the English objected to — Neglect of the British government — Dutch views of Colonies
— Causes of deterioration of Malay character — Piracy — Laws — Slavery, sources of in the Malay
countries — Laws, want of — Propagation of Christianity — Advantages likely to accrue to the British
nation from the acquisition of Java and the Eastern Isles.

To Lord Minto.

“ In my last letter (1811) I referred to the island of Borneo, which is not only
one of the most fertile countries in the world, but the most productive in gold and
diamonds. The camphor which it produces is the finest in the world, and it is
thought that it is capable of growing every species of spice. Its eastern coasts,
which abound in sago, also produce a greater quantity of birds’ nests, sea slug, and
other commodities in great demand in the Chinese market, than all the other islands
of the East ; but the interior has never been explored by Europeans. It may be
conjectured that this ignorance of the state of the country is one of the principal
causes that no European settlement has hitherto proved advantageous ; but has
generally been abandoned after a short trial. The only exception to this observa-
tion is the Dutch settlement of Banjar Massing, which continued from 1747 to
nearly three years ago, when it was abandoned by Marshal Daendels to the Rajah,
by agreement, for the sum of 50,000 dollars. The Rajah soon after sent an embassy
to the government of Penang, inviting the English to settle in their place ; but this
appHcation not being attended to, they apphed to me on my coming down to
Malacca last December, as I had the honour of stating in my former despatches. I
shall only add, that during the continuance of the Dutch settlement at Banjar
Massing, the expense and revenue were always supposed to be very equally balanced,

I 2

BORNEO.

and that the abandonment of the settlement was strongly opposed by many of the
Dutch.

“ The only other territory to which the Dutch have any claim on the island of
Borneo, is the coast fi'om Sacadana to Mampawa, Pontiana, which hes about twelve
miles up the river, and Landa, which hes about seventy miles up the river of that
name, navigable by large boats. This territory they acquired in virtue of a cession
from the Sultan of Bantam in 1778; they destroyed Sacadana, and established
factories at Pontiana and Mampawa, which they abandoned as unproductive after a
trial of fourteen years.

“No other part of the island of Borneo has been settled by Europeans. The
Enghsh in 1772 intended to have established a factory at Passir, but abandoned the
design on some commotions taking place in that state. Its object was to make
Passir a depot for opium and Indian piece goods, and for the contraband trade in
spices. In 1774, a short time after the fost settling of Balambangan, Mr. Jesse
was deputed as resident to Borneo proper, with which state he concluded a treaty,
by which the settlement of Balambangan acquired the exclusive trade in pepper ;
stipulating, in return, to protect Borneo from the piratical incm'sions of the Sulu
and Mindanawi men; neither of the parties, however, fulfilled their agreements,
though the residency at Borneo was continued for some years after the first breaking
up of the Balambangan settlement in 1775.

“ On the N. E. of Borneo proper lies a very considerable temtory, the sove-
reignty of which has been long claimed by the Sulu government, and a very con-
siderable part of which, together with the islands off the coast, have been for
upwards of forty years regularly ceded to the English by the Sulus, and has also at
different periods been occupied by the English, without any objection on the part of
the government of Borneo proper. This ceded district, which extends fr'om the
river Kio-manis on the north-west, which forms the bomidary of Borneo proper, to
the great bay of Towsan Abia, on the north-east, is imdoubtedly a rich and fertile
country, though in a rude and uncultivated state ; and it is admirably situated for
commerce, though the different failures of the settlement of Balambangan may
seem to indicate the contrary. Balambangan is one of the small islands off the
northern extremity of the island of Borneo, and included in the Sulu gi'ant to the
English. It vv^ould be foreign to the present object, to enter into any details con-
cerning the history of the settlement of Balambangan ; but it may be proper to
mention, that all the gentlemen who were engaged in the last attempt, were con-
vinced that the bottom of the gi'eat Malluda bay would have been infinitely prefer-
able as a settlement, in every respect.

“ Balambangan is, in almost every respect, analogous to Penang ; it does not
admit of territorial extension, and must exist, if it exists at all, by commerce solely.
Malluda, on the other hand, is a deep bight in the island of Borneo, which admits of

BORNEO.

any degree of territorial extension ; may always subsist any number of inhabitants
by its own produce ; and communicates with the great lakes in the centre of Borneo,
in the vicinity of the gold countries, by a land carriage of little more than forty
miles. From the inquiries which I have taken every opportunity of making respecting
the island of Borneo, I feel perfectly satisfied that no settlement is likely to succeed
in that quarter, which is founded on a commercial, instead of a territorial basis. We
have already acquired territorial rights, and are likely to acquire more ; and, there-
fore, the only question at present seems to be, whether these can he turned to
advantage, either by cultivation or commerce. To this I should have no hesitation
whatever in answering, yes ; finding the Dayak, or original inhabitants of Borneo,
not only industrious in their habits, but particularly devoted to agriculture, and so
manageable, that a handful of Malays have, in numerous places, reduced many
thousands of them to the condition of peaceful cultivators of the ground. Indeed
nothing seems wanting to effect this on a great scale, but a strong government,
which can afford efficient protection to property, and safety to the individuals ; and
in the case of the Dayak, I regard it as an advantage, that they have not hitherto
adopted the refigion of Islam, and would be ready, from the first, to regard us as
their friends and protectors. Another great advantage which attends the formation
of settlements in Borneo, is, that there are no territorial claims upon it from any
European nation but ourselves. To recommend, however, any thing of the kind
immediately, would obviously be premature ; as, notwithstanding the length of time
which we occupied Balambangan, not only the interior of Borneo is almost unknown,
but even a great part of its coasts. This supineness in the government of Balam-
bangan, is perhaps not wholly unexampled ; and I fear, it must be admitted that the
government of Penang have not been much more active in illustrating the state of
the Malay peninsula, or even the provinces of Mergui and its vicinity, to which their
attention was particularly directed in the instructions of the Court of Directors to
the late Mr. Dundas, on establishing the presidency of Prince of Wales’ Island. The
want of local information is, indeed, the rock on which the infant settlements of the
English have at all times been wrecked ; and the fate of several of our eastern settle-
ments were, so early as the year 1759, ascribed to this cause, by the author of the
letter on the Negrais expedition : ‘ Colonies and settlements of every kind must, at
first, be attended with many difficulties, which, however, a judicious perseverance
will surmount, if there be not some original default in the establishment. It must be
obvious to every one, that the English never made a settlement in which they were
not impeded by some unforeseen difficulties, so as at last frequently to make abandon-
ing the infant establishment appear the most prudent step, without even hoping any
return for the prodigious expense which may have been incurred by the undertaking.
Various reasons,’ adds that author, ‘ may be ascribed for this event; but incapacity
in the person entrusted with the management, and the want of proper previous

BORNEO.

examination of the place, seem to me the most common, and most considerable.
Without stopping to inquire how far the want of success in our several attempts to
settle Balambangan, may have been fairly attributable to either of these causes, I
may safely ventm-e to assert, that it failed the last time chiefly from its being solely
a mihtary estabhshment, \rtthout either professional merchants or mercantile adven-
ture being attached to it. The observations which I have submitted with respect to
Malluda, apply to it chiefly as a temtorial estabhshment ; but there is no doubt that
it would speedily attain commercial importance. The contraband trade in spices,
which was a principal object in the fonner attempts to settle Balambangan, is no
longer any object to the Enghsh. Many commercial views, however, which influenced
the original estabhshment of Balambangan, still exist in equal or superior force,
especiahy those which related to Cochin China, Champa, and Camboja. There are
some additional reasons which, perhaps, should require us to direct our attention
towards Cochin China. The present King of Cochin China is the tme heir and only
lineal descendant of the ancient royal family of Siam, which was extiiqiated by the
Bunnans about the year 1765, and is considered as such by a considerable part of
the Siamese nation ; and as the present Siamese government is weak and distracted,
it has for some years been considered as a very probable occurrence, that he vviU
soon And or take an opportunity of asserting his claims to the throne of Siam.
Though this Prince has derived great assistance from the French in his domi-
nions, on many former occasions, he is obviously jealous of all European interference,
and may be considered as more under the influence of the maxims of Chinese pohcy,
than of any Em'opean power. He formerly treated om* advances with something
more than marked mdifference ; and his disaffection has been so much increased by
the result of some transactions with a mercantile house in Madras, that he has lately
ordered that no Enghshman shall be permitted to set foot in his country. As it is
understood by the Portuguese, the only nation to whom any considerable degree of
intercourse with his dominions is peiTnitted, that he has lately conquered some dis-
tricts belonging to the Chinese empire, perhaps an overture to a treaty might be
made to him, for the pm'pose of estabhshing a tea trade with his dominions, an
object wiiich has formerly been conceived to be practicable. It is not, however,
probable that any thing more than a very limited and hampered trade would ever be
permitted with Cochin China ; and this will be the more apparent, if we consider the
slavish and hiunihating manner in which all traffic still is, and has been, carried on,
both with Cochin China and Siam, by the few ships that frequent their ports from
Surat and Macao, canning chiefly gold and silver brocades, chintzes, and the flnest
cloths of Indian manufacture, Arabian gums, and China w'are, with the richest silks.
On aiTiving in port, the most v^aluable part of the cargo is immediately presented to
the King, who takes as much as he pleases ; the remaining part is chiefly consumed
in presents to the courtiers and other great men, while the refuse of the cargo is then

MINDANAWI.

permitted to be exposed to sale. The part which is consumed in presents to the
great men, is entire loss : for that which the King receives, he generally returns
a present, which is seldom adequate to the value of the goods which he has
received ; but by dint of begging and repeated solicitation, this is sometimes increased
a little. It is obvious that a trade of this strange nature is by no means accommo-
dated to the habits of Enghshmen ; and I do not hesitate to say, that it is with the
almost unknown countries of Champa and Camboja alone, that we have much
chance of estabhshing an advantageous trade, in the present state of affairs ; and
before that can be done to advantage, we must make ourselves better acquainted
with them.

“ This observation might be extended to the Sulu Archipelago, and the great
island of Mindanawi, but with respect of both of these, there are other considerations
connected with the exth’pation of the eastern pirates, which imperiously demand your
Lordship’s attention. The Sulus are a bold and enterprising race, apparently of the
mixed Malay and Phihppine breed. They have had frequent wars with the Spaniards
of Manilla, and have never acknowledged their authority. The Sulu islands are
numerous, but individually of small extent, and situated between the Philippines and
the island of Borneo. They have generally adopted the religion of Islam ; and though
active and enterprising, are in point of character extremely vicious, treacherous, and
sanguinary. They are not very numerous, as the inhabitants of the Sulu islands, in
their most flourishing state, could not be estimated at more than 60,000 souls,
and if we add their dependencies, at about 100,000 souls. About fifty years ago they
were much devoted to commerce, and we had a commercial resident in Sulu for
some time, about the period of the first settling of Balamhangan; it was soon,
however, found that the government was too weak to yield any efficient protection,
and was forced to be withdrawn. Since that time, it has been subject to constant
civil commotions, and the breaking down of the government has covered the Sulu
seas with fleets of formidable pirates.

“ With respect to the great island of Mindanawi, it is the original source of
the Lanuns, the most formidable of all the eastern pirates. This island lies between
the Moluccas and the Phihppines. The northern coast of this island is under a pre-
carious subjection to the Spaniards. The great Lanun bight is occupied by a number
of small chieftains, who have in every age been greatly addicted to piratical practices.
The most powerful state on the island, however, is that of Mindanawi, governed by a
Sultan of the rehgion of Islam, though the great mass of his subjects are pagans, in
almost every respect similar to the aboriginal inhabitants of Borneo. The state of
Mindanawi has repeatedly, on former occasions, attempted to open an amicable inter-
course with the Enghsh on the most hberal terms. For the present Sultan’s senti-
ments, I need only refer your Lordship to his own letter lately received, in enclosure
No. 8, and I allude to it in this place because, from information received from that

CELEBES.

quarter, there is great reason to apprehend that the military stores which your Lord-
ship despatched to this Prince by Captain Masquerier, of the brig Jane, have never
been dehvered. I am informed that the Mindanawi state is at present torn with fac-
tions, but that the Sultan still retains his authority in a considerable degree ; and I
have no doubt that your Lordship’s countenance extended to him would, without
much trouble, give it tranquilhty and stabihty, and prevent the Lanuns and pirates
being augmented by the whole force of Mindanawi, which must be the inevitable
consequence of the breaking up of this state. Some explanation of the measures
which we may find it necessary to take in this quarter, as well as concerning the
general maxims of our pohcy to the eastward, may probably be due to the Spanish
government of Manilla.

With respect to the island of Celebes, and in particular Macassar, its principal
settlement, it vill be ob^^ous to your Lordship, that the same reasons which induced
the Dutch to occupy and retain it, do not exist for the English. From its situation
in the \acinity of the spice islands, and from the spirit of the tribes which inhabit it,
their activity and commercial turn, this island has long been a subject of such
jealousy to the Dutch, that they have been content to support upon it a losing
establishment, for the purpose of repressing the native trade of the inhabitants, and
preventing other European nations from forming establishments upon it. But though
the Dutch estabhshment at Macassar, was a losing concern in the hands of that
government, it is by no means obvious that this would be the case under a different
system of management ; the high population of the island, the riches of many indi-
viduals, and their expensive taste in di'ess and other luxuries, would seem to indicate
precisely the contrary. It is possible, therefore, that various weighty reasons may
be found, independent of the motives which influenced the Dutch, to induce us to
retain their establishments on Celebes, or even to enlarge them. Even in its pre-
sent state the island of Celebes may be reckoned populous, if compared with many
of the islands of the East. It has, however, greatly declined since it was settled by
the Hollanders, who have not only followed their constant practice of fomenting
civil wars, and exciting rebellions and commotions of every kind in Celebes, but
have encouraged and carried to a greater extent the traffic of slaves than in almost
any other of their eastern possessions. About the period of the first arrival of
Europeans in the East, the Macassar and Bugis tribes were among the principal
dealers in spices, and the island of Celebes was nearly under the authority of a single
sovereign. On the breaking down of this great empire, several lesser states rose
from its mins. By exciting dissensions among these states, and aiding one against
another, the Dutch at last contrived to render all the states of the island subser-
vient to their views. The policy which I conjecture we shall subsequently find it
proper to follow, is exactly the opposite of this. We may, with great facility, and
without much trouble, employ our influence and mediation to heal the dissensions

CELEBES-JELOLO.

of the native princes, to establish firmly ancient authorities, check innovations, and
prevent civil wars as much as hes in our power ; at the same time seizing every
opportunity of prevailing on them to discourage and abandon the destructive traffic
of slaves. To this nefarious trade, which has desolated this island, as well as all
the small islands in its vicinity, the Bugis men and Macasar men have in a great
measure been driven by the monopolies of the Dutch, which have, in a great
degree, driven the fair merchants from the seas, and left the main to kidnappers and
pirates. The increase of security in the country, will produce the increase of both
wealth and population, which will of course cause an increase of the consumption
of opium, piece-goods, and other Indian commodities. Had it not been for the
contraband trade which the English carried on at almost all times, with the states of
Wajjo and Mandhar, little doubt can be entertained that the trade of Macasar, in
these articles alone, would have compensated the loss which the Dutch assert that
they have always sustained from this estabhshment. Notwithstanding some late
disagreements of the English with the Bugis tribes, arising from the impossibility of
explaining to the eastern nations the English system of blockade, I do not hesitate
to affirm, that the inhabitants of Celebes are generally well affected to the English
nation, to which they have always had a strong attachment ; and since my return to
Malacca I have, to a considerable extent, in several instances, derived essential
advantage from the exertion of some of their most respectable traders, in communi-
cating with the native princes. The effect of a liberal line of conduct and policy
adopted towards the tribes of Celebes, would certainly be to create a powerful and
active nation in the centre of the Eastern Islands, attached to the English by
benefits, and looking to them in a great measure for protection ; who, without
becoming formidable to ourselves, might easily be rendered formidable to any other
nation.

“ There is likewise another consideration with regard to Celebes, which deserves
attention. The Macasar and Bugis tribes are the most bold, adventurous, and en-
terprising of all the eastern nations, and extremely addicted to a military life. They
are equally celebrated for their fidehty, and their courage, and for this reason they
have long been employed as the Swiss in Europe, not only in the armies of Siam,
Camboja, and other countries, but also as the guards of their princes. They can be
recruited with facility, and easily submit to military discipline, and it is probable
that better mercenaries could not be found for maintaining several of our Oriental
possessions.

The observations that I have taken the hberty of suggesting to your Lordship,
respecting the island of Celebes, apply with nearly equal force to the island Jelolo,
or Halamahera, which is situated between the Moluccas and the Papua Islands, as
Celebes itself is situated between the Moluccas and Borneo. Jelolo has sometimes,
from its form, been denominated Little Celebes; with the western coast of this island

JAPAN.

we are at present little acquainted; but the inhabitants of the western coasts, espe-
cially those of Osso and Maba, with their Sovereign, the son of our old ally the
Sultan of Tidore, have lately taken every means of evincing their tried attachment to
the English nation. It appears they have lately afforded every sort of supply, in
the most liberal way, to some English whalers, and are proud to declare, on all occa-
sions, that they owe their existence to the liberal supplies which your Lordship was
pleased to afford them in their extreme necessity. This nation, like those of Bali
and Bugis-land, seems worth the encouraging; and the determined perseverance
with which they opposed themselves to all the efforts of the Dutch and their auxi-
liaries, cannot fail to excite the sympathies of the English nation. The three islands
of Bali, Celebes, and Jelolo, occupy the most commanding positions in the centre
of different groups of islands, and each of them, without becoming formidable to
ourselves, is capable of being rendered extremely formidable, through our means, to
any other European power. The different nations which occupy them have always
been particularly attached to the English ; and no European nation, with the excep-
tion of the Dutch in Macasar, have claims on any considerable portion of their
territories. I therefore beg leave to submit to your Lordship’s particular considera-
tion, whether or not every practical means which may tend to attach and affiliate
these nations to the English, will not materially tend to strengthen our interest to
the eastward, and even tend to render our influence permanent in these regions, and
independent of any arrangement which may take place subsequent to a general
peace.

“ The only remaining Dutch possession to which it is necessary at present to
request your Lordship’s attention, is the factory at Japan. The information which I
have been able to procure, relative to this factory, is of a very general nature, and
my observations, therefore, shall be confined to a very slight sketch of its general
management. The empire of Japan has for a long period adopted and carried into
effect all the exclusive maxims of Chinese policy •with a degree of rigour unknown
even in China itself. Previous to the expulsion of the Portuguese and the extirpa-
tion of Christianity in the latter part of the seventeenth century, the Japanese trade
was reckoned by far the most advantageous which could be pursued in the East, and
very much superior to either the Indian or Chinese trade. After the expulsion of the
Portuguese, a very extensive trade was for some time permitted to be carried on by the
Dutch, on account of the benefits which the Japanese conceived they had received
from that nation during the Portuguese war, and especially the detection of a formid-
able conspiracy of some of the Japanese princes to dethrone the emperor, which was
detected by the Dutch intercepting the ship which conveyed the correspondence of
the conspirators. It was for these reasons that the Dutch originally procured the
imperial edict by which they were permitted to trade to Japan to the exclusion of all
other European nations. This public act of their ancestors, the Japanese have

JAPAN.

repeatedly declared that they will not cancel, but they have done every thing hut
formally cancel, for a more hmited and less fi’ee trade was never carried on hy one
rich nation to another. For more than half a century, the Dutch trade has been
limited to two yearly ships from Bata\ia, the cargoes of both of which scarcely ever
exceed 200,000 dollars, and their only profitable returns are in Japan copper and
a small quantity of camphor. To shew themselves impartial in their restrictions,
the Japanese have limited the traffic of the Chinese, the only eastern nation whom
they suffer to trade with them at all, in a similar manner to that of the Dutch, and
they suffer no more than six Chinese junks to visit Nangasaki in the year. The
trade of the two favoured nations, the Dutch and the Chinese, is also limited to the
single port of Nangasaki. In pursuance of their exclusive maxims, and conformably
to the terms of their agreement with the Dutch, the Japanese have on every occasion
followed an uniform line of conduct, and rejected in the most peremptory manner
the various overtm’es of different nations of Europe, refusing equally to have any
intercourse, negociations, or commerce with any of them ; it must also be admitted,
that the whole foreign trade of Japan, compared with the riches of the country, is
absolutely trifling, nor is there any rich or powerful body of men, like the Hong mer-
chants of China, at all interested in its continuance. The yearly presents, whether
offered to the governor of Nangasaki or the emperor, are of no great value, and
rigidly limited by law and usage, and as the government of Japan is much stronger
and more \ig^lant than that of China, no such abuses can be ventured on at Nan-
gasaki as take place at Canton. From these reasons there is great cause to think,
that if the Japanese fully comprehended the nature of the events which have taken
place in Holland, and now threaten Bata\ia, that all intercourse between the Japanese
and Europeans would immediately be brought to a termination. The Japanese con-
ceive that they have entered into engagements with the Dutch only while they exist
as a nation, and there is the utmost reason to think that in the event of the Dutch
merging in any other nation, they would by no means consider these engagements
as of any force. Their foreign trade supplies them with no articles of imperious
necessity, and is of no advantage to any great national body. Indeed the only
persons who have any serious interest in it, is the coiq)s of Dutch interpreters, a
small body who follow this hereditary occupation, and have no important influence
in the state, and who are required to study Dutch, and to transact business in it,
in order that Europeans may have no occasion or opportunity of acquiring the
Japanese language ; as Japan, however, is almost totally secluded from the rest of
the world, it is not probable that these events will be speedily communicated to them
by the Dutch factory. A more probable event is, that immediately on the fall of the
Island of Java, the Dutch factory at Canton will endeavom' to avail themselves of the
opening, in conjmiction with the Americans, and perhaps the Portuguese, to invest a
part of their dormant capital for the Japan market, and advise the Dutch factory of

JAPAN.

Nangasaki to keep up the deception, and put the Japanese on their guard against
the overtures of the English. Certain it is, that in the case of Japan our superior
force can be of no avail to us, but rather on the contrary may excite the greater
jealousy.

The situation of the Dutch factory at Japan is very similar to that at Canton
in China, which, as far as regards the estabhshment in China, may sur\ive all the
chsasters of both Bata\da and the mother country. The Japanese are acquainted
with the English, but they have only become acquainted with them from the Portu-
guese and the Dutch, both of whom were interested in engi’ossing the Japan
trade, and have therefore, no doubt, taken care to prepossess the Japanese in the
strongest manner against the Enghsh. Indeed, when Captain Pellew \isited Nan-
gasaki, about three years ago, though he might have plundered the Dutch factory
had it contained any thing valuable, he found that the Japanese would listen to no
overtures of intercourse ; about the same time they rejected, with equal steadiness,
the Russian embassy despatched directly to Japan, refusing equally to admit of any
overtures on the part of the Russians, and to accept of the valuable presents brought
by the ambassador. The same fate has attended some late attempts of the Ameri-
cans to establish an intercourse with Japan ; and I am strongly of opinion that there
is not the least reason to hope that any of our overtures -would meet with a more
favourable reception, if not supported by the representations of the Dutch who are
at present residents in the factory at Nangasaki. I therefore beg leave to state
to your Lordship, as my decided opinion, that the only chance which we have
for retaining the Japanese trade, is by gaining to our interest the present Dutch
residents at Japan, and the Japanese corps of Dutch intei*preters, at whatever price
it may cost. With respect to the means by which this may be best accomphshed,
it is probable that better information than we yet possess may be procured at
Bataria, before it become necessary to despatch the yearly vessel for Japan, w'hich
is about the beginning of March. Every precaution must doubtless be used to
secure the reception of an English agent in the first place, and to make the transi-
tion as imperceptible as possible from the Dutch to the English. The last Japanese
invoices of articles requu'ed by the Board of Trade will be found at Bataria, and
may be answ'ered exactly ; and it will be requisite for the English agent, if received
at all, to reside in Japan till the return of the ship next season, according to the
Dutch ceremonial ; and if in the interim he could acquire the Japanese language,
and ingratiate himself with the Bonzes, or religious of the Buddhist sects, much
might probably be done to open the Japanese trade on a more liberal scale, especially
during the yearly journey to the court of the emperor, w'hen the Japanese nobles
and princes are accustomed to visit the envoy in disguise. With regard to the pre-
sent Japanese trade, it certainly is by no means equal to that of many neglected
countries in Asia ; but the principal inducement to make efforts for its continuance.

POLICY OF THE DUTCH.

is the prospect of its being opened on a more extensive scale ; an event which is
very likely to be accelerated by the aggi'essions of Russia on the Kurile Islands,
which properly belong to Japan, and several of which the Russians have already
reduced.

“ Having thus stated to your Lordship the foregoing observations on specific
topics connected with the acquisition of Java, and the fall of the Dutch possessions
to the eastw^ard, I shall now briefly advert to some more general views, which appear
to be inseparably connected with them, and seem entitled to early attention.

“ The annexation of Java and the Eastern Isles to our Indian empire, opens to
the English nation \iew's of so enlarged a nature, as seem equally to demand and
justify a bolder policy, both of a commercial and political kind, than we could have
lately contemplated. The countries which must, directly or indirectly, fall under
our influence and authority, form a range of possessions which, with intervals of no
great importance, extend nearly fi'om the Bay of Bengal to our settlements on the
continent of New Holland. These are occupied, excepting where the Dutch have
taken the territorial possession into their owm hands, by several small groups of prin-
cipahties, none of which, taken separately, have any pretensions to the rank of a
poweifid or independent state. The tribes of which they are composed, though vary-
ing radically in customs, manners, religion, and language, and possessing very different
degrees of cirilization, have long been confounded by Europeans under the general
appellation of Malays, a term wEich may still be retained for convenience. It may
be safely affinned, that about the period wEen the Europeans first began to frequent
these countries, they were not only much more populous, but the governments were
more strong and steady, and the inhabitants in general much farther advanced in ciri-
lization. The Dutch, solely attentive to their own commercial interests, have, in their
intercourse with these regions, invariably adhered to a more cold-blooded, ilhberal,
and ungenerous policy, than has ever been exhibited towards any country, unless w^e
except the conduct of the European nations towards the slave-coast of Africa. In
some instances, as in the case of the clusters of the Isles of Banda, the original inha-
bitants, when they opposed a resolute resistance to their encroachments, have been
entirely extirpated. Whenever the natives have displayed great courage and magna-
nimity of character, as in the case of the Macasars of Guah, and the Bugis of Soping,
these natives have been himted down with a perseverance worthy of a better cause.
Indeed, the domination of the Dutch in the Malay countries, seems to have been main-
tained in direct opposition to all principles of natm'al justice and sound policy, and
which amply deserves a degree of reprobation little short of their transactions at
Ambo\ma and Batavia, with regard to the English. But however their policy may
be characterized, I apprehend that their claims to temtorial right in the Eastern Isles,
in which all the nations of Europe have so long and so blindly acquiesced, wEl be
found to be very much inferior to what is generally supposed, unless, perhaps, in the

POLICY OF THE ENGLISH.

Isle of Java itself. As their claims, of whatsoever kind, must now revert to the
French nation, it will be of the utmost importance to ascertain fi-om the original
Dutch records, how far their tenitorial cessions and exclusive pnrtleges do actually
extend ; also, how far these are absolute, and how far revocable ; and, in short, to
obtain a complete code of the Dutch treaties Avith all the Malay princes, since the
first commencement of their establishments in the Eastern Isles. The diplomatic
importance of such a code will be readily recognized by your Lordship ; and in the
event of any future negociations in Eiuope, may prove of the most essential import-
ance. The line of policy which on the present occasion we ought to adopt towards
the Malay states, should be as uniform in its features, and comprehensive in its
extent, as possible. The various gi'oups of states to which, what may be emphati-
cally termed our Malay policy, may extend, are the following :

“ 1st. The states of the Malay peninsula. 2d. The states of the Island of Smnatra,
3d. The states of the Island of Borneo. 4th. The states of the Sunda Isles, com-
prehending the chain of islands which extend fi-om the Straits of Sunda to Timor
and Celebes, exclusive of Java, which we may except for the present, oth. The
states of Celebes. 6th. The states of Sulu and Mindanao. 7th. The states of the
Moluccas, comprehending Ceram and Banda. 8th. The states of Jilolo, or Little
Celebes. 9th. The Black Papua States of New Guinea, and the Papua Islands in
its ricinity.

“ These states I shall only eniunerate here, as requiring distinct reports on the
nature of their connexion Arith the Dutch, or, as we may now state it, nith the
French ; after which, it will probably appear to be our soundest policy to form the
most intimate connections, by treaty, with those which have indisputable pretensions
to independence. This pohcy will, I flatter myself, appear obrious, whether we
contemplate the maintaining the Malay isles in permanent possession, or the possible
transfen-ing of the Dutch possessions to the enemy in the event of a peace in
Europe ; in the event of the flrst alternative, it \rill enable us to turn these posses-
sions to the gi'eatest advantage, whether a respect be had to our Em-opean trade, or
the general benefit of our Indian possessions. In the event of the second, we shall
secure such a footing among the Eastern Isles, and such a favom-able regard among
the bravest races, as will baffle all the attempts of the enemy to dislodge us. By
fixing ourselves in Banca, Bali, Celebes, and Jelolo, we should have a chain of posts
which would prevent the enemy entirely fi-om attaining very formidable power, or
derhdng his former advantages from the possession of Java and the Moluccas ; and
by forming a settlement in Borneo, connected with the interior of that country, so
fertile, and so rich in the precious metals, we should soon be in a condition to com-
pete wth them on equal tei-ms. The whole of the states which I have now specified,
have been so much accustomed to European interference and control, that the
greater part of them are by no means fitted for the enjoyment of a fair and liberal

POLICY OF THE ENGLISH.

independence, nor are they likely to become so for a series of years. At the same
time, the treatment which they have experienced from the Dutch has been in
general so extremely galling and oppressive, that a more liberal policy can hardly
fail of conciliating their affections in a high degree ; sufficiently conscious of their
inability to stand alone, and warned by the breaking up of some of the oldest and
most powerful states, they would gladly ally themselves to so powei-ful a nation as
the English on any thing like fair and equitable terms, by which they might be
secured from civil commotions and the oppression of foreigners, without being
deprived of all their natural advantages, as under the Dutch domination. Now, as
our principal political embarrassment with regard to Java and the Eastern Isles, arises
from the danger of these being given up to the enemy, in the event of a peace in
Em'ope, I beg leave to suggest to your Lordship a method of avoiding a part of this
danger, which by no means appears impossible, or even arduous to carry into execu-
tion, though it is not likely to occur to the Malay chiefs, unless it should be
suggested to them. In ancient times, the Malay chiefs, though possessing the titles
of Sultan, or Rajah, and in full possession of authority within their own domains,
yet all held of a superior, or Suzerain, who was King of the ancient and powerful
state of Majopahit, on the island of Java, and who had the title of Bitara. Malacca
was one of the first states that shook off this allegiance, and became in the end so
poweidul as to hold a great part of the Malay peninsula, and of the opposite coast
of Sumatra, in a similar dependence, though the sovereigns of these states retained
the titles of Rajahs, or Sultans, and exercised their authority within their own terri-
tories. Now, though the present Malay chiefs are jealous and punctilious in a high
degi’ee about their own titles, they are by no means equally so respecting holding
of a superior whose title would save their own dignity ; and, I conceive, they might
easily be prevailed upon by suggestions to invest the Governor General of India with
the ancient title of Bitara, equivalent to Lord Protector, which has become obsolete
among them for nearly three centuries, and which would not, I conceive, be reckoned
injurious to the dignity of any modern chieftain, whatever titles and epithets he
might bear. This would give a general right of superintendence over, and interfer-
ence with, all the Malay states, which might be acted upon when circumstances
should render it necessary ; and might be so limited by treaty, as to remove any
occasion of suspicion from the native powers. It is of importance, however, that
this should appear to be the spontaneous and voluntary act of the Malay chieftains,
as by this means it would be less liable to modification in the event of any treaty
which may be concluded in Europe with the enemy ; but I shall here confine myself
solely to the bare statement of the idea, and leave for future consideration its
different limitations, and the means which might be proposed for carrying it into
execution.

‘‘ In the districts that may be reduced under the sole authority of the English,

CHINESE IN JAVA.

little doubt can be entertained that we shall best consult our own interests, bv a hne
of pohcy radically different from that of the Dutch. In all the eastern Dutch settle-
ments, their favounte pohcy has been to depress the native Malay or Javanese in-
habitants, and give every encouragement to the Chinese, who are only itinerants,
and not children of the soil, and who follow the general practice of remitting the
fruits of their industry to China, instead of spending them where they were acquired.
The Chinese, in all ages equally supple, venal, and crafty, failed not at a very early
period to recommend themselves to the equally crafty, venal, and speculating Hol-
landers. They have, almost fi*om the first, been the agents of the Dutch, and in the
island of Java in particular, they have almost acquired the entire monopoly of revenue
farms and government contracts. At present many of the most respectable Dutch
famihes are intimately connected vith the Chinese in their contracts and specula-
tions, and it is only ver}" lately that Marshal Daendels sold the whole provinces of
Pasuki to the Capital! China, or head Chinaman of Surabaya. It is even mmoured,
that this is not the only instance in which the Marshal has assigned whole provinces
over to the unfeeling oppression of the Chinese, for the pmqiose of raising temporary
resources in money. The Chinese have, in Java, been generally left to their own
laws, and the regulations of their oum chiefs ; and being merely temporary residents
in the country, they devote themselves entirely to the accmnulation of wealth, without
being very scmpulous concerning the means. When, therefore, they acquire gi’ants
of land, they always contrive to reduce the peasants speedily to the condition of slaves.
The improvement of the people, which has never been an object with the Dutch, is
much less so with the Chinese ; and the oppression which they have exercised in the
vicinity of Batavia, has not failed to open the eyes of the Dutch themselves. A late
report of the counsellors of Bataria on this subject, accordingly states, that “ Although
the Chinese, as being the most dihgent and industrious settlers, should be the most
useful, they are, on the contrary, become a very dangerous people, and are to be
remarked as a pest to the country ; and that there appears to be no radical cure for
this eril but their extermination fi'om the interior, a measure which cannot now be
effected.” Of the degree of oppression which they are in the habit of exercising to-
wards the peasants, some idea may be fonned from the following fact: — The staple
grain of Java is rice, and the established rate of ground-rent for rice-gi’ounds in Java, is
1-lOth of the crop. Wherever the Chinese are the land-holders, however, they exact,
as rent, 5-8ths of the produce of the ground. Wherever they have formed extensive
settlements in Java, accordingly, the native Javanese have no alternative but that of
abandoning the district, or becoming slaves of the soil ; besides, the monopolizing spirit
of the Chinese frequently exercises a very pernicious control over the necessaries of life,
and the produce of the soil, even in the vicinity of Bataria. If we consider the supple-
ness and insinuating address of the Chinese, how apt they are on all occasions to curry
favour, how ready they are to proffer assistance when there is no danger, and when

ARABS IN THE MALAY STATES.

they perceive that it falls in with their own interest, we may depend upon their
utmost efforts being used to ingi-atiate themselves with the English. It is, therefore,
of the greatest importance to be early on our guard against this pernicious and in-
creasing influence, which preys on the very vitals of the country, draining and ex-
hausting it for the benefit of China. In all the Malay states, the Chinese have made
every effort to get into their hands the farming of the port duties, and this has gene-
rally proved the min of the trade. In addition to these circumstances, it should be
recollected that the Chinese, from their peculiar language and manners, form a kind
of separate society in every place where they settle, which gives them great advan-
tage over every competitor in arranging monopohes of trade. It also gives them an
opportunity of aspiring after political ascendancy, which they have often acquired in
the inferior Malay states. This ascendancy of the Chinese, whether of a commercial
or political nature, shoidd be cautiously guarded against and restrained; and this
perhaps cannot be better done, than by bringing forward the native population of
Malays and Javanese, and encouraging them in useful and industrious habits.

“ The observations which I have suggested to your Lordship regarding the
Chinese, are in a high degree applicable to the Arabs who frequent the Malay
countries, and under the specious mask of rehgion, prey on the simple unsuspicious
natives. The Chinese must, at all events, be admitted to be industrious ; but the
Ai'abs are mere drones, useless and idle consumers of the produce of the ground,
affecting to be descendants of the Prophet, and the most eminent of his followers,
when in reahty they are commonly nothing more than manumitted slaves ; they
worm themselves into the favour of the Malay chiefs, and often procure the highest
offices in the Malay states. They hold hke robbers the offices they obtain as
sycophants, and cover all with the sanctimonious veil of religious hypocrisy. Un-
der the pretext of instructing the Malays in the principles of the Mahomedan
religion, they inculcate the most intolerant bigotry, and render them incapable
of receiving any species of usefid knowledge. It is seldom that the East is visited
by Arabian merchants of large capital, but there are numerous adventurers who
caiTy on a coasting-trade from port to port ; and by asserting the religious titles
of Sheikh and Seyyad, claim, and generally obtain, an exemption from all port
duties in the Malay states. They are also very frequently concerned in acts of
piracy, and great promoters of the slave trade. This class of adventurers it will be
our object sedulously to repress, but a regulated trade with any of the commercial
states of Arabia, as Muscat, Mocha, or Jidda, may prove extremely advantageous to
the Malay countries. The old Sultan of Pontiana, who was on his guard against the
machinations of the Chinese, and took effectual means to prevent their either farm-
ing his port duties or engrossing his trade, suffered himself to be constantly circum-
v'ented and duped by the Arab adventurers who frequented Pontiana. The errors of
the father, however, have served in some degree to open the eyes of his son, the

AMERICANS.

present Sultan ; yet he still continues to suffer Arab traders, direct fi*om Arabia, to
trade at Pontiana, duty free ; and last year this port was \isited by two Arab vessels
direct from IMuscat. This may serve, in some degree, to illustrate the necessity of our
establishing an equal and uniform system of port regulations through the whole of
the Malay countries ; for if the Chinese, on the one hand, are permitted to farm
import and export duties, in different ports, they have every facility allowed them to
form combinations, in order to secm'e a monopoly to Chinese traders ; and if, on the
other hand, the Arabs, under religious pretext, are entirely exempted fi'om duties,
they may baffle all competition, and the Malay countries will inevitably be exhausted
and ch’ained, and the English deprived of the fmits of conquest merely to the advan-
tage of two foreign nations, that are equally devoid of claims on the English and the
Malays. Let the Chinese and the Arabs, as well as the Americans, trade to the
eastward, but let their trade be regidated, and above all, let them not be left in the
enjojunent of exemptions and advantages which are neither possessed by the English
nor the INIalays. Since the reduction of the Dutch influence in the East, several of
the ports formerly dependant on them have almost become Arab colonies, as Palem-
bang, Tringano, and Telawany on Smnbawa. The evil is ob\iously increasing every
day, and can only he checked by encom-aging the native Malays, and regulating on
equal tenns, the duties of the Malay and other eastern ports.

“ Another class of commercial interlopers, who will require om' vigilant atten-
tion, is the Americans. Previous to the late embargo they were beginning to fre-
quent the islands of Ceram, Goram, and Ceram Laut, with other islands to the
eastward of the Moluccas, for the pui’pose of picking up articles for the Chinese
market, such as birds’-nests, sea-slug, or tripang, tortoiseshell, &c., and occasionally
engaging in the contraband trade of spices. Of late they have become still better
acquainted with many of these islands, from their vessels ha\ing been employed by
the Dutch. If such active and enteiqwising traders, who are certainly not particu-
larly well affected to the English, be permitted to trade to the Eastern Islands on
equal terms with the English, it uill inevitably be injmious to our commercial
interests ; but if they are permitted the fi'ee range of the Eastern Archipelago, per-
haps it would be difficult to devise a measm'e more injurious to our political influence,
as well as om* commercial interests. The Americans, wherever they go, as they
have no object but commercial adventure, and as fire-arms are in the highest
request, especially among the more Eastern Isles, these would be considered as the
most profitable articles. They have already filled the different clusters of islands in
the South Seas with fire-arms, and they would not fail to do the same in the different
Eastern Islands. These considerations seem obviously to point to a fine of policy,
respecting the trade of the Eastern Islands, which in some respects coincides closely
with that adopted by the Dutch, while in others it differs from it entirely in ultimate
principles.

DUTCH MONOPOLY.

“ In many respects, the commercial policy adopted by the Dutch, with regard
to the Eastern Islands, and the Malay states in general, was not only contrary to all
principles of natural justice, and unworthy of any enlightened and civilized nation,
but characterized by a degree of absurdity, for which it was scarcely worth taking
tlie trouble of being so preposterously wicked. Thus in the Dutch orders, respecting
trade and navigation, in the veiy first article it is stated, that ‘ All persons whatever
are prohibited, under pain of death, from trading in the four fine kinds of spices,
miless such spices shall first have been brought from the Company.’ After the enact-
ment of a penalty so outrageously disproportioned to the offence, the authentic
accounts of their attempts to destroy and eradicate from a vast range of extensive
countries, the most advantageous produce of the land, in order to favour their own
petty traffic, and their burning a large proportion of the residue, in order to keep up
their monopoly price in Europe on a small proportion of this produce, must be
viewed by all liberal-minded and intelligent men, with sentiments of equal contempt
and detestation. Against eiTors of this kind, yoirr Lordship’s presence in the East
will be an effectual preventive ; but it may still be questioned whether, in the pre-
sent state of these coimtries, it may not be necessary, in the first instance, to retain
some traits of Dutch policy. One feature of Dutch policy to the eastward seems to
have been the entire exclusion of all other powers, whether native or European,
excepting at certain specified ports, under their own immediate influence and control.
This policy was as much connected with the pohtical government of the country as
with the commercial profits of the Company : for in an Archipelago of such an un-
paralleled extent, inhabited by tribes of such various character, formidable in a high
degi’ee from their very want of civilization, it was necessary to bring forward some of
the most powerful and most fav^ourably situated of these nmnerous states, and to
hold them answerable for the proceedings of the smaller districts under their influ-
ence. This policy gave rise to the establishment of certain regular and determined
trading-ports, and the vigilant suppression of all attempts at competition and inde-
pendence in the inferior states. Had this measure been conjoined with a liberal
policy, tending to facilitate the home trade, as we denominate it, between these privi-
leged ports established by the Dutch, and the various countries mider their influence,
I apprehend that little doubt can be entertained, that it would have tended materially
to promote the civilization and general improvement of all the Eastern nations.
Veiy chfferent, how^ever, was the object of the Dutch agreements with the different
Rajahs of the Eastern Archipelago. In some cases it was to secure a monopoly of all
the tin, pepper, camphor, or other saleable articles that the country produced ; in
another, it was to bind the chiefs of the country to destroy the only saleable articles
that the country produced, lest the monopoly price of the Dutch should be injured
by a greater quantity of such produce being brought to market. The Dutch genius,
though exclusiv'ely devoted to commerce, has never yet been able to discover, that

L 2

NEGLECT OF THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT.

in the long-run it must be more profitable ^ to make smaller profits on a larger
capital, than larger profits on a smaller capital and their pohcy has been not unaptly
compared to a man putting out one of his eyes, in order to strengthen the sight of the
other. Against the pohcy of establishing certain detenninate and regular ports as
emporimns of trade, it does not appear to me that there are any valid objections to
be stated : and I therefore submit this measure to your Lordship’s consideration, as
the most effectual method of preventing the Eastern Islands from being overrun by a
multitude of unprincipled adventm-ers, chiefly Chinese, Arabian, and American, whose
presence in these countries will neither tend to strengthen the interest of the British
nation, nor ameliorate the condition of the natives.

“ If this measure, however, should approve itself to your Lordship, it may
still be proper to inquire, in what respects our policy may be considered as superior
to that of the Dutch, and how it is calculated to promote the improvement and
advantage of the Malay nations in a higher degree than theirs. It must be admitted
that the policy which we have hitherto piusued, \rith regard to the IVIalay nations,
has been by no means of a conciliating or prepossessing nature. Our intercourse
with them has been carried on almost exclusively by adventurers httle acquainted
with either the country or people, who have frequently been more remarkable for
boldness than principle. Indeed, the want of any settled basis of traffic, and the
long indifference of the British government to the complaints of either party, had
produced so many impositions, reprisals, piracies, and murders, that it has fairly
been observed, that every eastern trader must have been himself very much in the
situation of a trader in spirits, tobacco, and blankets, among the Indians of North
America. It was properly remarked by Mr. Farquhar, in his report on Prince of
Wales’ Island, that this indifference of the British government must have originated
solely fi*om the want of information, or from its incorrectness, since little doubt can
be entertained that the riches of Sumatra and Borneo are equal to either Brazil or
South America, and it is only from the disadvantages, under which we have hitherto
entered into the competition, that these great sources of wealth have been so long
engrossed by the Dutch, Spaniards, and Chinese. But this previous neglect of the
British government w^e may confidently expect will form no rule for the future, and
the benefits which the JMalay nations may derive from a close connexion with the
British government and nation, are such as there is no probability of their ever
deriving from the French or Dutch.

“ The doctrine that a colony should always be considered as a distant prorince
of the mother countiy could never have been received by the Dutch, and the radical
want of strength in the government of Batavia must always have prevented them
from venturing to act upon it. Of course they must ahvays have contemplated the
prosperity of the eastern tribes with the invidious regi'et of a rival shopkeeper, and
regarded their progress in civilization with the jealousy of a timorous despot, which

FEUDAL WARS IN THE MALAY STATES.

in point of fact we know they actually did. The power of the English in the East
enables them to employ a less timid policy ; humanity imperiously requires that they
should employ it, and fortunately their own interest coincides with these as an
additional inducement.

“ The causes which have tended most to the depression of the Malays, and the
deterioration of their character, are the following : the civil commotions to which
every state is hable from the radical want of strength in the sovereign, and the con-
stant wars between petty chieftains, and heads of villages or districts : the ill-defined
succession to the throne, from the doctrine of primogeniture being imperfectly
recognized in the Malay states : the prevalence of piracy in all the eastern seas :
the system of domestic slavery, with all its concomitant evils, as wars for the pur-
pose of procuring slaves, and the want of general confidence between family and
family, man and man : the want of a generally established and recognized system of
laws regarding all questions, civil and criminal, in the Malay states : the want of a
similar system of commercial regidations respecting port duties, anchorage, and
other charges, to prevent arbitrary exactions in the various Malay ports : the dis-
couragement given to regidar trade by the monopolies of the Malay Rajahs : the
redress of these evils is, in a great measure, in the power of the English nation ; it
is worthy of their general character, and there is no other nation that possesses
the means in an equal degree, even if it possessed the inclination.

“ With regard to the feudal wars of petty chieftains, and the civil commotions
which constantly agitate the Malay states, these have been greatly increased by the
pohcy of the Dutch, whose authority has been in a great measure maintained and
supported by the dissensions which they were in the habit of exciting in the more
powerful Malay states. In consequence of this, we find that scarcely a single powerful
state now subsists, which was in existence when the Dutch settled in the East. This,
however, must not be entirely imputed to the machinations of the Dutch, but ori-
ginates in part from such radical defects in Mahomedan law. The principal of these
are the expiation of murder by paying the price of blood, and a fine to the prince,
and the want of an express provision in law against treason and rebelhon, and the
consequent opinion which is generally entertained among Moslems, that whoever
possesses the power of assuming independence possesses the right of declaring it.
This evil may be easily corrected by supporting the legitimate authority by our in-
fluence, and by that means subjecting the private quan'els of head-men gradually to
the general system of estabhshed law.

“ The want of a well-defined rule of succession to the government in the
families of the different Malay Rajahs is constantly productive of innumerable
parties, divisions, and civil agitations in every state. This, however, is an evil
common to all governments where the Mahomedan religion prevails, though its
evils are most felt in a comparatively rude state of society, such as exists in the

PIRACY— SLAVERY.

Malay countries. This e\il was prevented effectually during the Dutch domination,
by their assmning the paramount right of gi-anting investiture to every prince who
succeeded to the government of a country, and if such a plan, as I have alluded to,
were to be adopted by the English, a similar policy, either by granting investiture, or
by recognizing the heir apparent, would naturally require to he followed. A regula-
tion of this kind, I have the utmost reason for thinking, would he highly acceptable
to all the Malay nations, for among a great munber of them, at present, the death of
a prince is regarded with horror by all his subjects, as the signal for intestine war,
i-uin, and devastation.

Of the prevalence of piracy on the Malay coast, and its being regarded as an
honourable occupation, worthy of being followed by young princes and nobles, I
have already had occasion to speak. This is an eril of ancient date, and which has
struck deep on the Malay habits. The old Malay romances, and the fragments of their
traditional histoiy, constantly refer to piratical cinizes. In addition to the cases which
I have already enumerated, it may be proper to add, that the state of the Eastern
population, and the intolerant spirit of the religion of Islam, have eminently tended
to increase this practice. The Arab Sheikhs and Sejyads, whatever doctrines they
failed to inculcate, did not neglect the propagation of one, the merit of plundering
and massacring the infidels ; an abominable tenet, which has tended more than all the
rest of the Alcoran, to the propagation of this robber-religion. Numerous and various
are the tribes of the Eastern Isles which have not embraced the religion of Islam to
this day, and consequently are reckoned infidels. All the great nations of the conti-
nent are in the same predicament as the Siamese, Cochin-Chinese, and Chinese
themselves. Cmizes against the infidels were, and are, constantly certain of receiv-
ing the approbation of all the Arab teachers settled in the Malay countries. The
practice of piracy, however, is now an eivl too extensive and formidable to be cured by
reasoning, and must, at all events, be put dovii by the strong hand ; though precau-
tions against its recurrence may be taken in the system which shall be adopted nith
regard to the Malay states, by rendering every chieftain answerable for his own terri-
tory, and punishing in an exemplaiy manner refractory chiefs.

“ Connected vith this e\il, though of much wder extent, is the system of slavery
in the Malay countries, which, to apply the energetic language of Mr. Pitt to this
subject, has been none of the least efficient causes of keeping down these regions in
a state of bondage, ignorance, and blood. On the grand erils of the system of slavery,
and its necessary concomitant, the man-trade, and its pernicious consequences,
whether personal or ci^il, social or domestic, it is fortunately, at the present period,
unnecessary to expatiate, since, by the late ^ Act for the Abolition of the Slave-Trade,’
that system of crimes is prohibited in all territories in his Majesty’s possession or
occupation. In the beginning of the year 1806, the JMarquis Wellesley abohshed
slavery throughout India ; and your Lordship, by your order of June 4th, to emanci-

SLAVERY.

pate all the government slaves at Malacca, and to direct that hereafter no slaves shall
be purchased or received on account of government, has already given all the Malay
nations an earnest of your Lordship’s sentiments of the subject. It is certainly to
the credit of our countrymen in the East, that they have, at the most early periods,
opposed all attempts to introduce the abominable slave traffic into our settlements in
the East ; and in proof of this, it is only necessary to refer to an act of the Governor
in council of Madras of so early a date as 1682, prohibiting this nefarious traffic at
that presidency.

The sources of slavery in the Malay countries are chiefly the following : —
piracy, captivity in war, man-stealing, and the penalties enacted in the Malay law
respecting debts and sundry misdemeanors. Piracy is often a distinct somce of
slavery, the surviving crews of vessels which fall into their hands being generally
disposed of by sale at the first market, as in the instance of the ship Commerce, the
crew of which, consisting of Bengal Lascars, are reported to have been publicly sold
for slaves at Borneo Proper and Sambas. In many instances they have employed
such crews as slaves, both on board their own vessels and on their own settlements,
in cultivating the grounds, as at Ratch, on the east coast of Sumatra. The numerous
chieftains in the Malay countries, and the constant wars which they carry on against
each other, is another great source of slavery ; the captives taken in such wars are
generally employed in domestic occupations, tending cattle, and cultivating the
ground, when there is no opportunity of bringing them to market, a circumstance
which seldom occurs, since such numbers are constantly required by the Arabs and
Chinese traders, as well as the Dutch, that the market is seldom overstocked. Many
of the Arab trading-vessels are almost entirely navigated by the slaves of the owners ;
and in their progress fi’om island to island, they find little difficulty in recruiting
their crew, by receiving presents of slaves ; or, if that should fail, by kidnapping or
man-stealing. This forms a strong argument against prohibiting the range of the
islands to either the Chinese or Arab traders ; for if this were permitted, the aboli-
tion of the system of kidnapping would be absolutely impossible. The pagan tribes
in the \icinity of the Moslems, such as the Bah, and some of the tribes of the Bugis-
men, the Harafuras, the Black Papuas, or Oriental negroes, the original inhabitants
of Seram, Goram, and other easterly nations, are, in a great measm*e, the victims of
the man-stealing or kidnapping system ; and, as they are only infidels, they are con-
sidered as fair booty. Farther inquiries, however, are necessary, in order to ascer-
tain the probable extent of the kidnapping system. But another source of this evil
is the nature of the penalties established in the Undang Undang, or system of Malay
law, respecting debtors and persons guilty of various misdemeanors, by which these
are liable to become slaves. As I hope to be able to lay shortly before your Lord-
ship a translation of the Malay laws relative to this interesting topic, I shall not
enlarge upon it at present, especially as this brings me to the subject of general

WANT OF A SYSTEM OF LAWS.

refonn of the system of Malay law. It is, however, necessary to mention, that
yom* Lordship’s attention will imavoidably be called to the subject of the relief of
slave debtors, and perhaps the mitigation of the slave system in the Eastern Islands.
On the subject of slave debtors, there is reason to apprehend that the gi'eatest abuses
exist, even in the district of Malacca itself, especially among that unfortmiate class
of men who have become bondmen to the Chinese, and who have very httle chance
of ever recovering their liberty, however small their debts may originally have
been. As the most minute local inquiries must be necessaiy before any efficient
measm'es can be taken for palliating or removing these erils, I shall, in the present
case, content myself with requesting yom* Lordship’s attention to this most serious
and important subject.

“ Nothing has tended more decidedly to the deterioration of the JNIalay cha-
racter than the w ant of a well-defined and generally acknowiedged system of law\
The Malay nations had in general made considerable progress in chilization before
the introduction of the religion of Islam among them. They had, accordingly,
regular institutions of their owm, some of which were probably of considerable anti-
quity, as those of the Javanese, Bugis, and Macasar tribes. As these appear to
have been generally derived firom the Indian nations, and were radically different
from those of the Arabs, some chfficulty appears to have occuiTed in adapting them
to the general tenor of Mahomedan law, and divers anomalous institutions appear
accordingly to have spmng up in different states. These occm* in eveiy department
of public law, whether commercial, ciril, or criminal, and are recited in the Undang
Undang and Addat INIalajui, wdiich are the systems of national law among the
Malays, and wdiich vary considerably in different states, and still more from the
generally acknowdedged principles of Mahomedan law^, as received by the Arabs.
Hence there is in almost every state a constant struggle betw^een the adherents of the
old Malay usages and the Hajis, and other religious persons, wdio are desirous of
introducing the laivs of the Arabs, in order to increase their owm consequence.
The eidls wdiich result fr'om this complex and ill-defined system, are both numerous
and important, as they respect the most essential interests of society, and afford an
opening for the caprice and tp'anny of their rulers, and general insecm*ity both of
person and property. The Malays are at present in a very different situation from
any of the old Moslem states, such as Persia, Arabia, or Turkey. The Moslem
religion has hitherto taken only a very partial and superficial root in many of the
Eastern Islands. In the interior of all the large islands paganism still prevails ; in
many districts there are considerable numbers professing Christianity : the Chinese
swarm in every Malay country, and live intermingled wdth the Moslems. This
mixture of religions and tribes has tended, in some degi'ee, to soften the intolerance
of the Moslem religion among the Malay nations, and neither the positive authority
of Islam, nor the persuasions of their Ai*ab teachers, have hitherto been able to

MONOPOLY BY THE MALAY CHIEFS.

induce them to abandon their own peculiar usages and customs. Considering the
Malays, therefore, as more open to instruction than the votaries of Islam in general,
I beg leave to submit to your Lordship’s consideration, whether the present op])or-
tunity might not be taken advantage of to in\ite the Malay chiefs to a revisal of
tlieir general system of laws and usages. This I conceive might be done, even on a
gi'eat scale, without exciting any umbrage or suspicion in the minds of the people in
general, for with some of these usages, especially those which relate to wrecks on
the Malay shores, and the commercial regulations of the different ports, it will be
absolutely necessary for us to interfere at all events. These commercial regulations
form a part of the general Malay laws, and as we must in some degi'ee interfere
with these, the same opportunity may perhaps be taken to procure the abandonment
of some of those maxims and usages which have the strongest tendency to prevent
their progress in information and the habits of civilized life. When the seven Ionian
islands were lately ceded to France, the president of the senate offered a prize for
the best dissertation on the following question : — “ Why do the Ionian islanders
occupy themselves only with frivolous and unimportant objects, and by what means
may their attention be drawn to things of consequence ?” Such are the questions
regarding the Malay islands, which now invite your Lordship’s attention, and in
answer to them the reform of the Malay laws may certainly be specified as one of
the most important, and as one of the means by which the benefit of the Malay
nations will be secured fi’om their connexion with the English. With respect to the
mode in which this may be with greatest facility accomplished, I shall only venture
to suggest, that every Malay chief might be requested to furnish a copy of the
Undang Undang current in his own state, and to send at some fixed time one or two
of the learned men of the country, best versed in the laws, to a congress which
might be appointed for the purpose of revising the general system of Malay laws.
Such a plan might be attended, perhaps, in the first instance, with certain difficulties ;
but none, as far as I can judge, which are by any means insm’mountable. It would
be proper to begin with settling the regidations of a commercial kind ; and as these,
though copied in many respects from the regidations of the Portuguese and Dutch,
are considered as a part of the Malay law, it might be both useful and popular among
the Malays to call in the assistance of their learned men.

“ Another of the customs injurious to the Malay nations, is the trading
monopoly which in most of the Malay ports is actually assumed, or attempted to be
assumed, by the Malay chiefs. Of this monopoly there is no trace in the Undang
Undang of the Malays, or in the fragments of their history which I have seen, such
tis the traditional annals of Malacca, and after an attentive consideration, I am
induced to think that this pernicious practice has been entirely copied from the
monopoly regulations of the Dutch. Where this system has been fully carried into
effect, it has generally succeeded effectually in repressing industry and commercial

PROPAGATION OF CHRISTIANITY.

entei-prise : and where it has been for some time established, its e’vdls have been felt
deeply, so that there is no doubt but the Malay chiefs could easily be induced to
relinquish it in favour of a regulated commerce. The Malay laws and maxims are
fortunately of a very different kind from those which have been adopted and sys-
tematized among the great nations of the Continent in their vicinity. These nations,
especially the Siamese and Cochin Chinese, have long been accustomed to look up
to the Chinese, with whom they coincide in religion and manners, and from whom
they have adopted their exclusive maxims of foreign intercourse. The Malays, on
the other hand, though accustomed to look up to the Arabs as their religious
instructors, seldom hesitate to admit the superiority of both the Europeans and
Chinese, either to themselves or the Arabs, in the arts of life and general science,
and it is certainly our interest to prevent the increase of the Arab influence among
the Malay nations.

“ From similar considerations, as well as in conformity to the instructions
issued from home, the Dutch nation appear to have pursued as a principle of policy,
the propagation of Christianity among the Eastern Islands. The same plan had been
previously followed by the Portuguese in their various eastern possessions with great
success, and there are now several small islands in the Malay archipelago, inhabited
almost entirely by Christians of the Catholic persuasion, as the islands of Sanggir
and Siauk, situated between Jelolo and Mindanawi. In many other islands the Pro-
testant persuasion has made very considerable progress, and teachers in the flourish-
ing times of the Bata\dan regency were dispersed over all the low chain of islands
which extend from Bali and Lambok to the gveat island of Timor. The islands in
which the Christian faith has been most extensively diffused are, the great island
Ende, or Manggerai, the isles of Solor Salerang, Lomhlim, and Ombai, the great
island Timor, and the several small islands in its vicinity, as Savo, Roti, and Samba.
In many of these islands the natives, having no written character of their own, have
been instructed in the Roman character, and taught to read Malay and other dialects
in it. There have also been various religious fonnularies printed for their use, and
translations have been executed for the use of these Christians in some of their
languages, which have little or no affinity to the Malay. The propagation of Chris-
tianity among these islands is obviously liable to none of the objections which have
been urged against it in our Indian possessions. A great proportion of the natives
are still Pagans, under the influence of a wild, and almost unintelligible superstition,
the principles of which are not recorded in books, hut are handed down like stories
of ghosts, fairies, and witches, with all the uncertainty of tradition. Accordingly, in
most instances, the people, though they stand in great awe of the priests, as en-
chanters, or dealers with the invisible spirits, are very little attached to the superstition.
Many of them are said to be very desirous of procuring instruction, and in some
places they look up with a degree of veneration to the Moslems, as a people who

ADVANTAGES OF POSSESSING JAVA.

have received something which they still want. Besides, the attachment of the
Malays to the religion of Islam is by no means of that strength as to emancipate
them from their old usages, nor to inspire them with that contempt and hatred for
other religions which is found in many of the older Moslem kingdoms. On the
advantages which must accrue from protecting Christianity in these Eastern Islands,
and by favouring its propagation in preference to the doctrines of Islam, where it
may be so easily propagated, it is unnecessary to enlarge, in addressing your Lord-
ship. Permit me, how'ever, to allude to one remarkable fact, which may serve to
illustrate the necessity of attending to the subject as a matter of public importance.
In our present settlement of Malacca, the impossibility of procuring servants for
wages compels almost every person to have recourse to slaves, and a considerable
proportion of these are Pagans, being chiefly Battas fr'om the centre of Sumatra,
Balis from Bali, Dayaks from Borneo, besides natives of Timor and the more easterly
islands. Of all these slaves that fall into the hands of the English, there is perhaps
not a single one that becomes a Christian, but the whole of them become Moslems,
and despise and hate their masters as infidels. Such is the woeful effect of our
supineness and indifference, which, if they should extend to the East, would certainly
not tend to the progress of general improvement among the Malays.

“ In these observations I have in some degree avoided alluding to the advan-
tages which may be expected to accrue to the British nation itself, and also to the
British possessions in India, from the acquisition of Java and the Eastern Isles,
because I am persuaded that the real advantages which these countries possess will
be found, under a liberal and enlightened system of management, vastly to exceed
any expectations which may be formed in the present state of our information con-
cerning them. In their present state, with the exception of Java, these countries
are poor in respect of general wealth, and can only pay in rude produce for the
articles wfrich they require from other countries. The rude produce, however, ol'
the Malay countries is of various kinds, some of which are extremely valuable, and
equally calculated for the European, the Indian, and the China market. The inter-
coirrse between countries rich in manufacturing industry and coimtries rich in raw-
produce is universally admitted to be of equal benefit to both. In respect of the
Malay islands, India must long be regarded as a manufacturing country, and is par-
ticularly fitted to supply a variety of articles in general request among the Malays,
without interfering with the industiy of the mother country. The trade from India
to the Malay countries has hitherto chiefly consisted in opium and piece-goods, for
which India has chiefly received back gold-dust, spices, gums, and coffee. I omit
the mention of copper, as it is not a native Malay production, but chiefly derived
from Japan. The circmnstance, how^ever, under wJiich the Indian trade to the east-
ward has been hitherto earned on, and the insecurity and want of protection under

M 2

ADVANTAGES OF POSSESSING JAVA.

which it has always laboured, renders the past no criterion of the future, and I have
no doubt it may be improved to an almost indefinite extent, as the Malay countries
advance in cirilization. The Java sugar is at present reckoned nearly on a par Arith
the fine sugar of Manilla, and the Java coffee next to the coffee of Mocha and
Bourbon. Either of these productions are capable of being gi'eatly extended. The
Dutch, in their usual way, restricted the cultivation of coffee to about ten millions
of pounds, though it has been stated that the island of Java is capable of producing
at least fifty millions of pounds. The extended cultivation of these articles must,
however, be matter for future consideration. Coffee, at present, is chiefly produced
in the provinces of Cheribon.

“ M'ith regard to the Chinese market, the Malay countries fiirnish a variety of
articles of the most general use and constant demand, and which do not affect either
the products or manufactures of either Great Britain or British India. Tin is one of
these products, which finds a constant and almost indefinite demand in China, and
which is solely produced in the Malay countries and some of the dependencies of
Siam. Pepper, which after the acquisition of the Dutch eastern settlements, we
shall have the command of, almost as much as of nutmegs, cloves, mace, and cinna-
mon, is in a considerable demand for the Chinese market, as well as for Arabia and
Persia. The quantity of pepper yearly required for the Chinese market has been
estimated at 50,000 piculs, that of sandal-wood about 6,000 piculs, besides camphor
and benjamin, and a variety of valuable gums, the production of which is nearly
confined to the Malay countries. The quantity of pearls, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-
shell, ivory, birds’-nests, sea-slug, fish-maws, shark-fins, ebony, black and coloirred
woods, for furniture and dye-stuffs, yearly imported to the Chinese market from the
Malay islands, is admitted to be extremely great, but the trade haring never been
well regulated, it might be difficult, in the present state of our knowledge, to attempt
subjecting it to calculations.

“ In the present unparalleled state of the European market on the Continent, it
is hazardous to venture to allude to it. It may, however, be stated generally, that
the acquisition of the Dutch possessions in the East, places the command of the
spice trade, together with that of pepper and coffee, besides a variety of other
eastern produce, entirely in our hands, and that the Continent must either do \rith-
out these articles, or submit to pmxhase them from the English.

“ The valuable forests of teak and other ship timber in Java and the other
Eastern Isles are acquisitions of the highest national importance in the present state
of European politics, and promise to render our navy independent of the stores
formerly derived from the precarious fi'iendship of the northern powers. Nor is the
acquisition of a range of countries, apparently possessing the most valuable gold and
diamond mines in the world, an object unworthy of our notice in our present situa-

CONCLUSION OF MR. RAFFLES’ REPORT.

tion, in which the drain of our specie has been great in an unprecedented degree,
and when for the restoration of the precious metals among us, as a circulating
medium, we are likely to be left in a great measure to our own resources.

“ To dilate any further on these topics is unnecessary, as on yom* Lordship’s
approach to Java, eveiy day will bring fonvard infonuation to which it is not now in
my power to allude. The suggestions which I have already offered may perhaps
have already appeared to your Lordship unnecessarily prolix ; but in putting you in
possession of all the information which I have been able to obtain, and of all the
views of the subject which I consider as meriting attention, I have only endeavoured
to reply to that confidence which your Lordship reposed in me, in appointing me
your Lordship’s agent to the Malay states.

“ I have now only to congratulate your Lordship on the most splendid prospect
which any administration has beheld since our first acquisition of India : the pacifi-
cation of India completed, the tranquillity and prosperity of our eastern possessions
secured, the total expulsion of the European enemy from the Eastern Seas, and the
justice, humanity, and moderation of the British government, as much exemplified
in fostering and leading on new races of subjects and allies in the career of improve-
ment, as the undaunted courage and resolution of British soldiers in rescuing them
from oppression.

“ I have the honom* to remain, with the highest respect and consideration,

“ Your Lordship’s most faithful and devoted humble servant,

(Signed) “ Thos. Raffles,

“ Agent to the Governor-General
with the Malay states.”

Malacca, the \ 0lh June, 1811.

CHAPTER IV.

Lord Minto' s great anxiety as to the passage from Malacca to Batavia Naval men opposed to Mr. Raffles —
Lord Minto confides in Mr. Raffles — Nerv passage attempted — Arrival off Batavia — Mr. Raffles gives
a sketch of the events which led to his being employed in the expedition— ‘Establishment of the French
power in Java — Sir Samuel Achmutif s account of the capture of Batavia, and of the battle of Cornells —
Capitulation of the Island — Intercepted letters from Governor Jansens — Lord Minto’s opinion of the
value of the conquest — Death of Dr. Leyden — Lord Minto places Mr. Raffles in the government of Java
— Leading principles of the Dutch government — Projected change of system — English Residents
apjjointed at the native courts — Ancient temples — First Colony of Hindus — Upas poison — Journey to
the eastern district.

Lord Minto, in his letter of the 11th of JVIarch, 1811, manifested gi’eat anxiety
regarchng the route to be pursued by the expedition on quitting Malacca. Mr.
Raffles deeply participated in this feeling.

The difflculty was great of making a passage with a large fleet through an
Archipelago, where the wind blows strongly from one point of the compass for several
months, where the passage between the islands is often so narrow, that only one ship
can pass at a time, and then so close to the land, that the sides of the vessel are
shadowed by the luxuriant vegetation extending to the water’s edge.

It was found impossible to obtain any positive information ; every account was
obscure and contrachetory. The alternative of two routes presented itself : first,
the direct route along the south-west coast of Borneo, which was represented as
very difficult and uncertain, if not altogether impracticable. Secondly, the passage
round the north and east coast of Borneo, and through the straits of Macasar — this,
though supposed to be practicable, was considered eminently dangerous, as well as
tedious.

Mr. Raffles thought the difficulties of the south-west passage appeared to be
greatly magnified ; it had been attempted, and succeeded as often as the attempt
was made ; he therefore decided strongly to recommend the passage between Cara-
mata and Borneo, and was so satisfied of the correctness of the information which
he had obtained, and the eligibility of the course which he had selected, that, in his

' LORD MINTO CONFIDES IN MR. RAFFLES.

own words, he “ did not hesitate to stake his reputation on the success which would
attend the expedition, if the route he pointed out should be followed.”

On the arrival of the expedition at Malacca, this point was to be instantly
settled : but very considerable difference of opinion existed. The naval authorities
were opposed to the attempt of a new passage ; but Lord Minto proved his confidence
in the judgment and local infoiTnation of Mr. Raffles, by embarking vdth him in his
Majesty’s ship the Modeste, commanded by Captain the Honourable George Elliott,
on the 18th of June, 1811, and leading the way by the route marked out on Mr.
Raffles’ sole responsibility.

This route was followed with so much success, that in less than six weeks after
quitting Malacca, the fleet, consisting of upwards of ninety sail, was in sight of Ba-
tavia, without accident to a single vessel. Mr. Raffles often spoke in after times
with animated expressions of the pleasure he felt on witnessing this happy termination
of the voyage.

The following memorandum on the subject, refemng to an intended work on the
Eastern Islands, was found after his death, written in pencil by Mr. Raffles :

Opinions as to the Passage,

“ The northern route round Borneo w'as considered the only practicable one,
especially for a fleet ; but no one could suggest any way of avoiding the dangers of
the Bartabac passage, where only one ship could pass at a time with any chance of
safety : neither could they demonstrate how it was possible to pass through the Sulu
Archipelago, of which very httle w'as known, without being entirely separated ; nor,
supposing this effected, how the Straits of Macasar could be passed at all, where
the winds are proverbially variable, the currents strong, the Borneo coast covered
with shoals, and the Macasar coast entirely devoid of soundings. Five weeks was the
shortest round Borneo, saihng the 1st of June ; but it was just as hkely to be eight.

“ On the northern passage being given up, no doubt existed, that if the passage
could be made on the western side of Borneo, it would be best : the passage between
Caramata and Borneo was at length adopted.”

Lord Minto, after announcing that he had amved off the coast of Java, and that
the passage was completed during the height of the south-east monsoon, by a fleet
of upwards of ninety ships, adds, —

“ The expectations which had been formed were verified in every part of the
passage, and every thing turned out precisely as had been foretold and proposed, with
the exception of finding less difficulty than had been looked for, and the voyage
proving shorter than could have been hoped. The whole fleet had assembled on the
coast of Java by the 30th of July, forty-two days, or exactly six weeks : the Modeste,
if alone, would have done it a fortnight sooner.

ARRIVAL OFF JAVA.

“ I have been the more particular in detaihng these circumstances, because this
expedition must have been abandoned for the present year, (an earlier departing
than actually took place fi'om India ha\ing been found totally impracticable,) if I had
\ielded to the predicted difficulties of the passage.”

The folloA\ing letter to an intimate associate of Mr. Raffies’ early years, was
WTitten when the fleet reached the coast of Java, and shews his buoyancy of spirit
even in seasons of the gi’eatest anxiety :

“ You are, either from inclination or habit, so bad a correspondent, that I barely
get an acknowledgment of my letters, much less an assm'ance that they are well
received. However, coiite qiCil coiite ; be it as it may. I’ll speak to thee, call thee
Friend, dear Ramsay, be thy intent wicked or charitable.

You always said I was a strange wild fellow, insatiable in ambition, though
meek as a maiden ; and perhaps there is more tmth than otherwise in wiiat you said ;
hut with all, I will assure you this, that although, from want of self-confidence and
ft-om natural shamefacedness, (for I will not call it modesty or bashfulness,) I am as
unhappy at times as any poor wretch need be, I have times in which I am as happy as
I think it possible for man to be ; and it is one of these life-inspiring moments that I
now^ purpose passing with you a la distance ; and notwithstanding my inclination of
hearing, rather than being heard, I must for once venture to be the historian of my
owm tale.

“ You shall have an account since I quitted Penang in June, 1810, and that in
as few" words as possible.

“ ]\Iy friend. Admiral Drury, our late naval Commander-in-chief, informed me
by letter in June, last year, that he had exerted all his interest with Lord Minto, the
Governor-General, to obtain for me the situation of Governor of the Moluccas. That
his Lordship was most favourably disposed towards me ; and that, as far as it rested
with Sir George Barlow", or the Governor-General, I might be satisfied they wished
to avail themselves of my services.

The expedition against the Isle of France w'as about to sail. On its success
depended a still gi'eater expedition — the attack of Java. To the latter, therefore, I
attached myself ; was admitted to the fullest and most unreserved confidence of the
Supreme Government, and in due time proceeded on a political mission to the
Eastern Isles, as the Avant Courier of the expedition. I fixed my head-quarters at
Malacca, made the political impressions and intimations that w"ere necessary, and
fiu'iiished the requisite infonnation. The expedition, consisting of about ninety sail,
anaved at Malacca the end of May ; and on the 18th of June, having seen the w hole
off, and haring been previously joined by the Governor-General, I embarked w"ith his
Lordship in the iModeste frigate, acting in the capacity of his chief secretary. M e
are now" off the coast of Java, haring come a-head of the fleet ; but we expect them
to-moiTow", and the attack will be made in the course of the w"eek.

SKETCH OF EVENTS WHICH LED TO MR. RAFFLES’ APPOINTMENT. 89

“ Of the importance of this conquest, the views that naturally present them-
selves on such an occasion, and the share I have had in bringing the important
point so near a conclusion, I need not speak ; you have the opportunity of seeing the
government proceedings, which will be sufficiently satisfactory.

“ I beg that you will write me to Batavia by any vessel coming direct, or by
way of India or China — if you really knew the pleasing satisfaction I derive from
ha\ing even three words from you, I think you would not decline ; at the same
time, I must say, that you are the most famous hand for a short letter that I ever
knew, and in truth this is hardly reasonable, for in comparison you cannot have
much to do — I have, on the contrary, my hands foil at all times, witness the papers
sent in by me on record, and reflect on the numerous papers and affairs that I get
through which never reach England.

“ I wish very much to hear what is said of my political ideas respecting the
government of the eastward. Adieu, my dear Ramsay, for the present, my paper is
out, and dinner is announced, so farewell — I will write you more fully after we are
settled. Conquer we must.

“ Your’s always.

“ T. S. R.”

Still further light may be thrown upon the views and motives by which Mr.
Raffles was influenced in these important proceedings, and the feehngs of satisfaction
which, at the interesting moment of his arrival off Batavia so powerfully possessed
his mind, by the following letter from him to Dr. Raffles, though written after a
lapse of several years.

“ Some months had now elapsed, and it was to be feared that arrangements
for the administration of the Malaccas were already in progress. Yet the chance of
being in time, and the expectation of still further advancing my interests with Lord
Minto, weighed with me in the resolution I took, of proceeding in person to Bengal.
My attention had long been directed to the state of the Dutch possessions to the
eastward, and as rumours were afloat of a projected armament going against the
Isle of France, it occurred to me that the information I possessed respecting Java
might be useful, and possibly turn the attention of our Government in that direc-
tion. I accordingly left my family and proceeded to Calcutta in a small and frail
vessel, the only one which offered, but in which all my future prospects had well
nigh perished. On my arrival in Bengal I met with the kindest reception from Lord
Minto. I found that though the appointment to the Maluccas had not actually
taken place, it was promised to another. I in consequence relinquished all idea of
it, and at once drew his Lordship’s attention to Java, by observing that there were
other islands worthy of his Lordship’s consideration besides the Maluccas ; Java, for
instance. On the mention of Java his Lordship cast a look of such scrutiny, anti-

ARRIVAL OF THE FLEET OFF THE COAST OF JAVA.

cipation and kindness upon me, as I shall never forget — ‘ Yes,’ said he, ‘ Java is an
interesting island — I shall be happy to receive any information you can give me
concerning it.’ This was enough to encom-age me ; and from this moment all
my \iews, all my plans, and all my mind were devoted to create such an interest
regarding Java as should lead to its annexation to our Eastern empire, although I
confess that I had never the vanity to expect that when this object was accom-
phshed, so important an administration would have been entrusted to my indi%vdual
charge, that I should have been entmsted with what Mr. Marsden emphatically
observes, was ‘ as great a charge as a nation could entrust to an individual.’

“ It is unnecessary to enter on the detail which followed — the fall of Bourbon,
and the anticipation of success at the Isle of France, encom'aged a plan for the con-
quest of Java. As it in a great measure originated with me, and as it was almost
entirely on my information that the decision wus taken, I natm-ally took a conspi-
cuous part, although httle or nothing met the public eye. Perhaps no secret wus
ever better kept than the projected scheme against Java, for until it was publicly
announced, and the intention of the Governor-General to proceed in person was
made knowm, not a word was surmised or whispered on the subject.

“ As an avant courier, and to prepare the way for the expechtion, I w^as
appointed Agent to the Governor-General with the iSIalay states, and took up my
head-quarters at Malacca, where the rendezvous was fixed. I remained here as
representative to the Governor-General until Iris Lordship arrived, wLen, instead of
the designation of Agent, I was styled Secretary to the Governor-General ; in this
capacity I accompanied his Lordship to Java. Various doubts, difficulties, and I
might say, insurmountable obstacles, had been started to prove the impossibility of
the expedition proceeding to Java during the present season. The opinion of the
naval Commander-in-chief, and indeed of all constituted authorities, w^as decidedly
against it — it w'as in fact pronounced impracticable. Lord Minto alone stood finn,
and placed his entire and unreserved rehance in the opinion which I had given him
on the subject. I had ascertained the practicabihty by an experiment in a small
vessel, ‘ the Minto,’ commanded by Captain Greigh, a most intelligent and zealous
officer, who had been placed under my orders, and to w'hom I am indebted for the
discover}^ of the passage by the coast of Borneo. At the period that the expedition
sailed from Malacca, it was uncertain by which route it w'ould proceed. I really
heheve no fixed route was determined on, and Lord Minto had too much judgment
and precaution to interfere. He placed the information he possessed within the
reach of the senior naval officer, and fortunately it was acted upon. On the 4th of
August, 1811, the whole of the fleet, consisting of upwurds of ninety vessels, arrived
off the coast of Java, without the loss of a single spar, or slightest accident, having
passed by a route previously almost unknowm, and accomplished a passage declared
to be impracticable. I wiU not attempt to say what my feehngs were on the occa-

CAPTURE OF BATAVIA.

sion. We had separated from the fleet for a few days, and it was only when we
again joined them that we saw all the divisions united, at the close of one of the
flnest days I ever recollect, and this in sight of the land of promise. Lord Minto,
while at Malacca, had communicated his intention of appointing me to the govern-
ment, in case of success, and as I had nothing to do with the military operations, I
now looked upon my part as completed ; perhaps so great a responsibility was never
for so long on the head of a single individual, and the rehef which I felt was
proportionate.”

Before the expedition sailed from Malacca, it was ascertained that Marshal
Daendels had been succeeded in the government and command of Java by General
Jansens, who was making all preparations within his power to meet the expected
invasion by the Enghsh.

The following letter from Sir Samuel Achmuty to Lord Minto contains an ac-
count of the capture of Batavia.

To the Right Honourable Lord Minto, Governor-General, S^'c. S^c. 8^c.

Head Quarters, Weltevreeden, August 3\, 1811.

“ My Lord,

“ After a short but arduous campaign, the troops you did me the honour
to place under my orders, have taken the capital of Java, have assaulted and carried
the enemy’s formidable works at Cornehs, have defeated and dispersed their collected
force, and have driven them from the kingdoms of Bantam and Jacotra. This bril-
liant success over a well-appointed and discipKned force, greatly superior in numbers,
and in every respect well equipped, is the result of the great zeal, gallantry, and
discipline of the troops, qualities they have possessed in a degree certainly never sur-
passed. It is my duty to lay before your Lordship the details of their success, but
it is not in my power to do them the justice they deserve, or to express how much
their country is indebted to them for their great exertions.

Your Lordship is acquainted with the reasons that induced me to attempt a
landing in the neighbourhood of Batavia. It was effected without opposition, at the
village of Shillinching, twelve miles east of the city, on the 4th instant. My intention
was to proceed from thence, by the direct road to Cornehs, where the enemy’s force
was said to be assembled in a strongly fortified position, and to place the city of
Bata\da in my rear, from whence alone I could expect to derive supplies, equal to
the arduous contest we were engaged in.

“ As some time was required to make preparations for an inland movement, I
judged it proper to reconnoitre the road by the coast leading to Batavia, and observe
how far it would be practicable to penetrate by that route. I was aware that it was-
extremely strong, and if well defended nearly impracticable. Advancing with part of
the army, I had the satisfaction to find that it was not disputed with us, and the only

N 2

CAPTURE OF BATAVIA.

obstacle to our progress was occasioned by the destruction of the bridge over the
Aujal river. I approached the river on the 6th, and obser\ing, dm*ing that evening,
a large fire in Batavia, I concluded it was the intention of the enemy to evacuate the
city, and ^rith this impression I directed the advance of the anny, under Colonel
Gillespie, to pass the river in boats on the succeeding night. They lodged themselves
in the suburbs of the city, and a temporary bridge was hastily constmcted on the
morning of the 8th, capable of supporting fight artillery. On that day the Burghers
of Bata\ia applied for protection, and surrendered the city \rithout opposition, the
garrison ha\ing retreated to Welte’STeeden.

“ The possession of Batavia Avas of the utmost importance. Though large store-
houses of public property were bmait by the enemy prertous to their retreat, and
every effort made to destroy the remainder, we Avere fortmiate in preserving some
valuable granaries and other stores. The city, although abandoned by the principal
inhabitants, Avas filled AAith an industrious race of people, Avho could be particularly
useful to the army. ProAisions were in abmidance, and an easy communication
preserved Avith the fleet.

“ In the night of the 8th, a feeble attempt Avas made by the enemy to cut off a
small guard I had sent for the security of the place, but the troops of the adA^ance had,
unknoAAm to them, reinforced the party early in the evening, and the attack Avas
repulsed. The adA*ance, under Colonel Gillespie, occupied the city on the 9th.

“ Very early on the morning of the 10th, I directed Colonel Gillespie Avith
his troops to move fi-om Batavia toAvards the enemy’s cantonment at WelteATeeden,
supported by tAvo brigades of infantry that marched before break of day through the
city, and folloAved his route. The cantonment Avas abandoned, but the enemy Avere
in force a little beyond it, and about tAVO miles in adA’ance of their works at Cornelis.
Then’ position Avas strong, and defended by an abbatis, occupied by 3000 of their
best troops, and four guns of horse-artillery. Colonel Gillespie attacked it Avdth
spirit and judgment, and after an obstinate resistance, carried it at the point of the
bayonet, completely routed their force, and took then- guns. A strong colmnn fi*om
these troops adA’anced to their support, but our fine being arriA'ed, they Avere in-
stantly pursued, and diiven under shelter of their batteries. In this affair, so credit-
able to Colonel Gillespie, and all the troops of the advance, the gi'enadier company
of the 78th, and the detachment of the 89th regiment, particularly distinguished
themselves, by charging and captming the enemy’s artillery. Our loss Avas trifling
compared Avith the enemy’s, Avhich may be estimated at about 500 men, Avith
Brigadier-General Alberti, dangerously Avounded.

“ Though Ave had hitherto been successful beyond my most sanguine expecta-
tions, our further progress became extremely difficult, and someAvhat doubtful.
The enemy, greatly superior in numbers, AV'as strongly entrenched in a position be-
tween the great river of Jacotra, and the Sloken, an artificial Avater-com-se, neither

BATTLE OF CORNELIS.

oi which was fordable. This position was shut up by a deep trench, strongly
palisadoed. Seven redoubts, and many batteries, mounted with heavy cannon, oc-
cupied the most commanding grounds udthin the lines. The fort of Cornelis was
in the centre, and the whole of the works were defended by a numerous and well
organized artillery. The season was too far advanced, the heat too violent, and our
number insufficient to admit of regidar approaches. To carry the works by assault
was the alternative, and on that I decided. In aid of this measure, I directed some
batteries to disable the principal redoubts, and for two days kept up a heavy fire
from tw'enty eighteens, and eight mortars and howitzers. Their execution was
great, and I had the pleasure to find, that though answered at the commencement
of each day, by a far more numerous artillery, we daily silenced their nearest bat-
teries, considerably disturbed every part of their position, and were evidently superior
in our fire.

At da\Mi of day on the 26th, the assault was made, the principal attack was
entrusted to that gallant and experienced officer. Colonel Gillespie ; he had the in-
fantry of the advance, and the grenadiers of the hne with him, and was supported by
Colonel Gibbs, with the 59th regiment, and the 4th battalion of Bengal volunteers.
They were intended to siu'prise, if possible, the redoubt constructed by the enemy
beyond the Sloken, to endeavour to cross the bridge over that stream with the
fugitives, and then to assault the redoubts within the lines; Colonel Gillespie at-
tacking those to the left, and Colonel Gibbs to the right. Lieutenant-Colonel
M’Cleod, with six companies of the 69th, was directed to follow a path on the
bank of the great river, and when the attack had commenced on the Sloken, to
endeavour to possess himself of the enemy’s left redoubt. IVIajor Yule, with the
flank troops of the reserve, reinforced by two troops of cavalry, four guns of the
horse-artillery, two companies of the 69th, and the grenadiers of the reserve, was
du-ected to attack the troops at Campong Malayu, on the west of the great river,
and endeavour to cross the bridge at that fort. The remainder of the army, under
Major-General Wetherall, was at the batteries, where a colmnn under Colonel
Wood, consisting of the 78th regiment, and the 5th volunteer battalion, was
directed to advance against the enemy in front, and at a favorable moment, when
aided by the other attacks, to force his way, if practicable, and open the position
for the hne.

“ The enemy was under arms, and prepared for the combat, and General
Jansens, the Commander-in-Chief, was in the redoubt where it commenced. Colonel
Gillespie, after a long action through a close and intricate country, came on their
advance, routed it in an instant, and with a rapidity never surpassed, and under a
heavy fire of grape and musketry, possessed himself of the advanced redoubt. He
passed the bridge with the fugitives, under a tremendous fire, and assaulted and
carried with the bayonet the redoubt, after a most obstinate resistance. Here the

BATTLE OF CORNELIS.

two dinsions of this column separated. Colonel Gibbs turned to the right, and
Avith the 59th, and part of the 78th, who had now forced their way in front, carried
the redoubt. A tremendous explosion of the magazine of this work (whether acci-
dental or designed is not ascertained) took place at the instant of its captm-e, and
destroyed a number of gallant officers and men, who at the moment were crowded
on its ramparts, which the enemy had abandoned. The redoubt, against which
Lieutenant-Colonel M^Cleod’s attack was directed, was carried in as gallant a style ;
and I lament to state, that most valiant and experienced officer fell at the moment
of victory. The front of the position was now open, and the troops rushed in from
every quarter.

“ During the operations on the right. Colonel Gillespie pursued his advantage
to the left, caiTying the enemy’s redoubts towards the rear, and being joined by
Lieutenant-Colonel IVLCleod, of the 59th. With part of that corps, he directed
him to attack the park of artillery, which that officer carried in a most masterly
manner, putting to flight a body of the enemy’s cavalry, that formed and attempted
to defend it. A sharp fire of musketry was now kept up, by a strong body of the
enemy, who had taken post in the lines, in front of Fort Cornelis, but were soon
driven from thence, the fort taken, and the enemy completely dispersed. They
were pursued by Colonel Gillespie with the 14th regiment, a party of Sepoys, and
the seamen from the batteries under Captain Sayer, of the Royal Navy ; by this
time the cavalry and horse-artillery had effected a passage through the lines, the
former commanded by Major Travers, and the latter by Captain Noble ; and, with
the gallant Colonel at their head, the pursuit was continued till the whole of the
enemy’s army was killed, taken, or dispersed.

“ Major Yule’s attack was equally spirited ; but after routing the enemy’s force
at Campong Malayu, and killing many of them, he found the bridge on fire, and
was unable to penetrate further.

I have the honour to enclose a return of the loss sustained, from our landing
on the 4th to the 26th inclusive. Sincerely I lament its extent, and the many
valuable and able officers that have unfortunately fallen ; but when the prepared
state of the enemy, their numbers, and the strength of their positions are con-
sidered, I trust it will not be deemed heavier than might be expected. Theirs has
greatly exceeded it ; in the action of the 26th, the numbers killed were immense,
but it has been impossible to form any accurate statements of the amount. About
1000 have been buried in the works ; multitudes were cut down in the retreat ; the
rivers are choked up wth the dead, and the huts and woods were filled with
wounded, who have since expired. We have taken near 5000 prisoners, among
whom are 3 general officers, 34 field-officers, 90 captains, and 150 subaltern
officers. General Jansens made his escape with difficulty during the action, and
reached Buitenzorg, a distance of thirty miles, with a few cavalry, the sole remains

CESSION OF JAVA.

of an army of 10,000 men. This place he has since evacuated, and fled to the
eastward. A detachment of our troops is in possession of it.

“ The superior discipline and invincible courage, which has so highly distin-
guished the British army, were never more fully displayed ; and I have the heartfelt
pleasure to add, that they have not been clouded by any acts of insubordination.

" I have the honour to enclose a copy of the orders I have directed to be
issued, thanking the troops in general for their services, and particularizing some of
the officers, who from their rank or situations w'ere more fortunate than their equally
gallant companions, in opportmrities of distinguishing themselves, and serving their
sovereign and their country.

“ But I must not omit noticing to your Lordship, the very particular merit of
Colonel Gillespie, to .whose assistance in planning the principal attack, and to whose
gallantry, energy, and judgment in executing it, the success is gi’eatly to be attri-
buted. To the general staff of the army, as well as my ovm staff, I feel myself
particularly indebted. The professional knowledge, zeal, and activity of Colonel
Eden, Quarter-Master-General, have been essentially useful to me ; but I cannot
express how much I have benefited by the able assistance and laborious exertions
of Colonel Agnew, the Adjutant-General, an officer whose active and meritorious
seiwices have frequently attracted the notice, and received the thanks of the Govern-
ment of India.

“ It is with particular pleasure, I assure your Lordship, that I have received
the most cordial support from the Honourable Rear-Admiral Stopford, and Commo-
dore Broughton, during the period of their commanding the squadron. The former
was pleased to allow a body of 500 seamen, under that valuable officer. Captain
Sayer of the Leda, to assist at our batteries. Their services were particularly use-
ful ; and I have the satisfaction to assure you, that both the Artillery and Engineers
were actuated by the same zeal in performing their respective duties, that has been
so conspicuous in all ranks and departments, though from the deficiency of the
means at their disposal, their operations were unavoidably embarrassed with uncom-
mon difficulties.

I have the honour to be, with the greatest respect,

“ Your Lordship’s most obedient humble servant,

(Signed) “ S. Achmuty,

“ Lieutenant-General.”

The troops were landed on the 4th of August, 1811 ; the battle of Cornells was
fought on the 26th; Lord Minto pubhshed his Proclamation on the 11th of Sep-
tember ; but the final capitulation of the island was not signed till the 18th Septem-
ber, 1811, by General Jansens and Sir Samuel Achmuty, at Samarang, whither
General Jansens had retreated after his defeat at Cornehs.

. 7

INTERCEPTED LETTER FROM GENERAL JANSENS.

The followng is a literal copy of a letter from General Jansens to a Dutch
gentleman employed in a pubhc capacity, wliich was intercepted, and is a cmious
specimen of official correspondence :

Samarang, le 2 Septemhre, 1811.

“ Avec indignation, j’ai recu votre precedente lettre et la derniere du 30 d’Aoiit
de Samarang.

“ Si la Tresorerie du gouvernement, si celle des veuves et orphelines sera
perdu, alors cela sera uniquement a attribuer a votre lache, des-obeissant, et infeme
comportement.

“ Vous avez aucun ami, jamais on ne rencontra personne, qui ne vous portat
de haine ou ne vous meprisat, par experience j’ai su, mais, helas ! trop tard, qu’on
vous a rendu justice, en vous detestant.

“ Votre beau fi'ere repond avec actuate a ses devoirs, il am’a pour cela dans une
ame calme, la recompense, mais cela sera toujours mr creve coeur, d’avoir un indigne
frere comme vous.

“ Que vous ayez peur pour des soldats sans subordination et pour des brigands,
cela je ne prend pas de mal, mais vous sa\aez qu’il y avoit un centaine d’officiers
en arriere de vous, et pom’ cela vous n’am'iez pas du abandonner contre votre serment
et devoir, votre poste, mais rester dans le voisinage de ces officiers.

“ Mon devoir m’appelloit perir ici, pour rassembler tous les ressom’ces qui
existent encor, vous auriez du faire autant, dans votre situation et les chefs de
I’interieur seroient certainement restes fideles.

“ On se comptoit pom* le plus gi’and malhem* d’etre votre subordonne, il est
aussi bien miserable de vous avoir eu pour subalteme.

“ Le Gouverneur-General.

“ A Monsiem* Vickens.” “ Signed, W. Jansens.”

( Intercepted at Cheribon, IKA September, 1811.^

Lord Minto announced the capture of Java to the authorities in England, in the
following terms :

‘‘ An Empire, which for two centuries has contributed greatly to the power,
prosperity, and gi’andeur of one of the principal and most respected states in Em'ope,
has been thus vvested fi’om the short usui'pation of the French government, added
to the dominion of the British crown, and converted from a seat of hostile machina-
tion and commercial competition, into an augmentation of British power and pros-
perity.”

The government of this Empire was bestowed, with a feeling and confidence
honourable to the giver, and no less gratifying to the person on whom such a high
and noble trust was reposed.

DEATH OF DR. LEYDEN.

Tlioiigh partly pledged to another, Lord Minto declared he could not con-
scientiously -vvithhold it from him who had won it ; and, therefore, “ as an acknow-
ledgment of the services he had rendered, and in consideration of his peculiar
fitness for the office,” he immediately appointed Mr. Raffles to it, under the title of
Lieutenant-Governor of Java and its Dependencies.

The charge was of the most extensive, arduous, and responsible nature, compris-
ing, on the island of Java alone, a population of six millions, divided into thirty resi-
dencies, under powerful chiefs, who had been long desirous of throwing off the
European yoke, and who were consequently by no means disposed to submit quietly
to the rule of their new governors.

Before the conquest of Java by the English, the Dutch had only subdued, un-
conditionally, one of the four principal kingdoms into which the island was divided.
The small kingdom of Jakotra, extending from Cheribon to Bantam, and in which
the city of Bata\da, so long the admiration and dread of the Eastern States, is
situated, alone acknowledged the sovereignty of the European power ; so that, in
fact, the principal part of the island was still to conquer.

An event occurred at this time to interrupt the satisfaction, and humble the
heart that might have been too much elated at the success which had crowned the
expedition. Dr. Leyden was seized with a fever a few days after he reached those
shores, on which he hoped to slake his ardent thirst for knozviedge, and expired in the
arms of his friend.

This loss w'as deeply mourned by Mr. Raffles, who had anticipated the happi-
ness of ha\ing, as an inmate of his family, one with whom he could take counsel both
in public and private ; whose judgment would aid, whose affection would cheer, and
whose society would brighten the care and troubles of the responsible situation he
was about to undertake.

Lord Minto remained in Java six weeks, and was incessantly occupied in arrang-
ing the form of government, laying down the principles upon which it was to be
conducted, forming plans for the suppression of piracy, and consulting with the
futm'e Governor of the island on various points of anticipated difficulty. One of two
courses was to be taken: either. to abandon the island to the natives after having
plundered it, or to retain it in our own hands.

It is difficult to imagine that the first-mentioned plan was ever agitated ; but
truth requires it to be stated, that it was seriously contemplated, and checked only
by the energy and determination of Lord Minto. It has been already said, that he
took upon himself the responsibility of acting on a more benevolent principle, and
determined to do all in his power to promote -the happiness of those whom the
fortune of war had placed under his orders.

Mr. Raffles communicated to Mr. Marsden his appointment to the government
of Java in the following letter :

LETTER TO MR. MARSDEN.

From Mr. Raffles to Mr. Marsden.

JVeltevreeden, {near Batavia,) Java, October 5ih, 1811.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ The press of public business at the present -moment is so gi*eat, that I am
sure you Anil excuse me from entering at length into any subject. The pubhc prints
will inform you of the great and invaluable conquest which we have made, and I
shall only add that, after having been employed for above a year as agent to the
Governor-General in obtaining information, fonning plans, and bringing to a focus
the intentions of government against this place, I have now the satisfaction to be
installed Lieutenant-Governor of the Island of Java and its dependencies.

“ No man better than yourself can appreciate the value of this new acquisition
to the British empire — it is in fact the other India.

“ My time has been so completely taken up in pohtical operations, that I have
been compelled for many months to leave my literary labours on the shelf untouched ;
but my present situation, and our new conquest, afford such a vide and unparalleled
field for research, that I should be worse than Goth or Vandal if I allowed it to remain
untried even in the literary way.

“ Lord Minto is now here, and Ave have it in contemplation to bring forAvard the
BataAian Asiatic Society as soon as circmnstances admit. I do not knoAv AA^hether you
haA'e heard that AA'e held a meeting of the Asiatic Society at Malacca on our A\'ay doAvn.
I sent you from thence a paper of mine intended for the next volume of the Researches.

“ If it AA^ere possible to get it copied in time I AA'ould send you by the present
conveyance a copy of my last report to Lord jMinto on the eastAA-ard. I hope I shall
be able to send it by the next ship, as it aaiU put you in full possession of the enlarged
Aiews Avhich have lately opened to us in the East.

“ You AAvll, I am sure, condole Avith me, as the friend of literature and Aartue, in
the loss I have lately sustained in the death of my dear friend. Doctor Leyden ; — he
(bed at this place on the 27th of August, of a fe\’er. We have lost in him a host of
men. Had you knoAAir him, you Avould never have ceased to deplore his death. —
Eastern hterature has lost in him its firmest support.

^ ^ ^

“ I am happy to inform you that I have large and valuable collections on A'arious
points connected Avith your favourite studies ; these I shall, as soon as possible, put
into some kind of form.

“ I hope by the first arrival to receive your ueAv edition of Sumatra. Hoav goes
on the Dictionary ?

“ Your’s faithfully.

“ T. S. R.

LEADING PRINCIPLES OF THE DUTCH GOVERNMENT.

Lord Minto, during his stay in Java, made several arrangements for the suppres-
sion of piracy ; and having, whilst he was at Malacca during the progress of the
expedition, received ambassadors from the state of Banger Masing, courting the alli-
ance of the English, his Lordship appointed Mr. Hare resident of this place, with the
view of checking this destructive system of native warfare.

In order to appreciate the difficulties of the situation in which Mr. Raffles was
placed, the extent of the changes which it was requisite to introduce, and the views
which he formed of the principles of government, it will be necessary to advert very
briefly to one or two leading principles of the Dutch rule.

One of the chief sources of the Dutch revenue was the monopoly by government
of the grain and other produce of the land, which the cultivators were required to
deliver at an inadequate and arbitrary rate, which articles were afterwards dealt out
to the consumer at a far higher price, so that, in fact, the whole body of the people
depended on the government for their very subsistence. The principle of encouraging
industry in the cultivation and improvement of the country, by creating an interest
in the effort and fruits of that industry, w^as wdiolly unknowm.

The mode of collecting this revenue in kind remained with the Regent of the
district, tearing the cultivators no security beyond the claims of usage and custom ;
and although custom prescribed a certain portion only of the crop to be delivered*
there w'ere no positive means of preventing a greater le\y. Thus, while the power and
influence of authority could be successfully exerted to stifle complaints, the peasant,
though suffering the greatest injustice, despairing of relief, would endure almost any
privation and suffering rather than quit the land of his forefathers, to which he felt
himself attached by the strongest ties of religion, of habit, and of affection.

Feudal serrice was another of the grievances and oppressions under which the
natives groaned. No means existed of affording a direct controul on the demands
for labour. The public officers of the Dutch government universally employed the
services of the people without regular hire. Their demands were unhmited. The
native chiefs followed the same system. No check existed ; and thus the energies of
the people were crushed, and their labom' frittered away, becoming productive neither
to themselves nor to the state. In short, they were reduced to the lowest state of
vassalage and subjection. To this ruinous system was to be added the pressure
arising from the failure of external commerce.

The Dutch government, forced to look within itself for relief, discovered the
embarrassments to be daily increasing. Under this exigency, the funds of public
societies were appropriated to the government treasury ; and the private property, of
individuals was forcibly boiTOwed in the same manner. An arbitrary increase of
paper-currency was issued, to provide for the daily expences of the State ; and this
being fomid inadequate, the government were compelled to deliver a proportion of
colonial produce in payment of these estabhshments, or, in other words, to pawn the

o 2

100

PROJECTED CHANGE OF SYSTEM.

produce in store, to satisfy the cuiTent demands upon the public treasury. Such was
the financial state of the country at the period when the Enghsh assumed the admi-
nistration of Java.

It would be endless to notice the difficulties and obstacles which occurred in the
establishment of a pure and upright administration. Not only was the whole system
previously pm’sued by the Dutch to be subverted, but an entire new one substituted,
as pure and liberal as the old one was vicious and contracted ; and this was to be
accomplished and carried into effect by the very persons who had so long fattened on
the vices of the former policy. Some few were sufficiently enlightened to perceive
the advantages of the new system : two of these, Mr. Cransen and Mr. Muntinghe,
on this account, were regarded by Mr. Raffles with the highest esteem.

Those who know how difficult it is to carry on a government, even where the
choice of agents is great, where each well knows the duty which he has to perform, and
where the state of society is such, that every man acts as a check upon his neighboiu”,
will be able to appreciate the labour and the anxiety which devolved on Mr. Raffles,
when Lord Minto left him to aiTange the details of that system of which they had
together formed the outline.

Buoyant in spirit and firm in courage, when once he had adopted a right prin-
ciple of action, Mr. Raffles was keenly alive to the difficult and arduous task which he
had to perform ; responsible for all, at a distance from any superior authority, without
one individual vith whose principles he was acquainted, and of whose abilities he
had any experience ; yet forced to set the wheel of government in motion, and to
watch its progress with unceasing attention, whilst all the details of every depart-
ment were to be formed by himself ; nothing but the facility of arrangement which he
possessed could have accomplished so much \vith so little assistance, and in so short
a time.

The manner and time of bringing about this change, however, required the
most serious consideration ; and before he took any decided step in the new organi-
zation, he instituted statistical enquiries in every district, and collected the most
detailed information in every department ; the result of which convinced him that a
thorough change in system was not only advisable and practicable, but indispensable,
no less for the interests and honour of the British Government, than for the happi-
ness and prosperity of the country at large. He examined minutely every depart-
ment ; drew up himself every detail and instruction for the agents which he employed,
and mth all the courage of a pure and ardent mind, commenced that thorough reform,
which with unwearied assiduity he labom'ed to establish during the whole period of
his administration.

The result fully equalled the highest expectations and estimates which had
been formed of its success ; and so judiciously was the change introduced, that not
a single individual, high or low, felt aggrieved by it ; the native population, chiefs.

ENGLISH RESIDENTS APPOINTED.

101

subordinates, and people, with one accord, hailed the new order of things as a boon
conferred upon them by British philanthropy, and entered on the enjoyment of its
advantages wdth confidence and improving industry.

The first act of Mr. Raffles was to send English Residents to the native
courts, and in the course of a month most of the expensive establishments of govern-
ment were discontinued ; the departments of revenue, commerce, and judicature,
were materially reforaied, and new arrangements adopted by the 1st of January,
1812. In connection with these important changes a general survey was made of the
whole island ; and detailed information collected in most of the districts of the lands
attached to each village, while a body of valuable statistics was compiled and
arranged, as well for the immediate use of Government as for future historical
reference. The labour attending the performance of such varied and extensive
duties was naturally very great ; Mr. Raffles had, fortunately, at this time sufficient
vigour of body as well as of mind to devote himself to them from daylight until
midnight.

The following is an extract from Captain Travers’ Journal : —

The official documents, already published, give a full, clear, and satisfactory
account of the zeal and ability evinced by Mr. Raffles in the administration of Java,
whilst few, perhaps, are aware of the apphcation and attention which he devoted
to his pubhc duties. With a constitution already impaired by climate, every one
was astonished at the exertion and fatigue he underwent ; and the Dutch, who were
altogether unaccustomed to witness such activity of mind and body, were unable
to keep pace with him.

“ The government of such an island as Java, with its dependencies, was a
charge of no trifling responsibility, and not the less so during the time of war;
but Lord Minto judged correctly when he told Mr. Raffles that it was not ‘ so
much as an acknowledgment of his past services, as in consideration of his peculiar
fitness for the office,’ that he appointed him to the charge of such a government.
Mr. Raffles was fully aware of the trust, and with all the ardour peculiar to himself
commenced the task.

His mild, conciliating, and unassuming manners, obtained for him the respect
and confidence of the Dutch, whilst the natives, who had been led to form the
highest possible opinion of his character, looked with anxious hope for that amelio-
ration in their condition which they afterwards experienced, and which will make
his memory adored on the island of Java for ages to come.

“ Soon after the capture of the island, and when Lord Minto had gone to
Bengal, Mr. Raffles removed from Ryswick to Buitenzorg, the country residence of
the former Governor, distant forty miles fi'om Batavia, and here he kept a most

102

LETTER TO MR. RAMSAY.

hospitable table. He went to Ryswick every week to attend the council, consisting
of General, then Colonel, Gillespie, Commander of the forces, with Mr. Muntinghe
and Mr. Cransen, Dutch gentlemen, who had held high situations under the former
government. At Ryswick he remained a day or two, according to circumstances, and
occasionally saw company there ; but the climate at Ruitenzorg being so far superior,
he was always anxious to return, and seldom lost much time on the road, perfonning
the journey in four hours. He was most attentive to the members of the former
government, who were constant guests at his table.”

In a private letter dated Batavia, in March 1812, to his fiiend the late Mr.
Ramsay, Secretary to the East India Company, Mr. Raffles touches upon the in-
ternal arrangements connected with the government of Java.

“ In this respect stand foremost the judicial and police arrangements. Previous
to the establishment of the British government in Java, there was no distinction
known between the police and the judicial administration of justice. At Batavia,
however, there existed a Supreme Court of Judicature and a Bench or Court of
Aldermen, called the College of Schepmen ; and at Sourabaya and Samarang inferior
courts of justice had been established ; and in each district a court termed the
Landrost, consisting of the Landrost, Regent, and Highpriest, exercised both the
police and judicial jurisdiction ; the only distinction which existed was that all the
Company’s seiwants should be amenable to the regular courts of justice, or to the
Supreme ComT at Batavia, while all other persons of every description were under
the jurisdiction of the Schepmen. A difference of persons was altogether so
strongly against our principles of public justice, and public and individual right, and
the principle on which such distinction might originally have been founded had so
entirely ceased by the abolition of all distinction between the servants of the late
Company, and all other individuals, that an entire change and separation of the police
from the judicial authorities became necessary, and was directed by the mstructions
left with me by the Governor-General.

“ The copy of the proclamation published in om’ first government gazette will
sufficiently explain the principles on which we proceeded ; and I flatter myself with
the approbation, not only of the Governor-General, but of the authorities in England,
of the measure taken by us of establishing the trial by jury, wiiich I am happy to say
has given universal satisfaction here ; and although, with the other new arrange-
ments, giving rise to new difflculties, is not likely to meet with any serious obstacle.
The courts of justice and police, as new modelled, are now in full exercise ; and I
hope this colony may receive all the advantages of British jurisprudence, without
entailing on it the disadvantages of a judicial establishment from England, of all
things the most to be dreaded for the general prosperity and happiness of the
population. The British comis of justice fit with difficulty our permanent English

PROCLAMATION TO THE PEOPLE OF JAVA.

103

establishments in India ; but here their introduction would only lead to anarchy,
vexation, and trouble without end.*

* “PROCLAMATION.

“ For the satisfaction of the inhabitants and people of Java, the following provisions are made public,
in testimony of the sincere disposition of the British Government to promote their prosperity and welfare.
The refusal of their late government to treat for their interests, although disabled by the events of war from
affording them any further protection, has rendered the consequent establishment of the British authority
unconditional. But an English government does not require the articles of a capitulation to impose those
duties which are prompted by a sense of justice and a beneficent disposition. The people of Java are
exhorted to consider their new connection with England as founded in principles of mutual advantage, and
to be conducted in a spirit of kindness and affection.

“ Providence has brought to them a protecting and benevolent government : they will cheerfully per-
form the reciprocal duties of allegiance and attachment.

“ 1. His Majesty’s subjects in Java will be entitled to the same general privileges as are enjoyed by
the natural-born subjects of Great Britain in India, subject to such regulations as now exist, or may here-
after be provided, respecting residence in any of the Honourable Company’s territories.

“ 2. They will have the same privilege and freedom of trade to and with all countries to the east of
the Cape of Good Hope, and also with His Majesty’s European dominions, as are possessed by natural-
born subjects of Great Britain.

“ 3. Dutch gentlemen will be eligible to all offices of trust, and will enjoy the confidence of Govern-
ment according to their respective characters, conduct, and talents, in common with British-born subjects.

“ 4. The vexatious system of monopoly which is understood to have heretofore prevailed in some
instances to an oppressive and inconvenient extent, will be revised, and a more beneficial and politic prin-
ciple of administration will be taken into consideration as soon, and to such extent, as full information on
the subject can be obtained, as established usage and habit may admit, and as may be consistent with a due
regard to the health and morals of the people.

“ 5. The Dutch laws will remain provisionally in force, under the modifications which will be hereinafter
expressed, until the pleasure of the supreme authorities in England shall be known ; and it is conceived
that no material alteration therein is to be apprehended.

“ The modifications to be now adopted are the following :

“ First. Neither torture nor mutilation shall make part of any sentence to be pronounced against
criminals.

“ Secondly. When a British-born subject is convicted of any offence, no punishment shall be awarded
against him more severe than would be inflicted by the laws of England for the same crime. And in case
of doubt concerning the penalty by English law, reference shall be made to the Honourable the Recorder
of Prince of W’ales’ Island, whose report shall be a sufficient warrant for aw'arding the penalty stated by him
to be' agreeable to the laws of England. No sentence against any British-born subject for any crime or
misdemeanour shall be carried into execution until a Report shall have been made to the Lieutenant-
Governor. »

“ Thirdly. No sentence of death against any person whatever shall be carried into execution until
Report shall have been made to the Lieutenant-Governor.

“ Fourthly. The Lieutenant-Governor will have the power of remitting, moderating, or confirming
all penalties, excepting inconsiderable fines, short imprisonment, or slight corporal punishment.

“ Fifthly. British-born subjects shall be amenable to the jurisdiction of the Dutch tribunals, and to
the Dutch laws, in all cases of civil complaint, or demands, whether they be plaintiffs or defendants.

“ Sixthly. All British-born subjects shall be subject to the regulations of police, and to the juris-

104

LAWS OF JAVA.

“ The Dutch law is directed by the proclamation of the Governor-General to
be continued ; but, in explanation of this law, it is necessary I should state, that the
law of Java is not so much the national law of Holland as a colonial law. The
foundation of this law is certainly that of the twelve tables. The civil law, or
Roman code, and some of the general laws of the States-General, are made to
apply; but the ordinary statutes, and those which apply in most instances, are
either the statutes passed in Holland, or by the Supreme Government from time
to time ; these form a body of regulations and laws peculiarly adapted to the place,
and if divested, as they are now directed to be, of cruelty and tortm-e, and modified
in some instances wherein the punishment of death may be considered to exceed
the offence, perhaps the best that could be de^ised for this place. Whatever, there-
fore, may be necessary to be done in this respect, should be well considered and
matured. The principle of the British law is acted up to in most cases, and it is
only in local and provincial occiui'ences that this principle can be interfered with.
In many instances the Dutch law, as it is termed, might be more properly called the
common law, and at all events it is from its antiquity and long authority considered
through the eastward as the law of the land.

“ In the collection of the revenue, the obnoxious system of farming has been

diction of the magistrates charged with the execution thereof, and with the maintenance of the peace, and
with public tranquillity and security.

“ Seventhly. All persons belonging to, or attached to tbe army, who are by their condition subject to
military law, shall for the present be tried for any crimes they may commit only by courts martial, unless
sent by the military Authorities to civil courts.

“ Eighthly. It being necessary in all countries that a power should exist of forming regulations in the
nature of legislative provisions adapted to change of circumstances, or to meet any emergency that may
arise ; and the great distance of the British authorities in Europe rendering it expedient that the said power
should for the present reside in some accessible quarter, it is declared that tbe Lieutenant-Governor shall
have full power and authority to pass such legislative regidations as on deliberation, and after due consul-
tation and advice, may appear to him indispensably necessary, and that they shall have the full force of law.
But tbe same shall be immediately reported to the Governor-General in Council in Bengal, together with
the Lieutenant-Governor’s reasons for passing the said regulation, and any representations that may have
been submitted to him against the same ; and the regulations so passed will be confirmed or disallowed by
the Governor-General in council, with tbe shortest possible delay. The mode in which the Lieutenant-Gover-
nor shall be assisted with advice, will hereafter be made known ; and such regulations will hereafter be
framed as may be thought more conducive to the prompt, pure, and impartial administration of justice, civil
and criminal.

“ Regulations respecting the paper-currency, as well as the relative value of coins circulating in Java,
will be published in a separate paper of this date.

“ Done at Molenvliet the 11th September, 1811.

“ By His Excellency the Governor-General of British India.

(Signed) “ MINTO.”

FEUDAL TENURE OF LAND.

105

abandoned as much as possible, and regular custom-houses have been established at
Bata\ia, Samarang, and Sourabaya.

" A system of duties has been established, founded, in some measure, on the
extent of the duties heretofore collected, and with reference to the support of the
dependant situations of Penang, Malacca, Bencoolen, and the Moluccas, which sooner
or later must fall under the immediate government of this place, if Java continues
a British settlement. The gi*eat quantity of prize property, and particularly of
coffee, which still remains on this island, renders any change in the present system
of coffee culture, as recommended by Lord Minto, impracticable ; but I have great
hopes that the accomplishment of the gi'and plan of amelioration in this and other
respects, respecting the agriculture and cultivation of this island, is not far distant.
I have an intelligent committee, of which Colonel Colin Mackenzie has done me the
honour to be President, now sitting on the eastern part of the island, and fi-om the
result of their labours I tmst to be possessed of such additional lights as may lead
eventually to a complete change of the present system of landed property, without
which little can he expected. With the exception of the estates in the neighbour-
hood of Batavia, and of a few lately sold at Sourabaya, the whole landed property
in Java is held on an acknowledged feudal tenure. The Soosoohonan and Sultan
are the lords paramount in their districts ; and although the Company are literally
so in the districts properly termed the Company’s provinces, the power is transferred
universally to the Regents, who on condition of furnishing a certain quota or con-
tingent of produce, and in some cases of money, and rendering with their people
certain feudal service when required, are possessed of absolute authority within their
respective districts, keeping the common people throughout in the most abject state
of vassalage. A material change was however effected with regard to the Regents
by Marshal Daendels. Previous to his organization of the eastern districts, the
Regents had been supposed to hold their authority of right, and their agreement
with government was considered as a contract ; but the Marshal, by a very laudable
stroke of policy, rendered them immediately dependent on the European govern-
ment, by giving them commissions and instructions as officers of government. This
system has been followed up by the British government, and each Regent has
received his commission, and taken an oath of allegiance to his Britannic Majesty,
and of obedience to the government of Java.

“ By the next opportunity I shall have the satisfaction of forwarding to the
authorities in England several reports, from Dr. Horsfield and other scientific gentle-
men, on the natural history of this island, and as the Batarian Literary Society
have sohcited that I should take that institution under the protection of govern-
ment, I trust that by uniting our efforts with those of the Asiatic Society in Bengal,
very considerable hght may be shortly thrown on science and general knowledge.
The nmnerous remains of Brahminical stmctures, in every part of the island, prove,

106

LETTER TO MR. MARSDEN.

beyond a doubt, that a colony of Hindus settled on this island about the first cen-
tury of the Christian era ; and the materials of which they are constructed, induce
the behef that this colony must have emigi'ated from the Coromandel Coast.

“ The beauty and pm*ity of these stmctures are entirely divested of that redun-
dancy of awkward and uncouth ornaments and symbols which are found in India.
The interests of science and literature are by no means neglected on this island, and
a valuable and highly interesting stock of information may be contemplated. A very
extensive collection has been made by Dr. Horsfield, on account of government, of
the objects in the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, which are pecuhar to this
place ; and the museum at the India-house uill not be forgotten, as soon as occupa-
tions of a more pressing nature afford adequate leism'e for an aiTangement of our
collections.

Mr. Raffles wTote at the time on the same subject to Mr. Marsden.

From Mr. Raffles to Mr. Marsden.

Buitenzorg, Java, 22d October, 1812.

“ In one of your communications you desire to receive infonnation respecting
the Bohun Upas, which appears to have, of late, been brought particularly to notice.
I have now the pleasure to transmit to you a full and satisfactory report on the
subject by Dr. Horsfield, a gentleman whose attention has long been devoted to
botanical discoveries in the natural history of this island.

“ Interested as you are in every thing which concerns the fuidher East, it i\ill
be satisfactory to you to know, that by the present opportunity I have forwarded to
the Court of Directors specimens of many of the plants of Java, as well as of many
new animals. I have also fonvarded to them a short account of the medical plants
of Java, as well as a general mineralogical account of the island by Dr. Horsfield.

“ I find it difficult to procm’e copies of these papers for you, in consequence of
the distress for copjfing-clerks ; but I hope you ivill be able to obtain the perusal of
them.

“ The Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences is revmng, and I hope in another
year the world will be presented with an additional volume of its transactions.

“ I am collecting for you a variety of inscriptions found in different parts of
Java, and in Madura and Bali ; and, if possible, some of them shall be sent by the
present conveyance. Drawings of all the ruined temples and images are in hand,
and it will not be long before I shall have it in my power to communicate to you
fully, after surveying the whole. Vocabularies in the Javanese, Madurese, Bali, and
Bugis languages are already completed, and others in hand.

“ Until I may be able to uvite to you more at length, the enclosed is a report
of the small district of Pagitan, and affords a view of the habits and institutions of
some of the Javanese.”

.Wf" " :,.

' *

/r-tija

,t t '

•a /

t tm

IVf' ? -r

' ♦ '■ ‘'M' c ^ I

iiii^vi ■*^1. vs-'
^hr ': * I

!^^-.'ii - 1

»*'

’jtf' '^/:'

fe£ #•■•'

r-* -%^-'

"Ti#* .

r*.

:?»

* H

It.

'• n

V • •

ACCOUNT OF THE UPAS.

107

A short extract from Dr. Horsfield’s account of tlie Upas may be interesting :

“ The tree which produces the Upas poison grows in the eastern extremity of
Java ; it belongs to the 21st class of Linnaeus, the Monaecia. The male and female
flowers are produced in catkins (cementa) on the same branch, at no great distance
from each other ; the female flowers are in general above the male. The characters
of the genus are : male flower, calix consisting of several scales, which are imbricate ;
corol none ; stamens, filaments many, very short, covered by the scales of the recep-
tacle anthers. The receptacle on which the filaments are placed has a conical form,
abrupt, somewhat rounded above. Female flower, catkins ovate, calix consisting of
a niunber of imbricate scales, (generally more than in the male,) containing one
flower ; corol, none ; pistil, germ single, ovate, erect ; styles, two, long, slender,
spreading ; stigmas simple, acute ; seed-vessel an oblong drupe, covered vrith the
cahx ; seed an ovate nut, covered with one cell. This tree is one of the largest in
the forests of Java; the stem is cyhndrical, perpendicular, and rises, completely
naked, to the height of sixty, seventy, or eighty feet. Near the surface of the ground
it spreads obliquely, dividing into numerous broad appendages, or wings ; it is
covered with a whitish bark : near the gromid this bark is, in old trees, more than
an inch thick, and upon being womrded, jdelds plentifrdly the milky juice from which
the celebrated poison is prepared. The sap is contained in the tree-bark (or cortex.)
Tlie inner bark (or fiber) of young trees is employed by the poorer class of people in
making a coarse stuff, which they wear when working in the fields ; but persons
wearing this dress, on being exposed to the rain, are affected with an intolerable
itching, which renders their flimsy covering almost insupportable. The deleterious
quality of the poison exists in the gum ; the preparation of a poison from which is
an exclusive art of the inhabitants of the eastern extremity of the island.

“ In clearing new grounds near the tree, the inhabitants do not like to approach
it, as they dread the cutaneous emption which it is knowm to produce when newly
cut down. But, except when the tree is largely wounded, or when it is felled, by
which a large portion of the juice is disengaged, the effluvia of which mixing with the
atmosphere, affects the persons exposed to it with the symptoms just mentioned, the
tree may be approached and ascended like the other common trees in the forests.
Like all other trees in its neighbourhood, it is smrounded by shrubs and plants.

“ One of the Regents had caps, or bonnets, prepared from the inner bark, which
were stiffened in the usual manner with rice-water, and handsomely painted, for the
pm’pose of decorating his attendants ; but they all refused to wear them, asserting
that they would cause their hair to fall off.

“ The following is a description of the mode of preparing this poison. About
eight ounces of the juice from the tree, which had been collected dm'ing the preced-
ing evening, and preserved in a joint of a bamboo, was carefully strained in a bowl.
The sap of the follomng substances, which had been finely gi'ated and bruised, was

p 2

108

MODE OF PREPARING THE UPAS POISON.

carefully expressed and poured into it ; viz. aiTun, ammonium, common onion, and
garlic, each about half a drachm ; the same quantity of finely-powdered black pepper
is then added, and the mixtm'e stirred. A single seed of the capsicum fi'ucticosum was
then placed on the fluid, in the middle of the bowl ; the seed began to reel round
rapidly, now forming a regidar circle, then darting towards the margin of the cup,
vith a perceptible commotion on the smdace of the liquor, which continued one
minute. Being completely at rest, the same quantity of pepper was again added,
and another seed of the capsicum laid on as before : a similar commotion took place
in the fluid, but in a less degree, and the seed was carried round with diminished
rapidity. The addition of the same quantity of pepper was repeated a third time,
when a seed of the capsicrun being carefully placed in the centre of the fluid,
remained quiet, forming a regular circle in the fluid resembling the halo of the
moon. This is the sign that the preparation of the poison is complete.”

The common train of symptoms, is a trembhng of the extremities, restlessness,
erection of the hair, affection of the bowels, di'ooping and faintness, slight spasms
and con^'ulsions, hasty breathing, an increased flow of sahva, spasmodic contractions
of the pectoral and abdominal muscles, retching, vomiting, gi*eat agony, laborious
breathing, violent and repeated convulsions, death.

The action of the Upas poison is directed chiefly to the vascular system. The
volume of the blood is accumulated in a preternatural degi-ee in the large vessels of
the thorax.

The circulation appears to be extracted from the extremities and thrown upon
the viscera near its som'ce. The lungs in particular are stimulated to excessive exer-
tions. The vital viscera are oppressed by an intolerable load, which produces the
symptoms above described, while in the extremities a proportionate degree of toi-por
takes place, accompanied by tremors, shiverings, and convuilsions.

The natives of Macasar, Borneo, and the Eastern Islands, when they employ this
poison, make use of an arrow of bamboo, (to the end of which they attach a shark’s
tooth) which they throw from a blow-pipe or sompit.

The Upas appears to affect different quadrupeds with nearly equal force, propor-
tionate in some degree to their size and disposition.

As soon as Mr. Raffles could command sufficient leisure he \isited the Eastern
Districts, and gave the following short account of his journey to Lord Minto : —

“ I shall only say I was most highly gratified and satisfied "with every thing I
saw ; it is impossible to conceive any thing more rich than the country, both in culti-
vation and scenery. I was happy to perceive that between Samarang and Sourabaya
neither the country nor the establishments had suffered from the effects of the expedi-
tion, and that every thing was going on as if nothing had happened. I left BataUa
on the 28th November, 1811, and landed at Samarang, after a tedious passage, on
the 4th December ; from thence I visited Sourabaya and Madura on my return, and

JOURNEY TO THE EASTERN DISTRICTS.

109

reached Buitenzorg on the 1st of January. To give an idea of the high state of the
roads, and of the facility of communication in every part of the island, it may be suffi-
cient that I inform you, that fi'om Sourabaya to Samarang, 200 miles, I was only
twenty-four hours on the road, and from thence to Buitenzorg only two days and
a half, and this without any fatigue.”

CHAPTER V.

Expedition to Palembang — Arrival of the Troops — Gallantry of the attaek — Horrors of the seene — Colonel
Gillespie's account of the Sultan — Measures adopted hy Colonel Gillespie — Sultan of Djocjocarta —
Mr. Raffles collects troops, and proceeds to Samarang — Account of treaties with the Sultan — General
confederacy of the native states — Unexpected and fortunate return of Colonel Gillespie — Assaidtand
capture of Djocjocarta — European power frst jmramount in Java.

The apparent tranquillity which followed the success of the British arms (1812) was
but of short duration. The state of some of the native powers on Java, particularly
that of Djocjocarta, and the proceedings of the Sultan of Palembang, a dependency
situated in the island of Sumatra, soon called for prompt and decisive measures, as
uill be seen by the following extract of a letter from Mr. Raffles to the Governor-
General, dated the 7th March, 1812:

“ I have the honom' of reporting to your Lordship, that on the 2d November
last, finding that the season of the year afforded the probabihty of communicating
with Palembang, I despatched a commission to that place, consisting of Captain
Phillips, Mr. Wardenar,* and hlr. Hare,f for the purpose of taking charge of the
Dutch factory there, in pursuance of the capitulation, and of delivering the same
over to Lieutenant Jackson, whom I had appointed prortsionally to act as Resident.

“ From a perusal of the documents now transmitted, your Lordship will observe,
that the importance of the island of Banca and of the tin-trade occupied at an early
period after your departure my most serious attention. Desirous of avoiding any
unnecessary breach with any of the Eastern chiefs, I endeavoiued to attain the
object which government had in riew by an amicable arrangement, on terms far
more advantageous and liberal to the Sultan of Palembang than he had enjoyed
under the Dutch government. The residency of Palembang, as a former depen-
dency of Java, having by right of conquest, and by the express articles of the
capitulation, fallen under the British dominion, the object of the commission was to
have this right acknowledged by the Sultan, and the privileges stipulated by the

* Late Member of the Supreme Council of Batavia,
f Appointed by Lord !Minto Resident of Sambas in Borneo.

EXPEDITION TO PALEMBANG.

Ill

former contracts transferred to the British government. This being effected, it was
intended to grant more hberal tenns than ever were enjoyed by the Sultan, previous
to the conquest of Java.

“ The commission, however, instead of meeting with such a reception at Palem-
bang, as from the nature of their appointment they were entitled to expect, found
the Sultan not only averse to acknowledgmg any of the claims on which this nego-
ciation was founded on the part of the British government, but in such a disposition
as rendered all attempts to enter into a new contract with him fruitless and abortive.
He not only treated with a kind of ridicule and neglect the claims of the British
government to the contracts which subsisted with the former government before the
conquest of Java, but rejected with disdain the new terms which were offered to
him. The Sultan altogether disregarded the representations on the part of the
British government, until he received authentic accounts of the fall of Batavia ; and
then, instead of listening to the demands of my agents, Toonkoo Radin Mahomet
and Syed Abu Bakir, that he should consider the Dutch property and inhabitants as
under the protection of the Enghsh, who had conquered Java and all its dependen-
cies, he declared in a haughty manner his intention of maintaining his entire inde-
pendence of any power on earth. Struck, however, by the sudden, and to him
certainly unexpected news, of the complete conquest of Java by the Enghsh, the
Sultan became anxious for his future fate, and by threats and force compelled my
agents to sign and seal false reports, forged by the Sultan and addressed to me, in
which it was stated that the Dutch garrison had, agreeably to their request, been
sent to Batavia, and the fort razed to the ground, long previous to the attack upon
the island of Java by the British troops ; and to cover the falsehood of this report
(on the faith of wliich he had laid the foundation of his future independence), he
formed the diabohcal plan of destroying every witness who might hereafter appear
against him, sending the Dutch inhabitants in small prows down the river, where
they were murdered by order of the Sultan, and ordering my agents to appear
before him, that they might share the same fate.

“ Considering all these facts, the evident hostile manner in which the Sultan
behaved to the acknowledged native agents from the British government; the
treacherous and barbarous manner in which he destroyed the property and murdered
the presumptive subjects of this government ; the arrogant and offensive manner in
which he rejected the most liberal proposition for an amicable arrangement, which
this government, ignorant of the events which had taken place, made to him by
means of the commission, and the consequent certainty therefi'om that all further
attempts for an amicable arrangement woidd be as vain in effect as they would be
mibecoming in principle to the character of the British nation, it has been left for
me to resolve upon some immediate and decisive measm’e, consistent with the dignity
and interests of government.

112

EXPEDITION TO PALEMBANG.

A commanding force under Colonel Gillespie will embark in two days, and I
trust, in less than a month, that I may be in possession of satisfactory accounts of
the result. I am aw^are that I have taken much responsibihty on myself in the
adoption of hostile measures against Palembang, wthout previous reference to
Bengal; but so many favourable circumstances concurred to induce the measiue,
and so many obstacles in the wny of its final success appeared to present themselves
in the event of delay, that I should not have felt myself justified to have lost the
opportunity of so much larger a force than could ever have been subsequently left
at our command. In fact, the expedition must either have taken place now or been
delayed another year, and this consideration of itself was enough to outweigh every
objection; the passage to Palembang from Bata^aa may at the present season of the
year be effected in five or six days, and the returning voyage may be accomphshed
during the same period. I have prorisionally appointed a Resident for Banca, and I
trust my next letter will comimmicate favourable intelligence on this point. There
is one thing I have never noticed regarding Banca, and that is, the harboiu of
Klabbat, stated to be the most secure in India, and capable of every defence — the
entrance to the harbour being between tw'o rocks or promontories, not half-pistol-
shot from each other, and a bason within, with fine bottom and deep w ater, capable
of containing, it is said, the navy of England. It is directly in the route for our
trade through the China seas, and the situation of Minta, on winch it is projected
to form the first settlement in Banca, is perhaps the most commanding that could
be chosen for the Eastern Seas. If possible, I will forward more particulars, but
the total w^ant of clerks w^ho can copy English legibly, forms at present a serious
obstacle to the transmission of all papers.”

An expechtion w^as accordingly fitted out under the command of Colonel
Gillespie, who wns entinsted with the execution of the rieAvs of government, and
wiio had the whole management confided to his inchridual judgment and direction.
The fleet consisted of his Majesty’s ships Cornelia, Captain Owen; Bucephalus,
Captain Drury; sloop Procris, Captain Freeman; the Honorable Company’s cruizer,
Teignmouth, Captain Howitson; Mercury, Captain Conyers. Gun-boats: schooner
Wellington, Captain Cromy; Young Barracouta, Captain Ljmch. Transports,
Samdany, Minerva, Matilda, and Mary Ann.

Captain Bowen, of his Majesty’s ship Phoenix, meeting it at sea, took the com-
mand of the fleet as senior officer.

Troops embarked.

Detachment of His Majesty’s 59th regiment, three companies, rifle and flank
companies.

Ditto 89th regiment, five companies.

Ditto, Madras horse-artillery and hussars dismounted.

PASSAGE OF THE EXPEDITION.

IVi

Detachment of Bengal artillery ; detail and detachment of sepoys, 5th and 6th
battalions.

Ditto, Amboynese.

A considerable number of guns and military stores, intended for the new set-
tlement of Banca, were put on board the transports.

Contrary winds and currents, which during the western monsoon are violent
and unchangeable, still maintained their influence at this advanced season, and con-
siderably retarded the progress of the expedition which reached Nanka Island
on the 3d of April, 1812, where it continued a week at anchor. Tents were
pitched on shore, and all the artificers were employed in the completion of the
boats intended for the passage up the Palembang river, by constructing plat-
forms for the field-pieces, and making coverings to shelter the troops as much as
possible from the burning violence of the solar heat, and the inclemency of the
noctmnal air.

The fleet was supplied with water of a very good quality at this island, which
is covered with wood, and inhabited by bears, monkies, and wild-hogs. Fish was in
great abundance, and pirates frequently visit the place to take in water and fuel.

The armament got under weigh on the 10th of April, and came to an anchor
on the 15th at noon, opposite the west channel of Palembang river.

The unavoidable delay which the expedition experienced, by encountering con-
trary winds and currents in the straits, afforded ample time to the guilty Sultan to
prepare either for resistance or flight. With a view to the latter course, he had re-
moved his treasure and women, at a very early period, into the interior; whilst
himself and his ministers sent message after message to the British Commander,
filled with expressions of respect, and framed with apparent candour, but hypocritical
in their language, and treacherous in their object.

The continuance of the ebb tide during the whole of the 19th of April, obhged
the fleet to remain stationary till about four in the afternoon, when a gentle sea
breeze favouring its progress, enabled the flotilla to move, though it was only for a
short distance, as the wind soon failed, and the flood tide being very slack, some of
the vessels got entangled among the branches of the trees and bushes, which there-
fore it was necessary to cut away. At the turn of the tide, which was about six on
the following morning, the flotilla came to an anchor.

In the early part of the day Pangarang Sheriff arrived from the Sultan of
Palembang, begging to know the intention of the British Commander in thus ad-
vancing with such a force; to which Colonel Gillespie returned for answer, that he
must acquaint the Sultan in person with the propositions he was entrusted with on
the part of his government, and the messenger returned immediately.

At five in the evening the fleet proceeded on its passage ; but the tide becoming
slacker every day in proportion to its chstance from the sea, and the wind being

114

ARRIVAL OF THE TROOPS.

adverse, it did not gain above six miles all night ; the ebb tide occurring at six the
next morning, the 21st of April, it anchored near the jimction of False River.

Another messenger, Pangarang Pranah, arrived in the morning from Palem-
bang, bringing vith him a letter from the Sultan, to whom he was related. In tliis
epistle the crafty monarch congi-atulated the Commander on his andval in the
river Soosang, professing at the same time to be the friend of the Enghsh, the
design of which was too obrious to impose upon those who were acquainted with
the VTiter’s character. Colonel Gillespie replied that he meant to be at Palembang
in two days, where he expected to see the Sultan, having matters to disclose to
him in person of the greatest consequence ; and at the same time assm'ing the
inhabitants of Palembang of the protection of the British Government. Before the
ambassador could receive this reply in writing, another messenger arrived mth a
similar letter from the Sultan, requesting an immediate explanation. Both the
Sultan’s agents, therefore, returned together, about five in the evening ; and as soon
as the tide permitted, at seven, the flotilla got under weigh. At smi-rise, on the 22d
April, the batteries at Borang were descried.

In the com'se of the forenoon Captain Owen, of the royal na\y, with Major
Thorn, Deputy Quarter-Master-General, reconnoitered the batteries and armed
prows stationed there, which had been joined by a large Arab ship, armed for
the occasion, and sent down fi-om Palembang by the Sultan to add to the defence
of this post. These vessels, with the floating batteries, were moored across the river
in echellon, raking with their guns the whole length of the passage, whilst the
numerous artillery on the three fixed batteries bore across on the channel by
which the advance was to be made, thus enabhng the enemy to bring the fire of
their guns almost to a ray on any point in the line of advance. Nmnerous fire-
rafts were placed on the fi'ont and flank of the batteries, ready to be set adrift to
fire the shipping. Piles of wood didven mto the river defended the approach to the
batteries, in boats, whilst a strong pahsade protected the rear and flanks. A gi'eat
deal of bustle and activity was observable within the several defences, which appeared
to be fully manned and prepared for resistance.

The \dolent rain, which lasted all the afternoon, and continued dm*ing the
night, proved of considerable annoyance, particularly to the men who were em-
barked in boats. Great, indeed, and scarcely to be conceived, was the fatigue the
sailors and soldiers had to midergo in a region where, dming the day they were
exposed, while employed in laborious rouing, to the rays of a bmaiing sun, directly
under the equator, and deprived in the night of the refi'eshment of sleep.

But notwithstanding the excessive hardships which all ranks and descriptions
of persons in the service were called to bear, and the privations they had to endure,
nothing could shake their resolution or abate their ardour in the performance of
their duty.

TAKE POSSESSION OF THE BATTERIES AT BORANG.

115

In the evening another messenger, named Pangarang Martoo arrived with a
letter fi-om the Sultan, importing that he should be happy to see his friend, the
Commander of the expedition, at Palembang ; but requesting that he would dispense
>rtth so large an armed force, and visit the capital unattended, being fearful, as he
pretended, that the appearance of so many troops would occasion serious disturbances
among the inhabitants of Palembang.

It was easy enough to perceive the insidious ch'ift of this proposition ; but the
ti'eachery of the Sultan had already been too notorious to allow such fallacious decla-
rations and hollow professions the slightest respect, or even a moment’s attention.

Colonel Gillespie demanded of the messenger who last arrived, an unmolested
passage up the river, and also a hostage as a security for their good behaviour ; to
which Pangarang Martoo instantly assented, offering at the same time to give
possession of the batteries, and to leave them entirely at the disposal of the Colonel ;
the ship that was lying there w’as also to be made use of as the British Commander
might please to direct. As a pledge of their sincerity, a person bearing the title of
Commandant of the batteries, and who accompanied the messenger, remained behind
for the purpose of conducting the troops to Borang.

The proper arrangements being made to secure these objects on the following
night Captain Meares, Malay interpreter to the Commander of the forces, was
directed to proceed to Borang, accompanied by the officer who had been left as a
hostage, and to demand a decisive answer whether or not they would let the bat-
teries be taken possession of amicably, or whether they would resist the passage of
the flotilla. No time was allowed for equivocation on the part of the Chief Panga-
rang, and Colonel Gillespie followed close after, at the head of the small, but formid-
able array of the British advance, composed of detachments of the 59th and 89th
regiments, in light boats, supported by the gun-launches and field-artillery in the
flat-boats. On their arrival at the dawn of day within half-gun-shot distance of the
batteries, the Pangarang came off with Captain Meares, and offered to deliver up the
works with all the other defences, which, in consequence, were immediately occupied
by the British troops. The garrison, terrified at their sudden approach, and unmindful
of the positive orders of the Sultan to defend the passage to the last, took themselves
to flight, and escaped in some prows that had been kept concealed round the eastern
part of Borang Island, and on the western side of Binting Isle. All the guns taken,
to the nmnber of one hundred and two, were ready charged and primed. The large
ship afforded quarters for a great portion of the soldiers, but the remainder were
placed in huts and floating batteries which had coverings.

In the evening the troops were all re-embarked, and proceeded on to a little
distance. Fires now appeared in all directions, and several of the rafts were set in
flames by the enemy, with the view of effecting, if possible, the destruction of the

Q 2

116

GALLANTRY OF THE ATTACK.

shipping, which had not as yet passed the batteries ; but though they were coming
up at this time (8 p. m.) fortunately the exertions of Captain Owen with the crews of
the light boats were successM in cutting the rafts asunder before they were thoroughly
in flames, by which means a general conflagration was seasonably prevented. Several
shots were fired from one of the Cornelia’s boats at the Malays, who were seen set-
ting fire to the rafts which had the effect of instantly dispersing them.

Early on the following morning, the 25th of April, an Arab arrived who stated
himself to be the owner of the ship before mentioned, and begging that she might be
restored, which request was granted. He brought information that the Sultan
immediately fled from Palembang on learning that the defences at Borang, which had
been considered such a formidable barrier, no longer obstructed the farther progress
of the British troops.

Colonel Gillespie, on hearing this, detennined to push forward with the light
boats ; and whilst making this arrangement another Arab amved, the Pangarang
Sheriff, who confirmed the account of the Sultan’s flight ; adding the afflicting intelli-
gence, that the greatest confusion, plunder, and assassination prevailed, not only
within the interior of the fort and palace, but in many parts of the city. Upon this
Colonel Gillespie resolved to lose not a moment, but to hasten by the quickest pos-
sible manner to put a stop to this scene of horror, and by his immediate presence
prevent the execution of the massacre, which it was reported the Sultan’s adherents
meditated to perpetrate the very next night upon the wealthy Chinese and other
inhabitants, whose property was to become the prize of the assassins.

The Colonel, therefore, proceeded instantly with the Ai*ab chief in his canoe,
accompanied by Captain Meares and Mr. Villneruhy, a Spanish gentleman, who
acted as Malay inteiq)reters. In that and another small canoe which accompanied
them, were distributed seven grenadiers of the 59th regiment ; and these were fol-
lowed by Captain Bowen, of the Royal Navy ; Major Butler, Deputy Adjutant-General ;
and Major Thorn, Deputy Quarter-Master-General, in the gig belonging to the Phoenix,
and ten more grenadiers of the same regiment, in the barge of the same ship, \vith
Lieutenant Monday, R. N., and Lieutenant Forrest, of the 59th ; the remaining troops,
under Lieutenant-Colonel jVPLeod, having orders to follow Avith all possible speed.
The distance was twenty miles, so that it was dark w'hen the party arrived at Old
Palembang. The canoes, in one of which the Colonel was, had gained much on the
other two boats, and were now completely out of sight, when the report of a signal-
gun, fired by the enemy, not a little alarmed them, and increased the anxiety for the
rest of the party ; the more so, as every thing around tended to excite suspicion of
some treacherous design being in agitation. A di'eadful yell and shrieking in all
directions was next heard, and lights and conflagrations were seen throughout the
whole extent of this large tract of population, which stretched along both banks of

HORRORS OF THE SCENE,

117

the river for upwards of seven miles. By the redoubled exertions of the crews, the
boats in the rear were soon brought up to the support of the little band, and thus
happily formed in time an important junction.

To paint the horrors of the scene that presented itself in their true colours, or
to attempt an expression of the sensations it was calculated to excite, would be a diffi-
cult task ; and the undaunted act which gained the possession of the fort, the palace,
and its batteries, may be credited when the name of the leader is recollected. Un-
dismayed in the face of numerous bodies of armed men. Colonel Gillespie boldly
stepped on shore, at eight o’clock at night, and with those who had accompanied
him in the canoe, and the seven grenadiers, he marched, with a firm step, through a
multitude of Ai'abs and treacherous Malays, whose missile weapons, steeped in
poison, ghmmered by the light of torches.

Huge battlements, "with immense gates, leading from one area to another, pre-
sented the fr-ightful spectacle of human blood stiU reeking and flowing on the pave-
ment. The massive gates closed upon the rear, and the blood-stained court-yards
through which the party were conducted, appeared as if they were the passage to a
slaughter-house.

A Malay, who had pressed through the crowd, approached the Colonel, and was
walking by his side, when a large double-edged knife was secretly put into his hands
by one of his countrymen. It was a dark stormy night, and a ray of lightening, at the
very instant when the man was pushing the knife up his long loose sleeve to conceal it,
discovered the weapon. The Colonel’s eye caught the object, and instantly tm'ning
round, he had the fellow seized, totally regardless of the crowd ; thus fortunately
fmstrating, by his firmness, the murderous design. The weapon was found as
described ; but the man contrived to steal away in the crowd, and escaped.

The palace exhibited a melancholy picture of devastation and cruelty. Murder
had been succeeded by rapine ; and while the place was completely ransacked, the
pavements and floors were clotted with blood. In every direction spectacles of woe
caught the sight, and were rendered pecuharly awful by the glare of the suiTounding
conflagration, accompanied by \ivid flashes of lightening, and loud peals of thunder.

The flames, which continued to spread destruction, notwithstanding the rain that
poured down in torrents, had reached the outer buildings of the palace, and threat-
ened the part where the Colonel, with his party, had taken up their temporary abode.
The crackhng of bamboos, resembhng the discharge of musquetry ; the tumbling in
of burning roofs with a tremendous crash ; the near approach of the fire, in the midst
of an immense hostile multitude and assassins ; altogether gave to their situation a
most appalling prospect.

The little band, consisting only of seventeen British grenadiers, vrith the officers
naval and mihtary already mentioned, and a few seamen belonging to the gig and
barge, had to secure possession of the fort, and to provide for their safety, in the

118

COLONEL GILLESPIE’S ACCOUNT OF THE DEPOSED SULTAN.

detemiined resolution of selling their lives dearly, should any attack be made before
the arrival of reinforcements. Ha^■ing carefidly reconnoiti'ed by the hght of torches
the interior of the palace court, and ordered all the entrances except one to be shut
and barricadoed. Colonel Gillespie stationed the gi'enadiers at the principal entrance,
and the strictest guard was kept up. Soon after midnight they had the satisfaction
of hailing the welcome arrival of Major Trench, with about sixty men of the 89th
regiment ; and the remaining part of the ordered advance, under Lieutenant-Colonel
McLeod, joined the little ganison early the next morning.

Thus an act of daring enterprise, conceived with judgment and executed with
intrepidity, gained possession of the fort and batteries defended by two hundred and
forty-tw'o pieces of cannon, without the loss of a man. This formidable position
could not have been canied under any other circumstances of attack, but by the
sacrifice of many hves, and by hazarding altogether the safety of the little annament.

The rapidity of the movement, and the sudden and unexpected arrival of the
few British at that late hour in the evening, w^hose numbers were greatly magnified
by the panic which seized the foe, caused the immediate dispersion of the Sultan’s
adherents, who fled in confusion, and thus reheved the towm from the miseries with
w^hich it w as threatened, of plunder and destruction. An American, w^ho was the
supercargo of a large Chinese junk then lying at Palembang, gave a melancholy
description of the fate with which they were threatened, and w'hich w'ould have
burst on them that very night, had the English not arrived in time to prevent it.
This junk, with all on board, had in fact been marked out as the first victims.

The measm'es taken to restore order and maintain tranquilhty were so effectual,
that the inhabitants assiuned confidence, and many wLo had fled into the w^oods
returned to their homes. The gi*eat body of the people w^ere pleased at the change,
and rejoiced in being relieved from the tjTanny of the Sultan, w^hich seemed to have
attained its height.

The following report made to the Lieutenant-Governor by Colonel Gillespie,
when at Palembang, of the atrocious conduct of the deposed Sultan, is given at
length for the purpose of shewing the strong appeal made on the ground of huma-
nity to the British government to intei-pose in putting a stop to the dreadful scenes
of cruelty and oppression wiiich w^ere daily occuning.

To the Honourable T. S. Raffles, Lieutenant-Governor, Sfc.

“ Honourable Sir,

“ As I have been lately employed in acquiring every infonnation connected
with the barbarous and cmel murder of the Dutch factory and garrison at Palem-
bang, I have defeired the transmission of any official report to you upon this melan-
choly subject, until I should have obtained the most accurate knowledge of all the

CRUELTIES OF PANGERANG RATOO.

119

particulars, that the atrocity of the transactions enabled me to collect. In my
inquiries, I have been occasionally so bewildered by falsehood, guilt, and prevarica-
tions, that I have experienced considerable difficulty in selecting the evidences most
worthy of attention. The choice, however, has been made with the greatest care,
and I imagine the circumstances which I shall now relate to you, may be considered
in every way deserving of belief.

You are not ignorant that Pangerang Ratoo, the eldest son of the late Sultan,
is one of the most abominable and unprincipled villains that ever disgraced humanity.
The crimes committed by this barbarous and sanguinary assassin, since the period
he has been enabled to indulge his abandoned inclinations, have been distinguished
by circumstances of such aggravated cruelty and guilt, that the inhabitants of the
kingdom have beheld him with one common sentiment of horror, hatred, and indig-
nation. It is to the crimes of this iniquitous monster that the massacre of the
Dutch may originally be attributed; to the indulgence of his vicious propensities
that his father is now indebted for banishment and degradation.

“ Among other pursuits that were followed by him with great avidity, was that
of spearing the unhappy and defenceless wretches whom he accidentally encountered
in his lawless excursions, or of sacrificing their wives and daughters to his aban-
doned cmelty and passions. In one of these infamous adventures he became ena-
moured of a Chinese woman, whom he was determined to obtain ; and, lest he
should fail in support of his dark and diabohcal character, he resolved on com-
pelhng the unfortunate husband to assist in the completion of his wife’s dishonour.
The refinement thus exercised upon cruelty and rapine was more than the mifortu-
nate husband could sustain without complaint. He knew himself to be in the
neighbourhood of the Dutch garrison, and called loudly from his house for protec-
tion and assistance. An armed party was detached to his aid, and pursued the
Pangerang Ratoo to his prow on the river, without being sensible of the dignity they
were so successfully routing ; the discovery of this unpleasant truth was made by
himself before their separation. The boat was moored several yards from the shore,
and in consequence he was compelled to swim a considerable distance before his
escape was complete. No sooner, however, had he gained his canoe than he turned
to his pursuers, and cried with the most callous effrontery, ‘ you are ignorant,’ said
he, ' of the influence and power you have so audaciously defied ; know, to your
confusion, that it is the Pangerang Ratoo himself, and rest assured that in three
days you shall all of you be murdered, and your present habitations rendered such a
scene of desolation, that they shall only be fit for birds to build their nests on.’

“ The accomplishment of this barbarous piu'pose was too successfrdly realized
within the period specified by the Pangerang Ratoo. A message was sent to the
Resident, the Commandant, and principal officers of the garrison, in which the
Sultan requested them to appear in his presence for the transaction of some im-

1-20

CRUELTIES OF PANGERANG RATOO.

portant business. The designing cowards took advantage of this treacherous
manoeu^Te to introduce within the walls of the fort a multitude of anned Malays,
as the followers of the great men who brought the message fi'om the Sultan.

Tlie unwar\' and confiding Dutchmen, unsuspicious of ertl intentions, were
speedily sun-ounded without the hope of escape ; the guns were all seized by parties
on the ramparts, and the unfortimate ganison were dragged to a scene of cold-
blooded cruelty, which can never be contemplated but ^^*ith sentiments of hoiTor and
abhon-ence, proportioned to the enormity of such unmerited and unprovoked
violence.

“ Among the agents and instiaiments of this sanguinary transaction, there is no
character so remarkably prominent as that of Tmnugung Lonong, the principal
magistrate of the town. He was not only the harbinger of treachery and deceit in
the first instance, but he was subsequently the promoter of the Sultan’s cruelty, and
his adviser to destroy the fort, and leave no vestige of Dutch property remaining
in Palembang, in order that they might for ever be exempted fi'om an alhance \\fith
European nations.

“ In considering the choice of an ambassador to our government, I cannot suf-
ficiently express my astonishment at the boldness and audacity of the Sultan, who
selected this infamous assassin as his agent and representative on Java.

The very countenance of the rillain betrays the guilt of which he is capable,
and the unwearied obstinacy with which, in spite of every proof, he denied all
knowledge of the transaction, proclaims him, in my opinion, to have been deeply
involved in the commission of the murder, and clearly meriting the most exemplary
punishment. I have, therefore, stipulated most expressly wth Adipattie, that all
the promoters and abettors of this inhmnan massacre shall be treated with great
severity ; that their property shall be sequestered the moment they are known, and
a portion of it laid aside for the support of the ^rives and oi*phans who have been
so cruelly deprived of their natural protectors.

“ There was one European woman among the imhappy rictims thus sacrificed
by the Sultan. She was embarked on the boats, and after suffering every riolence
and pollution her abandoned murderers were capable of offering her, she was in-
humanly butchered and throwi into the river vith the rest of the ganison.

The remaining women were sent as slaves up the country, and the relation
of distress, stan ation, and misery they encomitered in their bondage, is calculated
to excite such sentiments of horror and indignation against the whole race, that at
times I can with difficulty hold intercourse \rith people allied to such monsters of
bai'barity.

“ There was no punishment too severe, no persecution too considerable, no
degradation too humiliating for these unhappy women. The Resident’s ^rife was ^
pregnant at the time of her seizure, and although I should consider few men capable

MEASURES ADOPTED BY COLONEL GILLESPIE.

121

of refusing pity and assistance to women thus situated, they were unmindful of her
claims to compassion, and they left her in the jungle without nourishment, support,
or shelter.

“To detail the various miseries they suffered in slavery would occupy more
time than I have at present in my power to bestow ; their food was always precarious,
and during months they lived on beetle-nut, on the refuse of the dunghill ; in short,
there was no refinement of oppression to which they were not subjected by this
despotic tyrant.

“ Their joy on emancipation is proportioned to the severity of their former
sufferings, and their gi’atitude to the government is animated and sincere. Except
the one previously specified, they are nearly all of them under my protection, and
I shall take the earliest opportunity of either forwarding them to their friends on
Java, or permit them to remain on the Island of Banca until some further arrange-
ments may be made respecting them.

“ I have endeavoured to ascertain, as correctly as I can, the primitive source
of the Sultan’s inhumanity, which is clearly to be attributed to the unbounded indul-
gence he has always bestowed on the vices of his son. He appears to have tole-
rated him in the pursuit of every evil, and protected him in the accomplishment of
every object to which his unruly passions or violent inclinations hurried him forward,
and to have been but an instrument for the protection of his son’s wickedness. He
has discovered too late, by his own overthrow, the melancholy consequences that
ought always to attend so unprincipled a departure from every sacred law and
moral obligation.”

On the 29th May, Colonel Gillespie made his final report of the ulterior mea-
sures adopted by him, in placing Sultan Ratoo Ahmed Nujm-ood-deen on the throne
in the room of his brother, Mahmud Badruddin, who had been deposed :

“ The British troops were paraded from the wharf to the hall of state, and sur-
rounded at a distance the throne of the Sultan. The flag of the kingdom was
saluted with twenty-one guns, and no mark of public attention was omitted that
could possibly testify my confidence and respect. The Sultan himself was much
affected dming the progress of the ceremony, and he was attended by an immense
concom'se of people, who appeared sincerely to rejoice at his unexpected good for-
tune. When he was seated upon the throne, the British officers passed in succession
to pay him their respects, and they were followed by numbers of his subjects, who
ried with each other in testifying their attachment and fidelity.

“ I shall have the honour to forward to you all the pubhc documents that
w'ere either proclaimed or ratified upon this important occasion. You will see by
the stipulations of the treaty, how completely they have been dictated with a view
to om interests, and you will perceive that the cession of Banca and Billiton is
unhmited and complete.

122

GENERAL ORDERS.

“ Although the Sultan was considerably disappointed at the failure of his
wishes respectmg the British force, I had the satisfaction to leave him in the most
confident assurance of his safety and strength. He expressed the most lively and
grateful sense of all the benefits that had been conferred upon him by the British
government, promised faithfully to use every exertion for the recovery of the
Sultan’s treasures, and assured me the half of them should instantly be forwarded to
Batavia according to a stipulation in the treaty between himself and the East India
Company.

“ In establishing the British authority at Minto (previously called Minta by
the natives) I declared the Island of Banca to be named after his Royal Highness
the Duke of York; the capital town after the Right Hon. the Governor-General of
all India ; and the fort now building there after his Excellency the Commander-in-
Chief.

“ Your’s, &c.

“ Robert Rollo Gillespie.”

The general orders express the feehng entertained by Mr. Raffles of Colonel
Gillespie’s service in this affair.

Samarang, June Gth, 1812.

“ The Lieutenant-Governor is happy to congratulate Colonel Gillespie on his
return to Java, and on the full accomplishment of the objects of the late expedition.

“ The successful termination of these operations, in a manner so highly benefi-
cial to the interests of humanity, and to the security and adv^antage of the British
possessions in those seas, must be entirely attributed to the prompt, judicious, and
politic measures adopted under the personal direction of the Commander of the
Forces. And although the applause so justly due on this occasion may rather fall
within the province of a higher authority, to whom the proceedings will be submitted,
it is gratifying to the Lieutenant-Governor that he is not precluded from bearing
pubhc testimony to the services which have been rendered, nor of expressing his
admiration of the superior talent and character which have been so conspicuous
throughout.

“ The Lieutenant-Governor requests Colonel Gillespie will accept his best
thanks for the zeal, ability, and precision with which the service has been executed :
and in recording his entire approbation and unreserv'ed confirmation of the whole of
the arrangements made for the future security and advantage of the British interests,
the Lieutenant-Governor is satisfied that he only anticipates the sentiments of the
Supreme Governor.

“ By order of the Lieutenant-Governor,

(Signed) “ J. Eckford,

“ Acting Secretary.”

MR. RAFFLES COLLECTS TROOPS, AND PROCEEDS TO SAMARANG. 123

The following is an extract from Captain Traver’s Journal at the time.

“ The native courts of Djocjocartaand Souracarta became troublesome soon after
the establishment of the British power in Java, and Mr. Raffles determined on visiting
them for the purpose of satisfying himself as to the merits of the complaints then
made, and to enquire into the abuses which were known to exist. The distance was
considerable, but his own personal convenience he never considered. The rapidity
with which he travelled exceeded any thing ever known on the island before. The
average rate was more than twelve miles per hour. Unfortunately he was but badly
recompensed for the exertion, as the arrangements he then made, and the tranquilhty
he established, were but of short duration, as a reference to the records of govern-
ment will shew. Immediately after his return from the native courts he planned an
expedition against Palembang, to punish the Sultan for a most barbarous act of
treachery and cruelty in murdering all the Dutch residents there, the moment that
intelhgence reached them of the capture of Java by the English.

After the expedition to Palembang had sailed, Mr. Raffles’ attention was again
directed to the courts of Djocjocarta and Souracarta, where disturbances were recom-
mencing, particularly at the former place, and he, in consequence, determined on
proceeding to Samarang, when he took his family with him. On his arrival at Sa-
marang he obtained such information as led him to suppose that it would be difflcult
to bring the Sultan of Djocjocarta to pacific terms. He accordingly deemed it prudent
to collect such a force in the neighbourhood as would enable him to dictate such
terms as he deemed advisable for the safety of the Island.

At the time these operations were carrying on, Mr. Raffles was availing him-
self of every opportunity of gaining local knowledge. The native chiefs were con-
stant guests at his table, and there was not a moment of his time which he did not
contrive to devote to some useful purpose. The only recreation he ever indulged in,
and that was absolutely necessary for the preservation of his health, was an evening
drive, and occasionally a ride in the morning. He was not, however, at this time an
early riser, owing to his often writing till a very late horn at night. He was moderate
at table, but so full of life and spirits, that on public occasions he would often sit
much longer than agreed with him. In general the hour for dinner was four o’clock,
which enabled the party to take a drive in the evening ; but on all pubhc days, and
when the party was large, dinner was at seven o’clock. At Samarang the society of
course was small in comparison with Batavia, but on pubhc occasions sixty and eighty
were often assembled at the Government-house, and at balls from 150 to 180. Mr.
Raffles never retired early, always remained till after supper, was affable, animated,
agreeable and attentive to all, and never seemed fatigued, although perhaps at his
desk all the morning, and on the following day would be at business at ten o’clock.
In conducting the detail of government, and giving his orders to those immediately
connected with his own office, his manner was most pleasing, mild, yet firm ; he

R 2

12i

MR. RAFFLES’ RETURN TO BATAVIA.

quickly formed his decision, and gave his orders with a clearness and perspicuity
which was most satisfactory to every one connected A\ith him ; he was ever cour-
teous and kind, easy of access at all times, exacting but little from his staff, who were
most devotedly attached to him. The generosity of his disposition, and the liberahty
of his sentiments, were most conspicuous and universally acknowledged.

“ As a pubhc servant, no man could apply himself with more zeal and attention
to the arduous duties of his office. He never allowed himself the least relaxation,
and was ever alert in the discharge of the important tmst committed to him ; and it
is astonishing how long his health continued good mider such great exertions both of
mind and body.

“ 'W'hilst remaining at Samarang, a fleet aiTived at BataHa from England, bound
to China, and at the same time a vessel was reported ready to sail from thence to
Batavia, which detennined iMr. Raffles on proceeding there without delay, to receive
the despatches ; on which occasion, Mr. Assey, Secretary to Government, and myself,
accompanied him. We embarked on board a small vessel, the Hamston, and had
a very quick passage of only seventy-two hours ; dming which time he di'ew up the
Report on the capture of Djocjocarta, entering into a full and clear account of the
circumstances which rendered this measure absolutely necessary for the preservation
of peace on the Island. We landed at seven o’clock in the evening, when a gi*and
pubhc ball was given at WeltervTeeden, to celebrate the anniversary of the Prince
Regent’s birth-day. At this entertainment Mr. Raffles, to the astonishment of all
present, attended, as it was supposed he was at Samarang. He was the life and
spirit of the entertainment. Not less than three hundi'ed persons were assembled ;
and, indeed, on all similar occasions, which were always duly celebrated under Mr.
Raffles’ government, he contributed greatly to promote and encourage the gaiety and
amusement of the party. After remaining a short time, he returned overland to
Samarang, where he was most actively employed in completing the anangement
attendant on the capture of Djocjocarta, which of course brought an accession of
territory to the Government, and which called for local knowledge and personal
observation, to render profitable and advantageous. After obtaining all the informa-
tion ^^•ithin his reach, Mr. Raffles and his family returned to Buitenzorg, at the close
of 1812, where, of course, some arrears of public business awaited his arrival, and to
which he devoted the most zealous assiduity.”

The Sultan of Djocjocarta, who was the most Holent and intriguing of the native
princes in Java, entertained a rooted animosity against all the Europeans settled in
the Island. Under the fonner government he had eHnced a degree of hostility which
compelled Marshal Daendels to direct an anny against him, and to proceed in person
to his capital. The plans of the Sultan not being then sufficiently matured on the
one hand, and Daendels fearing the anival of the British expedition on the other, a
compromise was entered into between them, by which the Sultan agreed to pay the

TREATY CONCLUDED WITH THE SULTAN.

125

sum of 200,000 Spanish dollars to the Marshal. The Sultan the more readily acceded
to this, as he cherished the idea of being soon enabled to carry into full effect his
vengeful purposes.

The turbulent spirit of this chief had shewn itself again, after the establishment
of the British in the island ; in consequence of which, Mr. Raffles thought it necessary
to proceed in person to the Sultan’s court, in the month of December, 1811, with the
intention of fixing definitively the relation between the two governments by a treaty,
which it was hoped would prove as binding on the one side, as he felt it would be
strictly observed on the other. But the event soon proved the fallacy of such an
expectation.

Mr. Raffles set out for Djocjocarta, accompanied by a part only of the 14th Regi-
ment, a troop of the 22d Light Dragoons, and the ordinary garrison of Bengal Sepoys
in the fort, and at the Residency-house. This was all the force which, at the mo-
ment, he could command, and circumstances did not admit of delay. The service
was one of imminent peril ; the whole retinue were at one time in danger of being
murdered. Mr. Raffles received the Sultan in the hall of audience. The Sultan
was accompanied by several thousands of armed followers, who expressed in their
behaviour an infuriated spirit of insolence ; and several of his own suite actually
unsheathed their creesses, to indicate plainly that they only waited for the signal
to perpetrate the work of destruction : had this been given, from the manner
in which the English were surrounded, not a man could have escaped. Though at
this time no act of treacherous hostility took place, the crafty and sanguinary Sultan
drew from the circumstances which he observed, a confidence in his own strength ;
and being thus persuaded that the expulsion of the Europeans from the Island of
Java was become more feasible, he resolved at once to adopt means for accomplishing
this favourite object of his ambition.

Mr. Raffles, however, concluded a treaty with him, on terms which were con-
sidered, at the time, equally advantageous to the British interests, and beneficial to
the prosperity of the country which remained mider the administration of the Sultan.
In this treaty, the sovereignty of the British over the Island of Java was acknow-
ledged by the Sultan, who confirmed to the English East India Company all the pri-
vileges, advantages, and prerogatives which had been possessed by the Dutch and
French governments. To the Company also were transferred the sole regulation of
the duties and the collection of tribute within the dominions of the Sultan, as well
as the general administration of justice, in cases where the British interests were
concerned.

The Sultan on this occasion expressed his contrition for the atrocities which
had been committed under his authority, and made professions of friendship, pledging
himself in every way to fulfil the conditions of the treaty.

126

CONFEDERACY OF THE NATIVE STATES.

The Sultan, however, only waited for a favourable opportunity to attempt the
entire expulsion of the European power, and very judiciously conceived that the occu-
pation of the troops on the expedition to Palembang, afforded a favourable moment
to effect this object. He formed a general confederacy of all the native courts, con-
stituting as it were the strength of Java, of which he was the head. Even the
animosity which had subsisted between the Emperor of Sulu and the Sultan, and
which it was supposed would have proved an insurmountable bar to their union,
yielded in the present instance to other motives; and all family feuds were laid
aside while the Chiefs combined their forces to effect the destruction of the
English, as well as that of all the Dutch colonists settled along a coast in an ex-
tended line of seven hundred miles, who natm-ally looked to the British government
for protection.

The magnitude of the threatened danger called for prompt and vigorous
measures. Mr. Raffles made every preparation in his power, and determined to
proceed to Samarang. The information which he obtained there, led him to
suppose that it would be difficult to bring the Sultan of Djocjocarta to terms. He
therefore collected such a force in the neighbourhood as would enable him to
dictate those tenns which he deemed adHsable for the safety of the Island.

At this moment of anxiety and danger. Colonel Gillespie returned from Palem-
bang: he had embarked with his staff, in a small schooner, and after several narrow
escapes from shipuTeck, arrived at BataHa on the 1st of June, 1812, and with
the zeal which always animated him when danger was to be encountered, set out
on the 6th overland for Samarang, to unite with Mr. Raffles in the contemplated
operations.

Matters were now come to such a crisis, that to have waited for the arrival
of the troops from Palembang, (who from having made a circuitous route, were
likely to be detained some weeks longer) would have been dangerous. It
was, therefore, resolved to move such of the military force as could be collected,
to Djocjocarta; and in the event of hostilities being unavoidable, to break at once
that chain of combination which, if suffered to encrease and strengthen, would
in all probability prove the absolute ruin of the European settlements in this part
of the East.

On the evening of the 17th of June, the Lieutenant-Governor and the Com-
mander of the Forces arrived at Djocjocarta; and immediately on their arrival, the
Sultan, who had long before prepared for active operations, sent out strong bodies
of horse to intercept the communication in their rear, by burning and destropng
the bridges, and laj^ng waste the country. Upon receiring this intelligence. Colonel
Gillespie went in person, escorted by fifty dragoons, to reconnoitre the country; and
after making several detours, fell in with a large body of the Sultan’s horse ; but as

ASSAULT OF DJOCJOCARTA.

127

no final determination with respect to offensive measures had yet taken place, he
was withheld by sentiments of honour from dispersing these people by force, and
therefore endeavoured through Mr. Crawfurd, the Resident, who accompanied him as
interpreter, to induce them by every amicable means to return peaceably to the
palace. To all sohcitations, and even threats, however, they paid no regard for a
long time; and some stones were actually thrown from shngs, which the Javanese
use very dexterously. Still, amidst these provocations, forbearance was observed,
and at last they consented to disperse ; but on a sudden avaihng themselves of the
growing darkness, they threw their spears, and wounded a serjeant and four
dragoons. This act was followed by several other attacks during the night upon
the cavalry patrols, which obhged the dragoons to cut their way sword in hand
through the surrounding multitudes, with the loss of one man killed and one
wounded.

The following day the Lieutenant-Governor being still anxious to avoid the
effusion of blood, and if possible to bring matters to an amicable adjustment, sent a
messenger with the final resolution of Government to the Sultan. But this chief
continued deaf to every proposition that was made to him, and feeling confident in
his accumulating force and the strength of his fortifications, he scrupled not to add
threats to his insult, and dismissed the messenger.

This unfavom'able result of the negociation, the particulars of which were
instantly communicated by the Lieutenant-Governor to the Commander of the
Forces, shewed clearly that every thing now depended on the issue of a battle ; and
that any further delay from a principle of lenity would only serve to heighten the
insolence of the enemy, and consequently to injure the colony.

The result of the subsequent operations are briefly detailed in the following
private letter from Mr. Raffles to Lord Minto, dated Samarang, 25th June, 1812.

Necessity having compelled me to resort to actual hostilities against Djocjocarta,
it affords me the highest satisfaction to communicate to your Lordship the successful
and happy result of our operations. Having taken measures for concentrating the
whole disposable force at Djocjocarta, I proceeded in person, accompanied by Colonel
Gillespie, as far as Klatten on the 16th, and to Djocjocarta on the 17th instant.

“ The Sultan refusing to comply with my summons, and several of our dragoons
hanng been cut off in detail, decisive measures became necessary, and on the 18th,
in the afternoon, we commenced a heavy cannonade from the Fort on his Craton or
Palace ; it was immediately retmmed on his side, and although no further measure
was taken by us during the whole of the 19th, no symptoms of concession were
made by him. Our force was small, not exceeding 600 firelocks, and rather more
than that number in Dragoons, Artillery, and Sepoys. A part of our ammunition
w'as cut off, and nothing remained for us but an assault, which was attempted and
carried in less than three hours. On the morning of the 20th, at nine o’clock, the

128

CAPTURE OF DJOCJOCARTA.

Craton was ours ; the person of the Sultan, as well as that of the hereditary Prince
secured, without plunder or harsh usage, and the country at our disposal,

“ In order to estimate the services performed by the troops on this occasion,
I should mention that the Craton was a regidar fortified position, about three miles
in circumference, surrounded by a wade and deep ditch, wdth a w^all forty-five feet
high, defended by w'ell constructed bastions, and forming ramparts all round,

“ The approach to the Craton being further secured by lower walls without the
ditch on the opposite side of the road, and the gates protected by drawbridges, after
the Em-opean model, at the period of assault it w^as calculated that there could not
be less than 11,000 armed men within the Craton, while large parties of one, two,
three, and even fom' thousand, occupied positions without the Craton, blocking up
the main roads,

“ Gillespie was himself. The assault was made by escalade ; w^e soon got
possession of the ramparts, and turned their owm guns upon them. The hereditary
Prince took the first occasion to throw liimself on oiir protection ; the Sultan w^as
taken in his strongest hold, and our plan throughout w^as most successful ; the loss
on our side very inconsiderable, and comparatively nothing ; on the part of the
enemy dreadful,

I regret to say that Gillespie himself w'as wounded in the left arm, a flesh
w'ound, and although serious not dangerous. Lieutenant Robinson, of the 78th,
Lieutenants Paul and Maclean, of the 14th, were w'ounded, with no greater loss in
non-commissioned and privates killed and wounded than about forty : Lieutenant
Maclean since dead. Our loss, previous to the 25th, was principally in the Dra-
goons, eighteen men and horses being killed and w'ounded, Lieutenant Hall among
the latter. Captain Young and Lieutenant Hunter w^ere blown up and much burat,
hut not dangerously,

“ The steadiness with which the enemy received the attack, and the great mili-
tary defences and resources within his power, have much enhanced the credit of our
handful of troops,

“ I may now congratulate your Lordship on the conquest of Java being sub-
stantially accomplished, for although the great and valorous deeds w'hich WTested
the colony from the hands of a hostile European power placed the prorinces on the
sea-coast at our disposal, we never till this event could call ourselves masters of the
more valuable provinces of the interior. Nay, our possessions on the sea-coast
would always have been precarious, and had the military force been materially
reduced, much eventual danger was to have been apprehended, Java will long have
reason to remember with gratitude the efforts of the 20th June.

“ The hereditary Prince has been raised to the throne ; all the principal chief-
tains have submitted to his authority, and the country has every appearance of tran-
quillity. I passed from Djocjocarta to this place in thirteen hours (about a hundi'ed

EUROPEAN POWER FIRST PARAMOUNT IN JAVA.

129

miles), and accounts from every quarter confirm my expectations that the arrange-
ments I had made would prevent the possibility of commotion.

“ The European power is for the first time paramount in Java. We are now
able to dictate the terms of the future connection with the British government and
the native administration. A population of not less than a million has been wrested
from the tyranny and oppression of an independent, ignorant, and cruel prince, and
a country yielding to none on earth in fertihty and cultivation, affording a revenue
of not less than a million of Spanish dollars in the year, placed at our disposal.
The result at Djocjocarta is decisive at Souracarta, and that court must necessarily
fall under the same arrangement. The population and cultivation of the Emperor’s
dominions are not inferior to those of the Sultan’s, and this statement alone will
convey to your Lordship an idea of what has been obtained in the short space of
five days.

I have not yet received Colonel Gillespie’s report, and consequently am unable
to forward the official account.

The Craton having fallen by assault, it was impossible to make any provision
for Government to cover the expenses of the imdertaking, consequently the whole
plunder became prize to the army ; it is considerable, but it could not be in better
hands ; they richly deserve what they got. I cannot speak too highly of the con-
duct of the army.

“ By order of the honourable the Lieutenant-Governor,

“ T. O. Travers,

“ Assist. Sec. to Govt. Mil. Dept.”

After the conquest of Djocjocarta, the military appropriated to themselves the
plunder taken in the town. Mr. Raffles expostulated on their doing so, without
first referring to him as the chief authority, and received the following letter upon
the subject from Colonel Gillespie.

‘‘ My Dear Sir,

“ Your letter of the 1st instant reached me at Djocjocarta, about four
o’clock yesterday. I regret that any thing irregular or informal should have taken
place ; but you are no doubt so well assured of my respect and esteem, that any
breach of propriety or etiquette can only be attributed to the hurry and confusion
so generally prevalent after a conquest of such magnitude and importance.

I had myself suffered, and continue to suffer, so severely from the womid I
received in the action, that I was almost incapable of attending to any arrangement
that might require my approbation.

“ The officers advanced so many precedents when Mr. Hanson submitted your

130

LETTER FROM LORD MINTO.

letter to them yesterday, that I am persuaded all their former resolutions were con-
sidered at the time both regular and correct.

“If your wshes had been received before the distribution had taken place, it
is unnecessary for me to say, that every thing should have been immediately sus-
pended, and the arrangements refeiTed to your authority ; but as this measure was
adopted prior to the communication of your sentiments, I trust most sincerely you
will acquit us of intentional impropriety, and afford us the sanction of your support
and approbation.

“ Upon maturely considering the distribution of the piize money, I clearly
perceive that the subject should have been referred to your authority, before a
measure of so much importance had taken place. The pain and agony I have
suffered since the conquest of Djocjocarta will, I am certain, prove an adequate
excuse in your mind for any miintentional informality ; and I have reason to rejoice
at the entire support and cordiality experienced by me on every occasion that called
for mutual participation.

“ It affords me a proof of the dependence you have placed upon my anxiety
and zeal for the public serrice, which can only be equalled by the respect and
esteem with which I am,

“ Robert Rollo Gillespie.”

It will be seen by the following extracts, that Mr. Raffles had the satisfaction
to receive from Lord Minto, the most unqualified approbation of all his measures.

“ Calcutta, \5th Dec. 1812.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ I shall be impatient for the materials which are called for, because I am
anxious to deliver, without reserve or quahfication, the very high and favourable
\iew I now have of that whole series of measures, beginning Avith the expedition to
Palembang, and ending with the arrangement of the tw'o courts of Solo and Djoc-
jocarta, connected and combined with each other as those measures were. I consider
the result of the latter proceeding as very glorious to your administration, during
the short period of which more Avill have been accomplished for the security of the
European power, the tranquillity of the island, and the solid improvement of general
prosperity and happiness, than several centuries have been able to perform, when
the superiority of European power was exerted, unencumbered by the scruples of
justice and good faith.

“ Nothing can be more excellent than all your arrangements in the eastern
districts of Java.

“ With regard to Palembang and Banca, your latest reports have enabled us to

LETTER FROM LORD MINTO,

131

approve, without reservation, the arrangement formed at Palembang, and the an-
nexation of Banca to the territories of the East India Company, our minds being
satisfied upon the two points of justice and expediency. The sovereignty of the
Sultan of Palembang in Banca is placed beyond question, and leaves that dependence
of Palembang indisputably subject, both to the laws of conquest in so just a war,
and to the effect of cession from the authority under which it is now held.

‘‘ Believe me ever, my dear Sir, most truly and affectionately your’s,

“ Minto.”

This private letter is so far of importance as it shews, in the most unreserved
manner. Lord Minto’s anxious desire to record his opinion publicly before he
quitted India — the delay in acquiring and transmitting the necessary materials unfor-
tunately prevented his doing so, and to this unavoidable omission may be attributed
much of the trouble and difficulty in which Mr. Raffles was afterwards involved.

CHAPTER VI.

Difference of opinion hetween Colonel Gillespie and Mr. Raffles — Re-estahlishment of Society of Arts — Im-
portance of connection hetrvecn Java and China to the East India Company's interests — Consequence of
a King’s government upon their monopoly — Lord Minto's anxiety to provide for Mr Raffles, in the pros-
pect of the Island being transferred to the crown — Lord Minto’s approval of the measures of govern-
ment— Calling in depreciated paper — Promise of an offlcial approbation — Account of the Colonies —
Depreciated state of paper currency — Want of specie — Land rental — Revenues of government —
Proposed literary work — Lord Minto’s return to England — His last letter on leaving Calcutta—
Expedition to Sambas.

Mr. Raffles always entertained a high sense of the military courage and character of
General Gillespie, and lamented that on some points of government their views did not
exactly coincide. The permanent mihtary force requisite to be maintained in the Island,
after its conquest was completed, became necessarily a subject of discussion. Lord
Minto foreseeing that this was a point on which a difference of opinion might occur,
left positive orders, before he quitted Java, to keep it within certain defined limits.

The following letter to ]VIr. Ramsay, Secretaiy to the Court of Directors, touches
on this subject.

'^January, 1813.

“ Some difference of opinion has latterly occurred between the Commander of
the Forces and myself, with regard to the mihtary estabhshments on the island. These
appear to have arisen from a desire, on the part of the military Commander, to main-
tain as large a force, and to render that force as efficient, as possible ; while, on the
other hand, the directions and injunctions, which I had received from the Supreme
Government, obliged me to keep the same within defined limits. The force prov^ision-
ally fixed for this Island was intended and declared to be only for a defined and limited
purpose — the maintenance of internal tranquiUity, and security against any predatory
attack on the part of the enemy. The Commander of the Forces, on the contrary,
has been always in expectation of attack from Europe, and would prepare accordingly.
The uncertainty with which any decision can be formed, as to the future government
of the colony, has naturally induced his Majesty’s officers to calculate upon Java be-
coming a King’s colony, while the absence of all official information on the subject

BATAVIAN LITERARY SOCIETY.

133

has weighed wth me in maintaining unimpaired, as far as possible, the provisional
arrangements made by Lord Minto, with the view of Java becoming a permanent
settlement of the Company.

“ There are at present on the Island three King’s regiments, the 14th, 59th, and
78th, averaging about 800 men each ; two troops of his Majesty’s 22d Dragoons ; a
detachment of the Royal Artillery from Ceylon ; and two troops of hussars raised on
the Island, but not yet attached to either the King’s or Company’s army. The Sepoy
battalions, of which there are five, are weak, but recruits to complete them to 800
men each are daily expected from Bengal, besides a coi'ps of native cavalry, raised
ex'pressly for the ser\ice of the island : these, with a detachment of the Bengal artil-
lery, Madras pioneers, and the two colonial regiments of Amboynese and Javanese,
compose the regular force, which it falls on this government to maintain, independent
of a few police corps. I should not, however, omit to mention the Bengal European
regiment, the head-quarters of which are now on the Island, with about 350 men,
principally recruits, but rapidly impro^^ng in discipline.

“ Were the question at once decided, I apprehend that the whole of the King’s
troops, with the exception of one or perhaps two regiments, might be removed ; and
for the general service of the Island their place might be much better supplied by
natives of India. The European troops are here upon much heavier allowances than
in India, and on the whole bear too heavy on the finances of the colony. The natives
have a much greater dread of the Sepoy than of an European, and the sa\ing would be
immense. If possible, a Sepoy force should be maintained even in the event of this
Island becoming a King’s colony.

“ I forw^arded by the Java several reports from Dr. Horsfield on the natural
history of the Eastern Islands ; duplicates of these, with specimens of plants, and a
collection of quadrupeds, birds, &c., are transmitted by the Juliana, and I trust will
be found acceptable, and worthy of a place in the Oriental Museum. The Literary
Society of Bata\ia, which has been so long dormant, has been again revived, its con-
stitution has undergone an entire change, and a spirit of inquiry and research is obvious
among its members. An additional volume of the Bata\ian Researches is now com-
pleting, and I trust it will not be long before the Society gives to the world a proof
of the advantages it derives under the mild and protecting principles of the British
government.

“ Statistical accounts are nearly completed of the whole of the Island, and the
proceedings of the commission of which Colonel Mackenzie is the President being
about to close, I look forward to an early opportunity of communicating on every
thing which concerns the happiness and prosperity of this colony, and of foiwvarding a
detailed and accurate account of its resources, advantages, and capabilities, under
any and whatever authority or system of government it may be eventually placed.”

It was about this time that Mr. Raffles re-established the Society of Arts and

134

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

Sciences in Bata\ia, to which he alludes in the preceding latter. This instiution had
entirely declined in consequence of the difficulties to which the Island of Java had
been exposed for many years. He hoped by this means to promote literary and
scientific pursuits ; and it afforded him a som'ce of great pleasure and satisfaction to
be the instimnent of giving new fife to the first institution of the kind, which had ever
been estabhshed by Em-opeans in the East. This society continued to meet regularly
under his watchfld care and superintendance, until the Island was restored to the
Dutch. The addi’esses which he dehvered on the first meeting of the society, and at
a subsequent one in 1815, tended to excite a warm interest in all the members, while
they shewed that the performance of the arduous duties of a pubhc station are not
incompatible, and may be combined with, an active pimsuit of hterary and scientific
objects.

“ A Discourse delivered at a Meeting of the Society of Arts and Sciences, in Batavia,

on the Twenty fourth day of April, 1813, being the Anniversary of the Institution.

By the Hon. Thomas Stamford Raffles, President.

“ Gentlemen,

“ Although I have naturally withheld my signature from the address to
Lord IMinto, which now lies on the table, in consequence of the very pointed
manner in which the framer of that addi'ess has noticed the protection and encou-
ragement which I have personally afforded to the Society, I shall have much plea-
sure in forwarding it, and in personally soliciting his Lordship to take the Society
under his immediate patronage. I am satisfied that he wall entertain a due sense of
the consideration which you have shewoi to his exalted talents, and I flatter myself
that we may confidently count on his promoting the views and objects of the Insti-
tution to the utmost extent.

“ Elected as your President by the unanimous voice of the Society, and earn-
estly sohcited by the most conspicuous of your Members to accept that station, I
have not felt myself competent to dechne so marked a distinction ; but I must assure
you that I feel very sensibly my entire inabihty to execute its important duties, either
with benefit to you or with credit to myself. Far more preferable w^ould it have been
to me had this honourable post devolved upon one of your more competent members,
and that you had permitted me to have mixed with you as one of your ordinary
though not least zealous associates.

“ On the present occasion, how^ever, assembled as we are, in commemoration
of the anniversary of the Institution of the Bata\ian Society, with such fair pros-
pects before us of promoting the original design of its establishment, under the anti-
cipated protection of so illustrious a Patron, I cannot refrain from taking a general
though imperfect review^ of the progi*ess of the Society, from its first institution, nor

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

135

from indulging in the contemplation of the lights, which the future exertions of its
active and zealous members may throw on man and nature in these remote regions.

“ In common with other human institutions, the Batavian Society has been
subject to many changes and vicissitudes ; but it is to the calamitous effects of a
war which has desolated the finest countries in Europe, and which extended its
baneful influence to this distant Isle, that we are principally to attribute its decline.
Cut off from all communication with the mother-country, and distracted by internal
jealousies and disputes, science drooped, and this Society, which at one time main-
tained so distinguished a character, almost ceased to be known.

“ The Batavian Society has, I believe, the honour of being the first institution
of a literary nature established by Europeans in the East. Previous to its establish-
ment, Mr. Radermacher, a gentleman of distinguished talents and a zealous pro-
moter of the Christian Religion, and of science, with a few friends at Batavia, con-
ceived the idea of assembling together a number of persons of consideration and
ability, with the view of encouraging the arts and sciences in this capital and the
other Indian establishments then dependant on Holland. They considered that in
India, as in Europe, where for two centuries the reformation in letters preceded
that in religion, a taste for the arts and sciences must be introduced previously to
the general adoption of the Christian Religion in the East ; but they were aware of
the difficulties to be encountered, under the circumstances in which the colonies of
Holland were then placed, and a considerable period elapsed before the design was
carried into effect.

“ At length, in the year 1777, when Mr. Radermacher and his father-in-law, the
Governor-General De Klerk, were newly elected directors of the Society of Haerlem,
a Programma appeared, which contained the plan of extending the branches of that
Society to the Indies. The distance and extent of the Dutch colonial possessions in
the East did not, however, admit of this plan being realized, but the idea being
thus brought forward to public notice, a separate Society was, by the unremitting
perseverance of Mr. Radermacher, who may be called the founder of the Institution,
established at Batavia.

On the 24th of April, 1778, this Society was duly established, under the
authority of government, and after the example of Haerlem, took for its motto. The
Public Utilitij. On its first organization the Society consisted of 192 members, the
Governor-General being Chief Director, and the members of the High Regency
Directors. The ordinary members were elected from among the most distinguished
inhabitants of Bata\ia, and the possessions of the Company ; and it was enacted,
that as many as were present should annually hold a general assembly, in order to
judge and decide upon the answers received to the different questions proposed, to
propose new questions, and to make general regulations. In addition to this general
direction, a Committee was nominated, consisting of eight members, with a presi-

136

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

dent and secretary, who were charged with the daily occurrences, and with autho-
rity to decide upon and carry into effect whatever might not admit of delay, report-
ing their proceedings at the ensuing general assembly.

“ The Society selected as objects of research and enquiry wliatever could be
useful to agriculture, commerce, and the welfare of the colony ; it encouraged every
question relating to natural history, antiquities, and the manners and usages of the
native inhabitants, but expressly avoided entering upon any subject which might
relate to the East India Company ; and in order the better to define the objects and
contribute to their accomplishment, a programma was from time to time printed and
circulated abroad.

“ These programmas contain many important questions, as well general as par-
ticular, relating to agiiculture, commerce, the means of remortng the insalubrity of
Batarta, the diseases of the chmate generally, and other points which clearly mark
the objects of the Society. Among these, the following question may deserve
notice ; —

“ ' Bij what means of finesse do the Preachers and Missionaries of the Moslem
faith succeed, even at the present day, in converting Pagans to the faith of the Koran,
and in establishing them in this faith

Although it would seem that this question might either have been answered
generally by stating ^ that the Mahomedans at the present day oxoe their success prin-
cipally to their more intimate assimilation with those to he converted^ Or, perhaps,
eventually by ‘ a philosophical and political view of the first establishment of the Maho-
medan Religion on the islands and coasts of the seas lying east of the Straits of Malacca
and Sunda.’ It does not appear to have been rephed to in any of the subsequent
volumes.

The view which I have just mentioned seems to fall peculiarly vithin the
province of the Society, and to be highly deserving its attention ; it is a part of his-
tory which seems hitherto to have been too little investigated, and a tract on the
subject, while it discussed the question alluded to, would naturally introduce other
important subjects.

“ The Society was no sooner fully established, and its proceedings generally
knowm, than it received from all quarters various acquisitions to its cabinet and
library. Mr. Radennacher himself presented the Society udth a convenient house,
and wth eight cases of valuable books, a collection of animals, fossils, minerals,
musical instruments of the Javanese, and of the different coins current in the East ;
and in the same year, by the liberality of Mr. Bartto, the Society was enabled to
fonn a Botanical Establishment in a garden presented by that gentleman.

“ In 1779 the Society undertook to print the first volume of its Transac-
tions; the second appeared in 1780, and the third in 1781, but from the want of
t^qjes and other unfortunate circumstances, a progi'amma only appeared in 1782.

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

137

In 1786 the fourth volume was, however, given to the public, but printed in Hol-
land, by the commissaries of the Society, under the special privilege of the States
General.

“ After this period the Society observing that the questions proposed remained
unanswered, set to work themselves, and published the fifth volume in 1790. In
this and the sixth volume, which appeared in 1792, the essays are written exclu-
sively by the members.

“ In 1794 the first two essays, intended for the seventh volume, were printed;
but no subsequent publication of the transactions of the Society appears to have
taken place.

“ Subsequent to this period, when the revolutions in Europe, the war and
other circumstances of the times, continued to interfere with the prosperity of the
Society, it was suggested by some of the members, that by adopting a more limited
plan for its proceedings, the objects which the Society had in view might still be
obtained ; and accordingly a resolution appears to have been taken to this effect, to
which the approval of the High Regency was obtained, in May 1800.

“ Under this new organization of the Society, the ‘ Public Utility’ was still the
declared object of the Institution ; but the publication of questions, except at the
particular suggestion of any member, was discontinued. The Society still continued
to consist of men of ability and talent. The direction of the Society was placed in
the hands of a Directory of nine persons, including the secretary, who were chosen
fi’om among the members, each taking precedence in his turn for one month.
Corresponding members were elected at the principal settlements and out-stations,
and the general annual assemblies were abolished. In the hands of this Directory
the Society appears to have deposited every thing ; and considering the distracted
state of the country, such a conduct may perhaps have been essential for maintain-
ing its existence during the convulsed period which ensued.

“ Notwithstanding the exertions of the Directory to complete the seventh
volume, it was found impracticable, and the only acquisitions which it appears to
have obtained during the period in which the affairs of the Society were exclusively
under its management, are the communications of Dr. Thomas Horsfield. This
gentleman was proposed to the High Regency, and authorized to prosecute his
botanical researches under the sanction of government. After several excursions in
different parts of the island, he estabhshed himself at Souracarta with the view of
forming a Flora Javana, forwarding to the Society from time to time reports of his
progress, dried plants, and useful descriptions and accounts of discoveries made by
him in natural history.

“ Such was the state of the Society at the change of government, in 1811,
when the dark perspective was illumined, and the talents and ambition of the

138

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

Society again shone forth from the obscurity in which pohtical circumstances had
involved it.

“ ^^'ithout noticing particularly the various essays which adorn the pages of
the six volumes of the Transactions akeady pubhshed, I shall briefly observe, that as
far as my limited knowledge of the language enables me to judge, they contain
much useful and interesting information, particularly on economical subjects mate-
rially connected with the interests of science and literatm'e.

“ In the first vohune uill be found an interesting description of the Dutch
possessions in the East Indies, and the transactions are replete with various valuable
tracts on agiiculture, commerce, political economy, and natiual history, by Messrs.
Radermacher, Van Hogendorp, Hoojunan, Van Iperen, Baron Van Wurmb, Cou-
perus. Van der Steege, Titsing, Tessiere, Van Boeckholtz, and others.

“ Having thus taken a retrospective \iew of the Society, from its first institu-
tion imtil the period when it w^as new modelled under the regulations of last year, I
shall proceed briefly to notice the contents of the volume, w^hich is now sent to the
press, and to communicate such suggestions as occur to me with regard to our
future proceedings.

“ In various branches of natural history. Doctor Horsfield is eminently con-
spicuous, and the papers wdiich Avill now come before the pubhc from his pen, are
highly interesting to science. On the antiquities and native history of the Island,
some light is thrown by Lieutenant-Colonel Mackenzie, Sinweyor-General on the
Madras Estabhshment, in his interesting tract on the Ruins of Prambana, forming
the capital of one of the early dynasties of this Island ; and on the Island of Borneo
some interesting data are fm'iiished, on w'hich to found our further enquiries in that
immense island, fi'om the pen of the late Dr. Leyden. The circumstances under
W'hich this paper was written are stated in a note annexed to the paper itself.

Had our late valuable secretary. Dr. Hunter, been spared but a few months,
the present volume w'ould not have made its appearance without containing some
highly interesting essay from him. His death is deeply deplored by us all, as
must for ever be the unexpected and untimely fate of my departed friend Dr.
Leyden, who, although not actually initiated as a member of this Society, came
fi'om the other India panting after knowledge, and busy in the pm'suit of science.
Had Providence ordained that he should have remained a few months on this Island
in the exercise of the w'onderful powers of his ever active mind, I am con\inced, that
from his extraordinary acquirements in all the languages of the East, his deep eru-
dition, and his zeal in the cause, he would have found it no difficult task to have
traced the connection which formerly subsisted betw'een the Eastern Islands and
Western India, from a comparison of their languages and dialects only. His \iews
were the most extended and comprehensive that a philosophic mind can conceive.

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

139

Ardent in the pursuit of knowledge in every direction, and rising with difficulties,
his uncommon mind and rare talents must natiually have overcome every obstacle.

A more convincing proof cannot perhaps be offered of the views which he
contemplated in setting his foot in this capital of the Eastern Islands, than in the
sketch of Borneo, which I have just noticed. This was prepared by him on his
passage from Malacca to Batavia druing the progress of the expedition. It stands
uncorrected by his masterly hand, but even in its present state, will, I have no
doubt, be found to merit a place in your pubhcations.

“ Irreparable as the loss of these inestimable promoters of our design and orna-
ments of om' age must be, and deep as our regi'et may be felt, we are not to despair
of what may hereafter be done; but rather, from the loss we have sustained, put
our shoulders more firmly to the wheel, and exert om'selves more than under
other more fortunate circumstances, would have been necessary.

“ The first point which it appears to me essential to notice with regard to our
future proceedings, is the necessity of encouraging and attaining a more general
knowledge of the Javanese language. Hitherto the communication with the inhabit-
ants of the country has been chiefly through illiterate interpreters, or when direct,
through the medimu of a barbarous dialect of Malays, confounded and confused
by the introduction of Portuguese and Dutch. Without a thorough knowledge of
this language, it is impossible to form any accurate idea of the modes of thinking or
acting among the people of this country. Much valuable information may be ex-
pected to be found in their books, and when they are more generally known, an
attempt may be made to develop the early history of the Island, which, uith
the exception of some leading facts, remains, anterior to the introduction of Maho-
medanism, involved in obscmlty and fable.

“ I have already in my possession three detailed histories of the Island, stated
to be taken from their own mitten accoimts ; but as they have passed through one,
and in some cases two, intermediate languages, and the persons intrusted uith the
first translation not perhaps understanding the subject, I cannot depend upon them.

“ Vocabularies have already been collected of the different dialects of the
Javanese, and also of the principal languages of the Eastern Seas ; and from the un-
remitting and indefatigable exertions of Colonel Mackenzie, whose researches into
the history and antiquities of Western India so eminently quahfy him for similar
pursuits in this quarter, we are justified in the expectation that many of the doubtful
points regarding the early connection of Java and the Eastern Islands with the
continent of India \rill be cleared up.

“ The collections of Colonel Mackenzie, who has personally risked almost
every part of the Island, prove the zeal with which he has taken up the subject;
and on his return to India, w^here an opportunity may be afforded of dec)q)hering
several inscriptions found in different parts of Java, of which he has taken fac

T 2

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

s'nniles, we are promised that his exertions not be relaxed in endeavouring to
illustrate whatever may be important.

“ The opportunity afforded of increasing our stock of Javanese Manuscripts
has not been lost ; and if the Government should be enabled to prosecute a plan,
which is in contemplation, for fonning an establishment for the acquisition of the
language, we may hope that translations of the most important will soon find a place
on the shelves of our library.

“ Dr. Horsfield still continues his pursuits in natural history, ^^'ith miabated
zeal; and although he has been for a time removed from the immediate field of
Java, he is prosecuting, in a neighbouring Island, pursuits of a similar nature. The
Island of Banca, which has lately fallen into the possession of our Government,
had never been explored by Europeans. Dr. Horsfield has undertaken the task,
and from his talents, ability, and industry, the most sanguine expectations may
he realized.

“ Mr. Muntinghe also, whose enlarged Hews and extraordinary endowments
so pecuharly qualify him to direct you in the paths of science and literature, will
not be wanting in contributing his share to the general piu-poses of the Society. He
has already collected many highly interesting tracts on the native Laws and Insti-
tutions, as they are traced to have existed antecedent to the introduction of the
Mahomedan faith; and when his information is more mature, and his collections
more complete, we are justified in the expectation, that he will devote to the Society
some portion of that extensive stock of literary acquirement and sound judgment
for which he stands so eminently conspicuous.

“To the learned Professor Ross, the Society, is ah'eady highly indebted, and
while w'e cannot but consider our thanks as peculiarly due to this gentleman for his
exertions in preserving the existence of the Society during a period of peculiar de-
licacy and difficulty, I am satisfied that w'e may look to him and the other Dutch
members for the most essential aid in future. To particularize many of these
members would perhaps be invidious to the whole, but if I may be allowed to in-
troduce the names of Engelhard, Couperus and Van Naersen, and to calculate on
the adv'antages which must be derived from the investigations and communications
of these gentlemen, I am sure there are fevv among us who will not readily admit
their claim to pre-eminence and distinction.

“ Without entering on the various subjects which offer themselv'es for enquiry
on Java, and which, not to intrude on your time at present, may be more advan-
tageously introduced in a list of desiderata, I shall confine myself to a few observa-
tions on the present state of the countries in its vicinity which seem most to
demand attention.

“ The members of the Society must have been forcibly struck with the rapid
progress made by the Asiatic Society in Calcutta; an institution of recent date,

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

141

compared with that established at Batavia; and however much the decline of the
latter may be attributed to the political circumstances already stated, I am inclined
to think, that its decay may in some degree have been accelerated by the nature of
its constitution. A very essential change has lately been effected, and the regula-
tions of the Batavian Society have been new modelled, nearly on the same principle
as those of the Asiatic Society in Bengal. Although, therefore, we may not at the
present moment boast of so many eminent literary characters as are to be found
among the members of that Society, it is but fair to flatter ourselves with the ex-
pectation, that under the fortunate change of circumstances which has taken place,
with regard to this Island, and the new organization of the Society, our exertions
may tend considerably to a better knowledge of this part of the world, and the
general advancement of literature and science.

“ The objects of the Asiatic Society in Calcutta are so fully explained in the
discourses of Sir William Jones, that it is unnecessary to enter into any explanation
of them here. The researches of that Society are not confined immediately to
Western India; they extend throughout the whole regions of Asia. The whole
circle of the sciences, and the wide field of Asia, are alike open to your observation,
but it occurs to me, that the interests and object of the Institution will be more ad-
vantageously promoted by its exertions being directed to what falls more immedi-
ately within your reach.

“ It is to what has been emphatically termed the “ Further East” that I would
direct your more immediate attention; and here, if I am not mistaken, an ample
field is afforded. The history of Sumatra, by Mr. Marsden, has thrown so clear a
light on the country and character of the inhabitants, that I have but to refer you
to that valuable work for all that is yet known respecting that interesting Island.
Much, however, still remains to be done, even in this quarter, and our recent con-
nection with Palembang, and the Southern Provinces of the Island, promises to
afford every facihty to our enquiries. Of Banca, we shall no doubt possess the
most accurate and interesting information, on the return of Dr. Horsfield, and as our
recent establishment in that quarter forms a new centre, from which our enquiries
may diverge, the various countries in its vicinity will no doubt be early explored.

" Of the chain of Islands lying East of Java, and with it denominated generally
the Sunda Islands, I shall only notice particularly that of Bali. This Island lies so
close to Java that it is surprising so little is known of it. All accounts agree, that
vestiges of the Hindu or B’hudist religion, perhaps of both, are still to be found.
Some accounts go so far as to state, that in the interior of the country, the inha-
bitants are divided into four tribes, termed Bramana, Sudra, Wazier, and Sutra; and
it is certain, that on the final estabhshment of the Mahomedan rehgion in Java, the
Hindus or B’hudists, who remained unconverted, took refuge in that Island. I will

142

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

not venture further on this unkno-vra ground, feeling satisfied that another year \\ill
not he allowed to pass by ^^^thout personal obser\'ation on the spot by some inquisi-
tive enquirer.

“ 'U'e have hitherto only adverted to the countries Ipng in the more immediate
ncinity of Java, but in extending the prospect, and directing our views eastward to
the other islands of the Archipelago, our attention is forcibly attracted by the great
Island of Borneo, hitherto a blank on the chart of the world. From the best in-
formation we have yet been able to obtain of this immense Island, greater in extent
than any cinlized nation of Europe, and abundantly rich in the most valuable natirral
productions, it would appear that the whole coimtiy was, at no very remote period,
di^^ded under the three empires of Borneo, Sucadana, and Banjer Masin, of which
the reigning princes of the two latter trace their descent from Mah’japahit in Java.

“ Borneo or B’rni, now tenned by us Borneo Proper, having been the first port
risked by Europeans, may have given rise to the name of Borneo being erroneously
applied to the whole Island, which by the native mhabitants, and universally by the
Eastern States, is termed Pulu K’lemantan. Its princes deduce their origin from the
Sultans of Johore, but such is the vTetched state to which their country has fallen,
that they possess little more than nominal authority, except on the immediate spot
of their residence.

“ Sucadana, though the most conspicuous in latter times, is now reduced to
little more than a name. To the rise of Sambas, Pontiana, and other petty states
on its numerous rivers, originating in grants and usurpations of various portions of
the empire, the destmction of the seat of govermnent by the Dutch, and the general
imbecility and want of entei'prize on the part of the reigning princes, may be attri-
buted the state into which the present possessor of the title has latterly fallen. He
resides entirely at iMatan, an inconsiderable place far up an adjacent river. This
prince still possesses the large diamond which has been for eight generations in his
family, but retains little other valuable appendage or consideration to support either
his rank or authority.

“ Banjer Masin, although not much indebted to the interference of the Dutch
in promoting its internal improvement, still owes much of its remaining respectability
as a State, to the protection afforded by the presence of the Em'opean authority.
Deprived, however, latterly of that support, commlsed by the consequences of the
measiues which closed the period of Dutch influence, and exposed to the inroads of
piratical enterjmse, it was rapidly falling into decay, and in a short period its princes
would perhaps have had little more to boast than those of Sucadana, had not the
fostering care of the European power been again extended by the encom'agement
given to the ^^’ishes and expectations of the reigning prince, whose conduct affords,
amongst many others, a convincing proof how much the interests, welfare, and even

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

143

existence of the native states depend on the ability and character of the reigninj^
prince

“ A more intimate acquaintance with Banjer Masin than with the other parts of
the Island enables us to speak more decidedly with regard to the progress of civiliz-
ation in the interior of the country, and the general state of the Southern Provinces.
Something has already been written on the northern part, and the settlements
formerly maintained by the English have thrown some light on the character of the
country and habits of the population in that quarter ; the interference which has
been found requisite, for the immediate suppression of piracy in the states formerly
appertaining to Sucadana, will also afford the means by which much interesting in-
formation will be obtained from thence.

Banjer Masin, in common with Java, still retains some vestiges of Hindu
antiquity, and among others it may not be uninteresting to notice the circumstance
of the Sultan being in possession of a golden tortoise with several rings, on which
are engraved the figures of Ishwara and other Hindu deities, and impressions of the
cow and elephant f .

“ Of the population of the Island, all that we are yet justified in saying is, that
the Moslems appear to have estabhshed themselves in authority over the aborigines,
who are generally termed Orang Dayak, in those parts of the country adjacent to
settlements which they have formed on the banks of the many rivers with which the

* The Factory of Banjer Masin was withdrawn, and the connection abandoned by the Dutch, early
in 1809, the Sultan purchasing, for the sum of 50,000 Rix Dollars, the forts and buildings, on his being
declared independent.

■f The manner in which the golden tortoise was discovered is thus related:— “In the reign of the
former Sultan, a native of Banjer Masin, when at sea in company with a Kling, or native of the coast of
Coromandel, ascertained from conversation that the latter, who was a Hindu, had a secret object in pro-
ceeding to Banjer Masin, and at length discovered that object to be the recovery of property belonging to
his ancestors, which appeared to lie buried in the earth at a place called Mirampiad. Stimulated by the
expectation of gain, he dissuaded the Hindu from immediately prosecuting his object, and bent his own
course directly to the spot, where, after digging to a considerable depth, he discovered several compart-
ments inclosed by walls, in one of which he found the tortoise, with a pot of gold-dust on the back.”
Intelligence being immediately carried to the Sultan, his further researches were prevented, in consequence
of the spot being seized as a droit of royalty ; after which no further investigation appears to have taken
place. The cow is said to be never seen among the emblems of Hindu or Vedantic Mythology ; but the
Ox frequently. The elephant is introduced merely as an ornament, except when repeated in certain stories
with other figures of the drama. The elephant exhibited on the seal-ring may have some allusion to the
Calinga or Telinga state, the chief of which was denominated the Gaja Putty, or Lord of Elephants.
In like manner as the Chief or King of the Carnatic was denominated Nara Patty, or Lord of Men, but the
seal of Carnatic was a rvild-hog. Pillars and remains of buildings, evidently traces of a more enlightened
population at a remote period, have been noticed a considerable way up the river ; but until that part of
the country is visited by Europeans, it would be premature to offer any observation on their origin and
design.

lit

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

Island is watered. These extend some distance inland, but the Mahomedan in-
fluence has not spread far into the interior. Indeed, the mass of the population,
which may have submitted to the Moslem Chiefs, still remains unconverted to the
Mahomedan faith, and in the interior their habits are so barbarous as to prevent all
intercourse, even with the Mahomedans most in their \'icinity. Those subjected to
the Mahomedans appear to be mostly tractable and of mild disposition, but so
wretchedly sunk in barbarous stupidity as to submit to every indignity without
resistance, while those who still retain their independence, and who are to be con-
sidered as the bulk of the original population, form innumerable ferocious tribes,
constantly at variance with each other, and indi\’idually rejecting internal govern-
ment and controul.

“ It may be a question whether the present state of society, among the unsub-
dued inhabitants, is to be attributed to any marked distinction between them and
those who have submitted to the Mahomedan mle, or whether the barbarity, which
now disgi'aces human nature, may not be traced in a great measure to the conduct
obseiTed to those who have submitted to a foreign influence. Be this as it may, it
is a lamentable fact not to be disputed, that at the present day, almost within sight
of Java, the sacrifice of human beings at ceremonies and festivals is so common,
that entei*prises are undertaken divested of every other object but the attainment of
human beings for such occasions.

“ Where such practices are prevalent, it is not to be expected that a country
can boast extensive population ; indeed, under such circumstances, it may rather be
matter of surprise that Borneo should be so populous as it is. Happily there is no
state of human nature so debased as not to afford a field for improvement, and
although the horrid custom alluded to would seem to check any sanguine hope of a
rapid change being effected, there are some traits to be found, even in these savages,
which afford an opening for intercourse and consequent improvement. They are
not without industry, and when met by candour and kind treatment, are rather
disposed than otherwise to a trading intercourse. From mild and judicious manage-
ment much may be expected.

“ From what has been said of the present state of Borneo, it follows, that we
are not to calculate on any immediate addition to our stock of useful arts ; but as
every untrodden path affords some new incitement to the inquisitive mind, we may
look for much in the various branches of natural history ; — to the philosophic mind
a wide and interesting field is opened, and while we contemplate, in a political point
of riew, the advantages which must result from bringing forth, and directing in a
proper comse, the latent energies and resources of so large a portion of the habitable
globe, it must be a pleasing reflection to the philanthropist, that so many of our
fellow-creatures are thus gradually retrieved from ignorance, barbarism, and self-
destruction.

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

145

“ Proceeding east, our progress is arrested by the Celebes, an island as remark-
able for its peculiar shape, as for the martial and commercial enterprise of a great
portion of its inhabitants. Of this island, however, we yet know but little that is
to be depended upon, except of the south-west limb, and the immediate neighbour-
hood of the north-east point.

“ Among the records of the Dutch government a very interesting map of the
south-westeni limb has been found ; and from the minuteness and ability with
which it appears to be executed, it promises to throw much light on the general
nature of the country; and will, at all events, facihtate a more accurate survey
whenever circumstances may admit of such an undertaking.

“ The most prominent nations in this part of Celebes are the Bugis and Ma-
casar or Mengasar, but hitherto we have only discovered one wiatten character,
distinct from every other in the Eastern Islands. The Mahomedan religion prevails
generally throughout this part of the island, but in the northern provinces, beyond
Mandhar, and generally in every interior part of the island, human nature appears
nearly in the same rude state as we have described it in the interior of Borneo.

“ The people are, however, knoum under the general denomination of Alfur
or Arafura, which term is extended to the same description of inhabitants in the
islands further east ; these last do not appear to differ essentially from the Orang
Dayak of Borneo, and may ^^^th them be considered as the aborigines of these
islands. The Celebes, from its peculiar figure, seems admirably adapted for the
purposes of commercial intercourse ; and although but a very small portion seems
yet to have advanced to any degree of cirtlization, they are renowned among other
eastern nations for the spirit of commerce and war. They have established various
colonies on the opposite coast of Borneo, and on the shores of the adjacent islands,
and even maintain an influence of no inconsiderable weight in the pohtics of the
Malayan States west as far as the Straits of Malacca. The Bugis and Macasar
nations, like the Javanese, are nations perfectly distinct from the Malays ; but we
are not yet sufficiently acquainted with the native history, to assert how far they
are entitled to be considered as the indigenous inhabitants of the country.

“ We know pretty accurately the date of the introduction of the Mahomedan
faith, and some leading circumstances relating to the conversion of the people ; but
from the advanced state of their civilization compared with that of the Ai*afuras, it
must be inferred, that at the period of its introduction, they had attained a con-
siderable degree of improvement beyond the bulk of the population ; and indeed,
we are borne out by tradition and bistory in the belief that, in this part of the island,
there existed a powerful nation, long antecedent to the introduction of Maho-
medanism. M e are not, however, prepared to say from what foreign quarter this
portion of the native population was first civilized, and we are not yet informed
whether, as in Java, any traces are to be found of Hinduism. On these points,

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

and in short on eveiy essential point, we have much to learn ; and the field is so
important and interesting, that I flatter myself the period is not far distant, when
the pages of our transactions may throw much fight on the subject, '^^'e have
already, as I before noticed, obtained through the assistance of Captain Phillips,
the Resident, very extensive vocabularies of the language, and the enquiries which
have been set on foot by that gentleman, at the suggestion of the Society, promise
the most interesting result.

“ Further East lies the Island of Jelolo or Halamahira, which is situated
between the Moluccas and the Papua Islands, as Celebes itself is situated between
the Moluccas and Borneo. Jelolo has sometunes, fi-om its form, been denominated
little Celebes. With the western coast of this Island we are less acquainted, but
the inhabitants of the eastern coasts, especially those of Asa and Maba, are, from
their connection on the jNIoluccas, well knoAvii. These, however, would appear to
occupy so small a portion of the countiy compared vith the Alfurs, that we can
liardly be said to be yet fully acquainted vith the bulk of the inhabitants.

On this island, therefore, and the group of smaller islands in its neighbour-
hood, including the Moluccas, the first object appears to be that of ascertaining
coiTectly what is already known ; and after reducing the same to such a form as
may funiish a basis, or at least determined points, fi'om which to proceed on fiuther
enquir)' and investigation, to persevere steadily in the attainment of what is defi-
cient. Om’ infoinnation on the natural history of the Moluccas is perhaps more
complete than that of any region of the East, and it is not among the least dis-
tinguished records of om’ Society, that we find a manuscript copy of an original
work of the celebrated Rumphius.

“ I fear I have already detained you too long in thus particularising the present
state of these Islands, considering that however interesting and unportant they may
be, as Ipng contiguous to the seat of our deliberations, they embrace but a small
portion of the extensive tract which lays open to the Society, even within the range
that I am desirous of defining. To enter upon the whole, othenrise than generally,
would be foreign to the object of the present discourse, and I am far from being
competent to undertake the task ; but while I hastily pass over New Guinea and
New Holland, vith the numerous islands of the Southern Seas, reserring the
observations which occiu' on these for a future occasion, I cannot refrain from
noticing the rapid progress of the European settlements in the more Southern parts
of New Holland, and anticipating the practicability of obtaining, in concert vith
men of research in that quarter, early and interesting infoi’mation on many import-
ant points which still remain doubtful.

“ Much has been said and collected by Mr. Dalpunple on the Sulu Islands, and
on the large Island of IMindanawi or Majindanau, but it must be confessed, that
very little fight is yet thrown on the history of man in those regions — the mine is

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

147

still unexplored, and from the notice in the writings of the Seignor Margarette and
others on Luconia and the Philippine Islands, much may still be expected in aid of
what has already been suggested.

From the intimate political connection now opening with the Spanish posses-
sions in both hemispheres, the period is, I trust, not far distant, when an inter-
course between our Society and similar institutions existing at Manilla, may bring to
light much interesting information. Under existing circumstances, it will naturally
occur, that no time should be lost in opening correspondence, and in encouraging
the most unreserved and cordial communication.

Had I not already trespassed too long on your time, I should have been
inclined to indulge at some length on the prospect which the projected enterprise to
Japan affords in aid of our researches in that quarter. From the distinguished
talents of Dr. Ainshe, the English Secretary to the Society, who proceeds as Com-
missioner on the part of the English government, we have just grounds for antici-
pating the acquisition of much that is to be learnt from these remote and interesting
countries.

“ I must however now apologise for the very unconnected and diffuse manner
in which I have taken the hberty to address you. The occasion required that I
should say something, and I have already stated how inadequate I felt myself to say
any thing to the purpose. I cannot, however, conclude without offering to you my
congratidations on the revival of the Institution under its present promising circum-
stances, nor without noticing the hberal manner in which you have undertaken the
pubhcation of a ^ New Edition of the Sacred Scriptures in the Malayan character.’
Allow me to assure you, that I am individually deeply interested in the success of
the Institution, and that, while it may be in my power, from my official situation, or
otherwise, to encourage and protect your laudable pursuits and undertakings, you
may calculate on the most unreserved and liberal support of government.”

“ A Discoiu'se delivered on the 11th September, 1815, hij the Honourable Thomas

Stamford Raffles, President.

“ Gentlemen,

“ A series of domestic afflictions, alas ! but too well known to you all,
have followed in such quick succession to the melancholy event which it has long
been my duty to communicate, that, until the present hour, I have felt myself in
every way unequal to the trying task of publicly announcing to you the death of
om: noble and enlightened patron, the late Earl of Minto ; an event so unlooked
for, and so painfully calamitous in its immediate effects, that, to use the energetic
language of Mr. Muntinghe, it ^ obliged us,’ as it were, ^ to close our li^JS bef ore the
Almighty !’

u 2

118

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

For how difficult was it to be reconciled to our wishes, and to our natural
conceptions of right and ^^Tong, that a man of such public and private worth should
have been lost to his country, and snatched away from the embraces of his friends
and family, at the very moment he was to receive the only reward which, in this
world, could recompense his past labom's — a calm and placid recollection of the
arduous, but successful career he had run ? How difficult was it to be reconciled to
our ideas of remunerative justice, that the man who had so successfully served his
country, should only live to see his triumphs completed, but not be allowed to enjoy
them ; that he should not even have been allowed to live the necessary space of time
to make the extent of his services known, and to describe the nature of the conquests
he had made ? And if, in this instance, it may occur that the public and the nation
is, if not more, at least as much, the sufferer as the indiHdual, how, again, is it to be
reconciled to indiHdual desert, that a man so eminent in private and domestic rirtue ;
who had been seen, descending fi*om the high station which he held, hastening in
person to the pestilential shores of Bataria, administering on the way every aid and
assistance to a sickly son ; and who, after this beloved son fell a sacrifice, knew how
to tranquillize his mind by the most elegant and consoling reflection, that his death
was the Jirst and only grievance which either this son or any of his children had ever
inflicted on their parents ; that this father, blessed with such a family, and with such
a sense of domestic felicity, should be snatched aw^ay by death, almost in sight of his
home, and wffiile they w^ere stretching forth their arms to receive and embrace him ?

“ If not so strong and intense in their feehng, yet of the same nature, and more
extensive in their operation, WTre the ties which attached him to this colony — to the
whole community of Java, and especially to our Society — a tender and parental care
for the Island of Java was publicly avowed on different occasions ; the proofs of it
were received ; the European community was saved and preserved by his humanity,
and on his responsibility : for the native administration principles were laid dowm,
on which the wffiole of the present stmcture has been raised ; and in every instance
a wish w'as erinced of improving the successes of war, as much in favour of the
conquered as of the conqueror.

“ It would not be proper, on this occasion, to enter into particulars ; but who
does not gi’atefully recollect the general tenor of his Lordship’s conduct and demean-
our while on Java ? administering aid and assistance with his owm hands to the
maimed and w'ounded of his enemies ; setting, in the midst of his successes, an ex-
ample of moderation and simplicity of manner even to the vanquished — proceeding
often in public without any other signs of gi-eatness and distinction, than wiiat the
whole community, singly and jointly, w'ere eager to shew him ; never missing an
opportunity of doing even a temporary good ; and conciliating, by these means, the
minds of the public to such a degree, that enemies were rendered friends, and that
the names of conqueror and subduer were lost in those of protector and liberator.

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TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

1 19

How hard, therefore, was it for the befriended and protected to lose their protector
and liberator ; and for the protector himself not to be allowed to see the fruits of his
benevolence come to a proper maturity !

“ But, however deeply we may, from these reflections, be led to bewail this
melancholy event, let us beware not to murmur against the ways of Providence ;
nothing would be more unbecoming a literary and scientific society. Let us rather
di'aw from all these circumstances the consoling reflection, that as Divine Justice
will never fail, and fidl compensation seemed to be wanting on this side the grave,
the deficiency will be amply filled up in another state, wLere life, bliss, and happiness
will be everlasting.

“ Having paid this humble tribute to the memory of our departed Patron, I pro-
ceed to notice the result of those inquiries, which have either been set on foot by the
Society, or have fallen under its immediate observation, in the various branches of
its pursuits, since I had last the honour of publicly addressing you.

At that period Dr. Horsfield had, under instructions from Government, just
commenced his laborious exertions on Banca : we have since seen those exertions
brought to a close ; and I have to report the collection of the most complete informa-
tion regarding the position, constitution, and productions of that important island.
The state of society has not been omitted in the investigation, and satisfactory data
have been fmmished, on which to estimate the present condition of its inhabitants, as
well as to contemplate plans for their progressive advancement in civilization and
happiness.

It is during the later periods only of the European establishments in the East,
that Banca has attracted notice. The discovery of the tin mines about the conclu-
sion of the last century, first gave it celebrity ; but we can only date the commence-
ment of scientific investigation, or of European control, from the period of its ces-
sion to the British Government in 1812. The Dutch government, it is true, set on
foot various inquiries at different periods ; and some account of the population and
produce of the country is contained in the earher volumes of our Transactions ; but
those views being confined to commercial objects, and the despotic sway of the native
government of Palembang still remaining absolute, but little was knowm of the
comitry beyond the extent of the produce in tin which it could annually export.

In explanation of the geographical description, and in order to point out the
places referred to in the descriptions of the mines, and in the detail of the mineralo-
gical and botanical remarks. Dr. Horsfield has constructed the outhne of a map, in
wLich are laid down the principal rivers, the mountains and ridges of hills, ^vith the
settlements of the Malays and Chinese, and the divisions adopted by the original
inhabitants.

After entering into a detailed geographical account of the Island, and furnish-
ing statistic tables of the population and produce. Dr. Horsfield proceeds to a narra-

150

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

live of the mineralogical appearances, as explanatory of the constitution of the mines,
and of the geological histoiy of the country.

“ On the mineralogical constitution of Banca, he observes, that ^ the direction
of the Island being from North-west to South-east, it follows not only the direction
of Sumatra and the Malayan peninsula, but the large chain of Asiatic mountains,
one of the many branches of which terminates in Ceylon, while another, traversing
Arakan, Pegu, the Malayan peninsula, and probably Sumatra, sends olf an inferior
range through Banca and Billiton, where it may be considered to disappear.’ The
elevated parts of Banca are observed to have the same constitution as the gi*eat con-
tinental chain, being composed principally of granite. Next to these occurs a species
of rock, which he terms ^ ?'ed h'on-stone,’ extensively distributed on situations of
secondary elevation, in single rocks, or in veins of many united together, covering
large tracts of comitry. Tracts composed of this stone are bounded by alluvial dis-
tricts, which are again subdivided into such as are formed of waving hills, gi'adually
rising on each other, apparently of prior fonuation, and of such as are low and level,
of recent origin, and confining the discharge of rivers. Those districts which occur
in juxta position of the primitive portions, filling the space between these and the
veins of ‘ red iron-stone or, again, between those and the allmdal parts, are stratified,
the strata being uniformly horizontally arranged.

“ It is through these horizontal strata that the tin ore is represented to be dis-
seminated ; and, as far as has hitherto been remarked, it appears to lie either imme-
diately under the sm'face, or at no great distance below it.

“ Another section of the report contains a view of the tin mines, exhibiting a
general enumeration of those worked at present, or in former periods, with an account
of the process of mining, and of the economy of the mines.

“ The process of mining on Banca is remarkable for its simphcity ; it consists in
an excavation, of a square or oblong form, made by digging perpendicularly to the
beds, or strata, containing the ore, and in a proper application of the water, to facili-
tate the labours of the miners and the washing of the ore. There is no necessity, as
in other countries, where the metal hes concealed in deep veins, to have recourse
to difficult operations, or expensive macliinery. The process, indeed, requires so
little previous instruction, that it is mostly performed by persons whose only quahfi-
cation is a robust constitution. A favourable spot being selected, the pit is sketched
out ; a canal conducted from the nearest rivulet ; and the miners excavate until they
arrive at the stratum containing the ore : this is then deposited in heaps near the
water, so as to be conveniently placed for washing. The aqueduct is lined vrith the
bark of large trees ; and a stronger current being produced by the admission of more
water, the heaps are thrown in and agitated by the workmen — the particles of
ore subsiding by means of their gravity, and the earth being carried away by the
current.

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

151

“ When a sufficient quantity of ore is thus accumulated, the process of smelting
commences : this is also very minutely and accurately described by Dr. Horsfield.
It is unnecessary to observe, that almost all the operations connected with the pro-
cess of mining and the refining of the metal, are perfonned by Chinese.

“ In his botanical pursuits. Dr. Horsfield has been peculiarly successful ; his
descriptions comprising a collection of upwards of five hundi-ed plants, of which
sixteen appear to be of doubtful genera.

“ An account of the inhabitants, their mode of life and occupations, the state of
agriculture, and the history of the different settlements, is introduced into this valu-
able report, which I hope will shortly appear in print, under the liberal patronage
and support of the East India Company. In this expectation, and that I may not
diminish the interest excited in its favour, or exceed the latitude with which I am
vested, by more extensive drafts on the interesting information which it contains, I
shall close these notices on Banca by a short account of the extent and character of
the population, as it appeared to Dr. Horsfield at the early period of the establish-
ment of European influence.

The inhabitants of Banca consist of Malays, Chinese, Orang Gunung, or moun-
taineers, and Rayads, (Orang Laut,) or sea people. The Malays are few in number,
of a peaceable disposition, but indolent, and of little importance in the affairs of the
Island. The Chinese preserv^e, on Banca, their original habits of industry, enter-
prise, and perseverance ; they are the most usefid among the inhabitants, and indis-
pensable in the labours of the mines. The general character of the Orang Gunung,
or moimtaineers, the original and, perhaps, most interesting portion of the popula-
tion, is Hide simplicity. Dispersed over large tracts in the interior of the country,
they live nearly in a state of nature, but submit without resistance to the general
regulations which have been established, and willingly perform the labours required
of them, although their natural timidity and wandering habits render them, in a con-
siderable degree, inaccessible to Europeans. The Rayads are the remains of a pecu-
liar race of people so called, living with their families and household in small prows
in the Bays of Jebus and Klabut, and obtaining a subsistence by fishing and adven-
ture : particulars of the habits and dialects of both the mountaineers and Rayads, uill
form a separate notice.

“ On Borneo, if we have not derived the advantage of scientific inquiry, we have
yet added considerably to our stock of information, in a more correct knowledge of
the character and habits of the native population ; in the collection of vocabularies
of many of the dialects of the country, and in the attainment of many interesting
particulars regarding the extensive colonies of Chinese, by which the gold mines are
. worked.

“ Some notices have been received of ruins of temples, statues, and dilapidated
cities, and of the existence of various inscriptions in different parts of the coimtry.

152

MU. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

in characters unknown to the Chinese, Malay, or Dayak ; but the information yet
received is too vague, and, in some instances, too contradictory to be relied upon ;
and the question whether this island, at any former period, rose to any considerable
degi'ee of greatness, must yet remain undecided. Embanking, as it were, the navi-
gable pathway between the eastern and western hemispheres, and lying contiguous
to the most populous regions of the globe, China and Japan, there can be little doubt
but, at one period, she must have risen far above her present state of degradation and
neglect. That Borneo was \'isited, many centuries ago, by the Chinese and Japanese,
is well estabhshed ; but whether the country was ever more extensively colonized by
either of those nations, than it is at present from China, must be left to future
inquiry. Porcelain jars, plates, vases, and earthen utensils of various descriptions,
the manufacture of China and Japan, are frequently discovered in chfferent parts of
the country ; and such is the veneration in which these articles, so found, are held,
that a single jar of this description has been known to be piuchased by the Dayaks
of the interior, for a sum not far short of two hundred pounds sterling : these jars
are prized by the Dayaks as the supposed depositories of the ashes of their fore-
fathers.

“ I would here notice the information collected regarding the different tribes of
Dayaks which have come under observation, did not the detail appear misplaced in
the very general view which I am, of necessity, compelled to take of the subject. I
will only observe, that from a comparative vocabulary of as many of their chalects as
are at present attainable, they appear to differ but httle from the Malayan ; that
of the numerous tribes described by name and peculiarities, several are represented
as tattooed ; and that some are noticed with curled hair, and resembling the Papuas.

“ In the vicinity of Banjar-Masing, no opportunity has been lost of improving our
intelligence. Mr. Alexander Hare, the founder of the interesting colony estabhshed
in the southern part of the Island, has himself penetrated across the south-westeni
peninsula ; and as confidence increases, we may look to a more extensive intercourse
with the rude and scattered tribes of the interior.

“ In a former discourse, I took occasion to notice, that the most prominent peo-
})le on Celebes were the Bugis and Macasar ; that, though speaking different lan-
guages, they adopted the same peculiar written character; and that the Maho-
medan religion prevailed generally in those parts of the Island, which might be con-
sidered to have at all advanced from a state of barbarism.

“ Confining our observations to the south-western limb of this whimsically-
shaped Island, we may infer, that notwithstanding the country has greatly declined
since its intercourse with Europeans, it may still be reckoned populous, compared
with many of the islands of the East. The population has been roughly estimated
at about a million ; but the data on which this estimate was formed, are not to be
unreservedly relied upon.

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

153

“ About the period of the first anival of Europeans in the East, the Macasar
and Bugis tribes were among the principal dealers in spices, and the Island of Celebes
was nearly under the authority of a single Sovereign. On the breaking down of this
great empire, several of the minor states submitted to Eiu'opean administration ;
while the support given to the authority of Boni, and the monopoly of the spice-
trade by Europeans, effectually reduced the pohtical influence of the ancient state
of Goa.

“ The most ancient state of which tradition makes mention on Celebes, is Luhu,
or Luwu, situated in the inner part of the Bay of Boni ; and their galigas, or historical
romances, are replete with the adventures and exploits oi^Sawira Gading, the first
Chief of that country, and who is said to have extended his dominions to the Straits
of Malacca. Next to Luhu, the empire of Goa has the greatest claims to antiquity ;
and a period is mentioned when this state extended its influence to Acheen, Manda,
Sulu, Ternate, and the whole of the Spice-islands.

“ In 1663 Rajah Palaka visited Bata\da, and in 1666 co-operated with the Dutch
government against the native states on the coast of Sumatra. From this period
the authority of Boni advanced, until the recent arrangements by the British govern-
ment.

“ The Macasar and Bugis tribes are known to be the most bold, adventurous,
and enterprising of all the Eastern nations. They were formerly celebrated for their
fidehty and their com'age, and for this reason were employed as the Swiss in Europe,
not only in the armies of Siam, Camboja, and other countries, but also as guards to
their princes.

The most singular feature in the constitution of society on Celebes, is that of
an elective Monarchy, hmited by an Aristocracy, generally hereditary, and exercising
feudal authority over the minor Chiefs and poprflation, at all times prepared to take
the field; a constitution of society which, however common to Europe, is perhaps
without parallel in Asia, where, from the influence of climate, rehgion, and pohtical
institutions, we seldom witness any considerable departure from the despotic sway of
one individual. The whole of the states on that portion of Celebes to which I have
alluded, are constituted on this principle : the Prince is chosen from the royal stock
by a certain number of counsellors, who also possess the right of subsequently
removing him ; these counsellors are themselves elected from particular families of
the hereditary Chiefs of provinces ; and such is their influence, that the Prince can
neither go to war, nor, indeed, adopt any public measure, except in concert with
them ; they have the charge of the pubhc treasure, and also appoint the Prime-
minister. The Prince cannot himself take the personal command of the army ;
but the usage of the country admits of a temporary resignation of office for this
purpose ; in which case a Regent succeeds provisionally to the rank of Chief, and
carries on the affairs of government in concert with the majority of the council.

154

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

Women and minors are eligible to election in eveiy department of the state, from
the Prince down to the lowest Chief ; and when this takes place, an additional officer,
haring a title which literally means support, or prop, is appointed to assist. Some
variation is observable in the different states : in Boni, the Prince is elected by the
Orang Pitu, or seven hereditary counsellors ; in Goa, the Prince is chosen by ten
counsellors, of whom the first minister, termed Bechara Buta, is one. This last
officer is himself first appointed by the comicil of nine, termed the nine farmers of
the country ; but in the exercise of his office possesses very extraordinary powers ; he
can even remove the Prince himself, and call upon the electors to make another
choice. The inferior Chiefs, or Krains, who administer the dependant prorinces, are
appointed by the government and not elected by a council, although, in the exercise
of their office, their power is in like manner limited ; the number of the council vary-
ing, in different prorinces, from two to seven.

“ War is decided upon in the comicil of the state ; and so forcibly is the despe-
rate ferocity and barbarism of the people depicted by the conduct they observe on
these occasions, and in their subsequent proceeding towards their enemies, that,
however revolting the contemplation of such a state of society may be, it fonns too
striking a trait in their character to be omitted. War being decided upon by the
Prince in comicil, the assembled Chiefs, after sprinkling their banners with blood,
proceed to take a solemn oath, by dipping their criss in a vessel of water, and after-
wards dancing around the bloody banner with frantic gesture, and a strange con-
tortion of the body and hmbs, so as to give the extended criss a tremulous motion :
each severally imprecates the vengeance of the Deity against his person, if he vio-
lates his vow. An enemy is no sooner slain, than the body is decapitated, and
treated with every indignity which the barbarous triumph of savages can dictate ; the
heads are carried on poles, or sent in to the Lord Paramount. Some accounts go
so far as to represent them devouring the raw heart of their subdued enemy ; and
whatever shadow of doubt humanity may throw over this appalhng fact, it cannot be
denied that their favourite meal is the raw heart and blood of the deer. This
repast is termed Lor Dura, or the feast of the bloody heart, which they are said to
devom*, as among the Battas, in the season when limes and salt are plenty.

“ This, however, is viewing them on the worst side of their character, with
immediate reference to their conduct in war, and to practices found to prevail among
that portion of the population labouring under the restrictions on foreign commerce ;
there are other points of view in which it may be more favom*ably considered.

“ The inhabitants of the Wad ju districts, in particular, are celebrated for their
enterprise and intelligence ; extending their commercial speculations, with a high
character for honourable and fair deahng, from the western shores of Siam to the
eastern coast of New Holland. Women, as before observed, take an active part in
all pubhc concerns, and are in no instances secluded from society, being on a perfect

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

155

equality with the men. The strongest attachment that is conceivable is felt for
ancient customs, and relics of antiquity are held in the highest possible veneration.
They are slow and deliberate in their decisions ; but these, once formed, are final.
Agreements once entered into, are invariably observed on their part : and a Bugis is
never known to swerve from his bargain. That natural pohteness which charac-
terizes the various nations and tribes distinguished by wearing the criss, is no where
more forcibly exhibited than among the inhabitants of Celebes. Their minor asso-
ciations are held together by all the attachment and warmth which have distinguished
the clans of North Britain. The same bold spirit of independence and enterprise
distinguishes the lower orders ; whilst the pride of ancestry, and the romance of chi-
valr)% are the delight of the higher classes. Attached to the chace as an amuse-
ment, rather than as the means of subsistence, the harvest is no sooner reaped, than
each feudal Chief, with his associates and followers, devotes himself to its pursuits.
The population being equally at the command of the feudal Lord, whether in time
of peace or war, agricultural pirrsuits, beyond what may procure a bare subsistence,
are but little attended to. The usual share of the crop at the disposal of the Chief,
is a tythe termed Sima ; this, with a few imposts in the Bazars, and the services of
the people, constitute the revenue of the state.

“ The languages and literature of the Celebes require a more extended and
detailed view than it is possible to take of either on the present occasion. I shall,
therefore, only briefly obseiwe, that the language prevalent throughout these states
appears, at no very remote period, to have been the same ; but that the various
revolutions which first raised the power of Goa, and subsequently elevated that of
Boni to a still higher importance, have, in separating the states under two distinct
authorities, given rise to two prevaihng dialects, now assuming the appellation ol'
tw^o distinct languages — the language of Goa or Macasar is peculiarly soft, and is
considered to be the most easy of acquisition, but not to be so copious as that of
the Bugis — whether the Bugis language contains any portion of a more ancient
language than either (of which traces are said to exist in some old manuscripts of
the country), or, from commercial intercourse with other states, has adopted more
foreign terms, is yet to be determined — the written character is nearly the same ;
the Macasars, however, using more consonant sounds than the Bugis — the same
practice of softening the abrupt or harsh sound of a word ending in a consonant,
by attaching a final a or o, so general in almost every tongue of the Archipelago,
is common to, and, I beheve, invariably observed in both these languages.

“ The possible existence of a language distinct from and anterior to those now
in use, is a subject w^ell deseiwing enquiry — the Bugis trace back to Sawira Gading,
whom they represent to have proceeded in immediate descent from their heavenly
mediator, Bitara Guru, and to have been the first Chief of any celebrity on Celebes
— he reigned, as I before observed, over Luhu, the most ancient kingdom on

X 2

156

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

Celebes, and a lapse of time equal to seven descents, is said to have taken place
before the establishment of Boni — both this Chieftain, and the founder of the empire
of Goa, are represented to have been great navigators and foreigners, or, according
to the romance of native tradition, deities sent fi'om heaven to govern and take care
of them. The inhabitants of Macasar have no idea by what means, and at what
period, the present form of government, of the nine Glarang, and the Bichara
Buta of Goa, was established.

“ Literary compositions, in both the iSIacasar and Bugis languages, are nume-
rous ; these consist principally of historical accomits of the different states, since
the introduction of Mahomedanism, which is represented to have taken place so
late as the early part of the sixteenth century ; of Galigas, or collections of ti*adi_
tions, regarding more early times ; of romances and poetical compositions, in which
love, war, and the chace, are the favourite theme. They possess a paraphrase of
the Koran, and several works eridently translated from the Javanese and Arabic,
and many in common with the ^Nlalajm — works on judicial astrology, collections of
institutions and customs which have all the force of law, — and each principal state
adopts the practice of duly recording every public event of importance as it occurs.

“ I shall not longer detain you with notices on our external relations, while so
wide and interesting a field attracts attention at home ; on Java, and that range of
islands which modern geographers have classed under the denomination of the
Sunda Islands. I have hitherto refi'ained from noticing the extensive traces of
antiquity, foreign intercom'se, and national gi’eatness, which are exhibited in the
numerous monuments of a fonner worship, in the ruins of dilapidated cities, in the
character, the institutions, the language, and the literature of the people, in the
hope that abler pens would have attempted a more correct sketch than either my
humble abihties or limited infoiTnation enable me to contemplate or embrace ; the
subject is so extensive, so new, so highly interesting, that I must claim your indul-
gence, if, in aiming at conciseness in representing the appearances and facts which
have most forcibly struck my attention, many still more important particulars pass
unnoticed.

“ On the peculiar proAunce of Dr. Horsfield, to whom I am indebted for what-
ever infoiTnation I possess on the natural history of the Island, I shall not fiirther
trespass than by adverting to the extensive and almost endless variety which these
regions present, in every branch of his pm’suits. One observation, however, as con-
nected with the earlier history of Java, in explaining the high fertihty of its soil in
comparison irith that of the Malayan Peninsula and Sumatra, may deserve notice in
this place. From the result of every investigation yet made, the constitution of
Java appears to be exclusively volcanic, without any admixture whatever of the
primitive or secondarj’^ mountains of the Asiatic continent ; while, on the contrary,
Sumatra, with Banca, as before noticed, appear to be a continuation and termina-

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

157

tion of the immense chain of mountains which pervades great part of Asia, and runs
off finally in a direction North-west to South-east. Java deviates from the direc-
tion of Sumatra and the Peninsula of Malacca, in striking off directly West and
East ; in this direction it is followed by the larger islands of Bali, Lombok, Sum-
bawa, Endi, Timor, and by many smaller, which contribute to constitute an exten-
sive series — this direction, as well as the constitution of all the islands enumerated,
. indicates the existence of an extensive volcanic chain in this part of the globe,
running many degrees almost parallel with the equator. The consequences of Java
being exclusively volcanic are, that while Sumatra abounds in metals, Java, gene-
rally speaking, is destitute of them * ; that while on Siunatra there are many exten-
sive tracts, sterile and unfavourable to vegetation, Java, with few exceptions, is
covered with a soil in the highest degree fertile, luxuriant, and productive of every
species of vegetation.

“ Referring to the ample details on the mineralogy of Java, which the scientific
and persevering exertions of Dr. Horsfield have enabled us to include in our present
volume, I shall, on this branch of our pursuits, only observe, that catalogues and
collections of the varieties in the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, as they
have been found to exist on Java, have been formed by this gentleman, who is at
present engaged in exploring the districts lying to the East and South of Souracarta,
with the view of completing materials for the natural history of Java — his Flora
Javana is already far advanced ; the geography of plants is a subject to which he
has particularly directed his researches. From the extensive range of the thermo-
meter between the high and the low lands, Java presents to the botanist, at the
least, six distinct associations of plants or floras, indigenous to as many chmates,
defined by their comparative elevation above the level of the seaf.

• All the indications yet discovered confirm the assertion that the constitution of Java is unfavourable
to metals. The only notice as to the existence of gold or silver is contained in the first volume of the
Transactions of the Batavian Society; and the attempts on Gunung Parang in 1723, and on the Mege
Mendung in 1744, were soon abandoned. Iron pyrites is found in small quantities in several districts, as
well as red ochre, which, however, often contains so little iron as scarcely to serve for the common purpose
of a paint. The existence of mercury in the low lands of Damak, where it is distributed in minute parti-
cles through the clay of the rice-grounds bounding one of the principal rivers in that district, cannot be
considered as an indication of a mine, or of ores of that metal.

•f The height of the principal mountains on Java is estimated at from seven to eight thousand feet
above the level of the sea. Several of them have been ascended, and measures are now in progress
for ascertaining the elevation with some degree of accuracy. Lieutenant Heyland, who has several times
ascended Sindoro, observes “ that on reaching the summit on the 20th May, 1813, the sun had set, and the
thermometer of Fahrenheit, stood at 36°. During the night the thermometer varied between 36°. and 44° ;
and as the day broke on the morning of the 21st, it was at 26°. a second thermometer at 30°. He imme-
diately proceeded to the lake, and found it covered with ice of the thickness of about two Spanish dollars. A
piece of double this thickness, found some distance from the edge on the same lake, induced a belief that it

158

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

If to the naturalist Java exhibits these extensive and wonderful varieties, to
the antiquarian, the philologist, and the philosopher, she in like manner offers sub-
jects of equal novelty, and even of higher interest, whether we investigate the
splendid remains of her temples and her cities, her languages and her literature, or
the character, institutions and customs of her inhabitants.

“To attempt any satisfactory description of the various momunents of anti-
quity and of a fonner worship, which are to be foimd in almost every district of the
Island, would be impracticable on the present occasion, and, \nth the exception of
a few notices, I must content myself vith assming you, that however deficient we
may be in scientific infonnation, or in a knowledge of the mythology sacred to
which these monuments may have been reared, measures have been taken that a
record, to be depended upon for exactness at least, should exist of the actual
remains of Hinduism on Java — I am indebted to Captain Baker, who is now actively
engaged in these piu’suits, for the most accurate sketches of the present appearance
of the most important of these laiins, as well as for gi*ound-plans and elevations of
the principal temples, ^rith notices of much valuable information which is to be
collected of their origin, object and history.

“ You are aware that the most splendid of these momunents are to be found at
Prambana, Boro Bodo and Singa Sari ; — of the fonner an interesting description is
given in the last volume of our Transactions, by om* highly esteemed friend Colonel
Mackenzie — circmnstances have since admitted of a more minute investigation, and
our information, as far as regards their present state, is much more complete-^these
extensive niins hold claim to the highest antiquity, and considering the ricinity of
the temples to have been the seat of the earliest monarchy on Java, I may be per-
mitted, in the words of Captain Baker, to lament the contrast of the present times,
with ‘ times long since past.’ ^ Nothing,’ he observes, ‘ can exceed the air of melan-
choly, desolation, and min, which this spot presents ; and the feehngs of every
risitor must be forcibly in unison with the scene of suri'ounding devastation, w^hen
he reflects upon the origin of this once venerated, hallow'ed spot; the seat and
proof of the perfection of arts now no longer in existence in Java ; the t}q>e and
emblem of a rehgion no longer acknowledged, and scarce knowm among them by
name ; w hen he reflects upon that boundless profusion of active, unwearied skill
and patience, the noble spirit of generous emulation, the patronage and encourage-
ment which the arts and sciences must have received, and the inexhaustible w^ealth
and resources w'hich the Javanese of those times must have possessed.’

had remained unthawed on the day preceding, and had now received the addition of a second night’s frost.
The water in the soup-plates which had been used as hot-water-plates the evening before, was completely
frozen throuorh, and the ice the thickness of an inch.” On another excursion, in October, 1814, the ther-
mometers fell to 36 and 38, and the ice formed on them after they had been immersed in water and exposed
to the air.

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

159

“ In attempting to describe the Chandi Sewo, or Thousand Temples, which
form a principal part of these ruins, he laments his inability to convey any adequate
ideas, satisfactory to his own mind, even of the actual dismantled state of this
splendid seat of magnificence and of the arts. ‘ Never,’ he observes, ‘ have I met
with such stupendous, laborious, and finished specimens of human labour, and of
the pohshed refined taste of ages long since forgot, and crowded together in so
small a compass, as characterize and are manifested in this little spot ; and though
I doubt not there are some remains of antiquity in other parts of the globe more
worthy the eye of the traveller, or the pencil of the artist, yet Chandi Sewo must
ever rank with the foremost in the attractions of curiosity or antiquarian research.’

I have preferred giving you the words of Captain Baker, while the subject
was fully impressed on his mind, and while in the midst of the objects which he
contemplated ; there is a feeling excited at such a moment that gives a colouring to
the picture, which is weakened in the faded tints of a more distant view.

“ Next to Prambana the ruins of Boro Bodo may be ranked as remarkable for
grandeur in design, peculiarity of style, and exquisite workmanship ; this temple is
in the district of Boro, under the residency of the Kadu, whence I presume it takes
its name, Bodo being either a term of contempt cast upon it by the Mahomedans, or
erroneously so pronounced, instead of Budlio, which, in its general acceptation in
the Javanese language, is synonymous with ancient or heathen ; it is built so as to
crown the upper part of a small hill, the summit terminating in a dome ; the build-
ing is square, and is composed of seven terraces rising one within the other, each of
which is enclosed by stone walls, the ascent to the different terraces being by fom-
flights of steps leading from four principal entrances, one on each side of the square.
On the top are several small latticed domes, the upper part terminating in one of a
larger circumference. In separate niches, or rather temples, at equal distances,
formed in the walls of the several ten*aces, are contained upwards of three-hundred
stone images of devotees, in a sitting posture, and being each above three feet
high. Similar images are within the domes above ; in compartments on the walls,
both within and without, are carved in relief, and in the most correct and beautiful
style, groups of figimes containing historical scenes and mythological ceremonies,
supposed to be representations of a principal part either of the Ramayan or Maha-
borat — the figures and costumes are evidently Indian, and we are at a loss whether
most to admire the extent and grandem* of the whole construction, or the beauty,
richness, and correctness of the sculpture.

“ The name and resemblance of the images which surround this temple to the
figure of Buddha, has induced an opinion that it was exclusively confined to the
worship of that deity : but it should be noticed that in the immediate vicinity of
this large temple, and evidently connected with it, are the remains of several smaller
temples, constructed much after the fashion of the temples at Prambana, and con-
7

160

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

taining a variety of sculptui’es and images of the Brahminical worship. A large
but mutilated stone figure of Brahma was found in a field hard by, and as there
are images similarly resembling Buddha to be found at Prambana, it would seem
that if they are ascertained to represent that deity, these buildings must have been
erected at a period when the worship was not separated.

“ Although the general design of this temple differs from those at Prambana, a
similar style of sculptm*e and decoration is observable, and the same may be also
traced to the laiins at Singa Sari, situated in the Residency of Pasaiaian, where are
still to be found images of Bralima, Mahadewa, Ganesa, the Bull Nandi and others,
of the most exquisite workmanship, and in a still higher degree of preservation than
any remaining at Prambanan or Boro Bodo. One of the most extraordinary monu-
ments in this quarter, however, is an immense colossal statue of a man resting on
his hams, of the same character as the porters at Prambanan, lying on its face, and
adjacent to a terrace, on which it was originally placed ; this statue measures in
length about twelve feet, breadth between the shoidders nine feet and a half, and at
the base nine feet and a half, with con’esponding dimensions in girth, cut firom one
sohd stone ; the statue seems evidently to have fallen from the adjacent elevated
teiTace, although it is chfficult to reconcile the probabihty of its having been elevated
to such a station, with reference to any traces we now have of the knowledge of
mechanics by the Javanese — to have raised it by dint of mere manual labour would
appear, at the present day, an Herculean task ; the terrace is about eighteen feet
high. A second figure of the same dimensions has since been discovered in the
vicinity of the above ; and wiien the forest is cleared, some traces of the large temple
to which they formed the approach, may probably be found. Not far from Singa
Sari, which w^as once the seat of empire, and in the district of Malang, are several
interesting ruins of temples, of similar constmction, and of the same style of
ornament.

These buildings must have been raised at a period wJien the highest state of
the arts existed, and constructed at no very distant date fi'om each other ; considered
in this view they serve very forcibly and decidedly to coiToborate the historical
details of the country, wJiich are found to exist in the different wTitten compositions
and dramatic entertainments.

“ In noticing the more prominent remains of antiquity, as they are to be traced
from the architecture and sculpture of former days, I should be wanting in attention,
and indeed in a due respect to the popular tradition and the still received opinion of
the Javans, did I not notice Gunung Prahu, a mountain, or rather a range of
mountains, for there are no less than twenty-nine points, which have distinct names,
situated on the northern side of the Island, and inland between Samarang and
Pacalongan, the supposed residence of Arjuno, and of the demi-gods and heroes who
distinguished themselves in the B’rata Yud’ha, or Holy War — here the ruins of the

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

161

supposed palace of the Chief, the abode of Bima, his followers and attendants, are
exhibited, and so rich was this spot in relics of antiquity, that the village of Kali
Babar, situated at the foot of the mountain, is stated to have from time immemorial
paid its rents in gold melted down fi’om the golden images here discovered ; so great
indeed has been the desire to meet the courtly thirst for these interesting relics,
that I regret to say many of the buildings composed of materials less in demand,
have suffered premature dilapidation on this account. Several interesting remains
have recently been discovered by Major Johnson, Resident at the cortrt of the
Susunan ; among these the ruins at Suku deserve particular notice ; but I have
already trespassed on a subject which it is impossible to treat well except in detail,
and with reference to drawings of the extensive variety of erections, deities, and attri-
butes w^hich abound throughout Java.

“ As connected with these early and splendid monuments of the former high
state of the arts in Java, and illustrative of the history of the country, are to be
noticed the gi*eat variety of inscriptions found in different parts of the island ; fac
similes of most of these have been taken, and I am happy to add that we have suc-
ceeded in dec}q)hering some of the most interesting. The character on the stone
found at Prambanan, is no doubt one of the Dewa Nagri characters of India, and
with the exception of a few characters discovered at Singa Saii on the back of stone
images, the only specimen yet discovered of this peculiar formation.

“ From the \icinity of the former kingdom of Jong’golo, not far distant from
the modern Surabaya, have been brought several large stones of the shape of Enghsh
tomb-stones, covered with inscriptions in the ancient Javanese character, and in
the Kawi language ; translations (or rather paraphrases, for they principally contain
prayers and invocations to the Deity, in a language, the meaning of a few words
only of wiiich are retained, while the idiom and grammatical construction has long
been lost,) have been made and will be found on the pages of om* Transactions ;
it has fallen to my lot to succeed not only in decyphering the MSS. recently dis-
covered in Cheribon, but also the inscriptions on the copper-plates so long deposited
among the records of our Society as unintelhgible ; the results will be communi-
cated to the Society in another form, and the subject will be more particularly ad-
verted to, when speaking of the languages and literature.

“ These inscriptions, which in general contain dates, are of the first importance
in enabling us to trace the source whence the language and literature may have
flowed, and to satisfy our minds of the prevailing worship at any particular period.
It is only by an assemblage of as many data as can be collected from this source,
from the remains of the arts, from the language, literature, and institutions of the
people of the present day, compared with the best information we can procure of
other countries of the East, which may have been civilized at an earlier period,
that w-e can come at any fair and just result ; the question is too extensive, too

162

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

important to be lightly treated, or to be decided upon from any preconceived opinion
or partial views.

“ Did not other striking and obvious proofs exist of the claims of Java to be
considered at one period far advanced in civilization, it might be sufficient to bring
forward the perfection of the language, the accession which that language must in
early times have received from a distant, but highly cultivated source, and the ex-
tensiveness for which it stands so pecuharly and justly distinguished.

“ On the Island of Java, two general languages may be considered as prevalent.
The Sunda language, which prevails in the western, and the Javanese, which is the
language of the districts east of Cheribon — the former is a simple dialect accom-
modated to all the purposes of the mountainous classes who speak it, and perhaps
differs from the Javanese, not so much in its construction, as in the portion of ori-
ginal and of Malayan words which it contains; one fomth of the language, at the
least, may be considered to be the same as the Javanese, another fom*th is, perhaps,
original, and the remaining half JNIalayan. At what period this extensive portion
of the Malayan was adopted, or whether any part or the whole of this portion may
not originally have formed the conunon language of this part of the country is yet
to be decided. In the Javanese, or language of the eastern division of the Island,
and also of the lower parts of Bantam and Cheribon, the natural or vernacular
language, in like manner, contains a considerable nmnber of words in common with
the Malayan, and the general principles of construction are found to have a striking
accordance. We thus find strong proofs in support of one common origin of the
prevailing languages of the Archipelago — notwithstanding, a large portion of the
Malayan words now used on Java, may be ascertained to have been received at a
comparatively recent date, and in the course of long and continued intercourse with
the neighbouring countries.

“ The Javanese language, properly so called, is distinguished by a division
between what may be considered as the vernacular language of the coimtry, in use
by the common people among themselves, and which is adopted when addressing an
inferior, and what may be considered as a second, or court language, adopted by all
inferiors when addressing a superior. The same construction, as well as the idiom
of the language, is, I believe, pretty generally preserved in both the languages ; the
latter, however, consists of a more extensive class of foreign words, which would
appear to have been picked and culled for the pui'pose ; where different words have
not been found from the common language of the country, an arbitrary variation in
the sound of the word belonging to the common language is adopted, as in changing
the word progo into pragi, dacli into dados, jawa into jawi, &c., and the more ef-
fectually to render the polite language distinct, not only are the affirmatives and
negatives, as well as the pronouns and prepositions varied, but the auxihary verbs
and particles are in general different.

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

163

So effectually, indeed, does this arbitrary distinction prevail, that in the most
common occurrences and expressions, the language that would be used by a superior
bears not the slightest resemblance to what, with the same object, would be used by
an inferior ; thus, when a superior would say to an inferior — It is a very long time
that you have been sick,” — he would in the common or vernacular language use the
words “ Lawas temdn goni loro,” while an inferior, using the court language, would
to the same purport, say “ Lami terns gemjmn sakit” — If the former would ask the
question, Your child, is it a boy or a girl?” he would use the words “ Anak kiro
wadon opo lanang?” the latter would express himself Putro hyang’an diko, estri
punopo again, would the former observe, “ that the people of Java, both men and
women, like to preserve the hair of the head,” — he would say, Wong pulu Jawa
lanang wadon podo ng'ing'u rambut,” — while the latter would use the words, “ Tetiang
heng nusa Jawi estri jalar sami ng'inga remo,”kc.

“ It is not, however, to be supposed that these languages are so separated that
the one is studied and attained exclusively of the other, for while one is the language
of address, the other must be that of reply, and the knowledge of both is indis-
pensible to those who have occasion to communicate with persons of a different
rank with themselves. In the polite language, Kawi words are frequently introduced
by the party, either to shew his reading, or evince a higher mark of respect — the
Kawi is, however, more properly a dead language, the language of literary composi-
tions of the higher class, and is to the Javanese, what the Sanscrit is to the lan-
guages of Hindustan, and the Pali is to the Burman and Siamese ; how far it may
assimilate to either, must remain to be decided by more accurate comparison and
observ^ation, than we have yet had opportunity to make. It is in this language that
the more ancient and celebrated of the literary performances of the country are
written, and it is probable it will be found that, while the general language of Java
possesses, in common with all the more cultivated languages of the Archipelago,
a considerable portion of Sanscrit terms, the court language is still more replete
with them, and that the Kawi, and particularly that which is reckoned most ancient,
and which is decyphered from inscriptions on stone and copper-plates, is almost pure
Sanscrit; the construction and idiom in these inscriptions is no longer comprehended
by the Javanese, and there are but few whose intelligence and acquaintance with the
terms used enables them to give even a faint notion of their meaning. Examples of
these languages, taken from the B’rata Yud’ha, and from some of the inscriptions
alluded to, will appear in the present volume.

To facilitate the acquirement of a language in its nature so extensive and
varied as that of the Javanese, a method is adopted similar to what I miderstand is
known in India, of classing the synonymes in such a manner as to connect them in
the memory, by stringing them in classes according to the natural chain of our
ideas ; the collection or vocabulary so composed, is termed doso nonio, literally, ten

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164

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

mmes, and in point of fact, there are but few words in the language which have not
at least as many spionymes ; an example of this mode of instmction, and of assisting
the memory, is also included in the present volume, as illustrative not only of the
method alluded to, but of the great delicacy and variety of the language.

“ I am happy to report that very extensive vocabularies, not only of both di\’i-
sions of the Javanese, including the Kaui, but of the Sunda, and of the dialects of
Madura and Bali, with notices of the varieties in particular districts and moimtain
tribes, have been collected ; and that whenever our more intimate acquaintance with
the written compositions of the country may afford the test of some experience in
aid of what has already been done, the gi'and work of a gi-ammar and dictionary may
be accomplished ; this has long been om* first and gi'and desideratum *.

“ In both the Sunda and Javanese languages, the same uvitten character is in
use — and it has not yet been traced whether the fonner ever had a separate VTitten
character or not : at a place, however, called Batu Tulis, on the site of the ancient
capital of Pajajaran, is preserved an inscription on stone in veiy rude characters —
and several similar inscriptions in the same character have been recently discovered
at Kwali in Cheribon, whither some of the descendants of the Princes of Pajajaran
took refuge ; this character, till lately, appeared widely different fi'om any other yet
noticed in Java, but is now found to contain some of the letters and vowel marks
in common vith the Javanese. The date inscribed on the stone at Batu Tulis has
fortunately been dec\q)hered, and the character was doubtless used by the Simda
people at the period of the destruction of the western government of Pajajaran.

“ No less than seven different characters are represented to have been in use
at different periods of Javanese history — and although those at present adopted ap-
pear at first sight, to be very different from the more ancient, on examination the
one may Arithout much difficulty be traced to the other, by obserring the gi'adual
alterations made from time to time ; — specimens of these different characters, with
the periods in which they were respectively used, are submitted to the inspection of
the Society, and I regret that the absence of an engi’aver precludes them from ap-
pearing in the present volmne of transactions.

“ The literature of Java, however much it may have declined in latter days,
must he still considered as respectable — the more ancient historical compositions
are mostly Amtten in the Kawi language, to which frequently the meaning of each
word, and a paraphrase of the whole in Javanese, is annexed ; of these compositions
those most highly esteemed are the B’rata Yud’ha or Holy War, and a volume en-
titled Romo or Rama, the former descriptive of the exploits of Arjuno, and the
principal heroes whose fame is recorded in the celebrated Indian poem of the

“ * Considerable progress has been made since our last meeting in the acquirement of the Javanese
language : the Rev. Mr. Trout, in particular, is prosecuting his studies at Samarang with great success ;
and arrangements are in progress for procuring from Bengal a fount of Javanese types.”

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

165

Mahabarat, the latter of those who are distinguished in the Ramayan — these poems
are held by the Javanese of the present day in about the same estimation as the
Iliad and Odyssey of Homer are by Europeans. Until translations are made, and
can be compared with the more extensive works in India, it would be premature to
form any judgment on their relative excellence — the B’rata Yud’ha is contained in
about two hundred verses, but in rendering the Kawi into Javanese, it is found ne-
cessary, in order to convey any thing like the meaning, to render one line of Kawi
into at least three of the modern Javanese, and I should not omit to mention that
the belief is general among the Javanese that the seat of this celebrated romance
was on Java — they point out the different countries which are referred to, such as
Hastina, Wirata, and others in different districts of the Island, which have since
assumed more modern names, and the supposed mansion of Arjuno, as before no-
ticed, is still to be traced on Gunung Prahu.

“ These works in common with almost every composition in the language, are
composed in regularly measured verses, and as far as we can judge from the partial
translations which have been made from them through the medium of the Javanese,
they do credit to the power of the language and the genius of the poet.

“ Historical compositions are divided into two general classes, termed Pakam
and Bahat ; under the former are considered the Romo and B’rata Yud’ha : institu-
tions and regulations for Princes and the Officers of State and Law, entitled Kopo
Kopo, Jogol Muda and Kontoro ; works on astronomy and judicial astrology, termed
Wuku; and works on moral conduct, regulations and ancient institutions, termed
Niti Sastro and Niti Projo ; under the Babat are classed chronological, and other
works on modern history since the establishment of the Empire of Mataram.

There are in use for ordinary and popular compositions five different kinds of
regular measured stanzas, termed Tenibang, adapted to the subject treated of, whether
heroic, amorous, or otherwise ; these are termed Asmoron Dono, Dandang Giila,
Sinom, Diirmo, and Pangkur. In the higher compositions, and particularly in the
Kawi, these measures are still more varied, and in number upwards of twenty, twelve
of which correspond in name with the stanzas used in the poetry of continental India.

In repeating these compositions, they are chaunted, or rather drawled out in
regular metre according to rules laid down for the long and short syllables. Dramatic
representations of various kinds form the constant recreation of the higher classes of
society, and the most pohshed amusement of the country ; these consist of the
Waxjang Kulit or Scenic Shadows, in which the several heroes of the Drama, repre-
sented in a diminutive size, are made to perform their entrances and their exits behind
a transparent curtain ; the subjects of these representations are taken either from
the more ancient works of the B’rata Yud’ha or Romo, and then denominated Wayang
Purwo, or from the history of Panji, the most renowned hero of Java story, and then
termed Wayang Gedog. The Wayang W ong, in which men personify the heroes of

166

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

the B’rata Yud’ha and Romo is also termed Waijang Purwo ; they have also the
Topeng, in which men, wearing masks, personify those immortalised in the history of
Panji, and the W ayang KUtic or Koritcliil, not unlike a puppet-show in Europe, in
which diminutive wooden figures personify the heroes of Majapahit.

“ These dramatic exhibitions are accompanied by performances on the Gamelan,
or musical instruments of the Javanese, of which there are several distinct sets ; the
Salindro, which accompanies the performances fi*om the B’rata Yud’ha and Romo, as
well as the Topeng ; the Pelog which accompanies the Wayang Gedog, the Kodok
Ngokek, Chara Bali, Senenan and others; the Javanese music is peculiarly harmo-
nious, but the gamut is imperfect.

“ Whatever portion of astronomical science may have in former times been
communicated to Java, the people of the present day have no pretensions to dis-
tinction on this account ; it is true they possess the signs of the Zodiac, and still
preserve a mode of calculating the seasons, the principles of which must have been
discovered by a people well acquainted vdth the motions of the heavenly bodies ;
they also possess several works on judicial astrology, but in this they follow only
w'hat is laid do^vn for them in the few pages of a book almost illegible, and in the
tradition of the country

“ It was my intention, in this place, to have attempted some sketch of the
interesting and peculiar features of the Javanese character, vdth reference to those
admirable institutions which distinguish the constitution of society among this
people ; but I have already trespassed too long upon your kindness — and there are
two subjects which have recently attracted my particular attention, and which, on
account of their novelty, I am desirous of bringing to your notice. During my late
tour through the Eastern districts, I rfsited the Teng’gar mountains, on which it
had been represented to me that some remains of the former worship of Java were

“ * The signs of the Zodiac, as represented in the ancient MS. discovered at Telaga, in Cheribon,
compared with the Indian Zodiac, are as follow : the figures being very correctly drawn, and the names,
with the explanation, annexed to each.

Indian. Javanese MS.

Mesha — the Ram Misa.

' Vrisha — the Bull M’risa.

Mithuna — the Pair M’ri Kogo (a butterfly.)

Carcata — the Crab Calicata.

Sinha — the Lion Singha.

Cunya — the Virgin Canya.

Tula — the Balance Tula.

Vrishchica — the Scorpion Privata.

Danus — the Bow Wanu.

Macara — the Sea Monster Macara (Crawfish.)

Cumbha — the Water Jug Cuba.

Mina — the Fish Mena.”

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

167

still to be found, and accident threw me on the shores of Bali, while attempting to
reach Banynwangi ; the simplicity of the people who inhabit the Teng’gar moun-
tains, and the fact of such remains being still in existence on Java, is entitled to
record, and I am aware that whatever information I may be able to communicate
respecting Bali, however imperfect, will be accepted.

“ To the eastward of Surabaya, and on the range of hills connected with
Gunung Dasar, and lying partly in the district of Pasuruan and partly in that of
Probohngo, known by the name of the Teng’gar mountains, we find the remnant
of a people still following the Hindu worship, who merit attention not only on
account of their being the depositaries of the last trace of that worship discovered
at this day on Java, but as exhibiting a peculiar singularity and simphcity of
character.

“ These people occupy about forty villages, scattered along the range of hills
in the neighbourhood of the Sandy Sea, and are partly under Pasuruan and partly
under Probolingo. The site of the villages, as well as the construction of the
houses is pecuUar, and differs entirely from what is elsewhere observed on Java.
They are not shaded by trees, but built on spacious open terraces, rising one above
the other, each house occupying a terrace, and being in length from thirty to
seventy, and even eighty feet. The door invariably in one corner, at the opposite
end of the building to that in which the fire-place is built. The building appears to
be first constructed with the ordinary roof, but along the front is an enclosed veranda
or gallery of about eight feet broad, with a less inclined pitch in the roof formed of
bamboos, which are so placed as to shde out either for the admission of air, or to
afford a channel for the smoke to escape, there being otherwise no aperture except
a small opening of about a foot square, at one end of the building above the fire-
place ; this is built of brick, and is so highly venerated that it is considered a sacri-
lege for any stranger to pollute it by the touch ; across the upper part of the building
rafters are run across, so as to form a kind of attic story, in which they deposit
their valuables and instruments of husbandry.

“ The head of the village takes the title of Petingi, as in the low lands, and
he is generally assisted by a Kabmjan, both elected by the people from their own
village ; there are four priests, who are here termed Dukun, having charge of the
sacred records.

“ These Diikuns, who are in general intelhgent men, have no tradition when
they were first established on these hills, from whence they came, or who intrusted
them with the sacred books, to the faith contained in which they still adhere — these
they concur in stating were handed down to them by their fathers, their office being
hereditary, and the sole duty required of them being to perform the imja according
thereto, and again to hand them down in safety to their children — these records
consist of three compositions written on the hontar leaf, describing the origin of

168

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

the world, the attributes of the Deity, and the forms of worship to be observed on
different occasions. Copies were taken on the spot, and as the language does not
essentially differ from the ordinary Javanese, I hope at an early period to place the
Society in possession of translations.

“ In the mean time some notices of their customs, and of the ceremonies per-
formed at births, marriages and funerals, may be interesting.

“ When a woman is delivered of her first child, the Dukun - takes a leaf of the
Alang Alang gi-ass, and scraping the skin of the hands of the child and of the
mother, as well as the ground, pronounces a short benediction.

When a marriage is agreed upon, the bride and bridegroom being brought
before the Dukun within the house, in the first place, bow with respect towards the
South — then to the fire-place — then to the earth, and lastly, on looking up to the
upper story of the house where the implements of husbandry are placed, perform
the same ceremony — the parties then submissively bowing to the Dukun, he repeats
a prayer commencing with the words, ^ Hong ! Gendogo Bromo ang’gas siwong'go
nomo siwoho sanifijang g'ni siro hang, &c.’ * while the bride washes the feet of the
bridegroom. This ceremony over, the friends and family of the parties make pre-
sents to each of crises, buffaloes, implements of husbandry, &c. ; in return for which
the bride and bridegroom respectfully present them with betel leaf.

“ At the marriage feast which ensues, the Dukun repeats two Puja, wiiich will
be found in the collection — the marriage is not, however, consummated till the fifth
day after the above ceremony — which delay is termed by them undaiig inantu — a
similar delay is, in some cases, still observed by the Javanese in other parts of the
island, under the term undoli mantu.

“ On the death of an inhabitant of Teng’gar, the corpse is lowered into the
gi'ave, the head being placed to the South (contrary to the direction observed by
the Mahometans,) and bamboos and planks are placed over, so as to prevent the
earth from touching it. When the grave is closed, two posts are planted over the
body, one perpendicular from the breast, the other from the lower part of the belly ;
between these two a hollowed bamboo is inserted in the ground, into which, during
seven successive days, they daily pour a vessel of pure water, placing beside the
bamboo, two dishes also daily replenished with eatables. At the expiration of the
seventh day, the feast of the dead is announced, and the relations and friends of
the deceased assemble to be present at the ceremony, and partake of the entertain-
ment— which is conducted as follow'^s.

“ An image of leaves, ornamented with variegated flowers, made to represent
the human form, and of about a cubit high, is prepared and placed in a conspicuous

“ * Tliese prayers will be found at length in the Transactions of the Society — the word Hong, used
by the Javanese at the commencement of their invocations to the Deity, is doubtless the Mystical Om of
the Hindus.

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

169

place, and supported round the body by the clothes of the deceased ; the Dukun
then places in front of the garland an incense-pot with burning ashes, and a vessel
containing water, and repeats the two ]mja to fire and water, the former com-
mencing with ‘ Hong Kendogo Brorno gangsi wong'go yo nomo siwoho,' &c. the latter
with ‘ Hong, hong gong'go moho terto roto mejel saking hati,' &c. burning dnpn or
incense at stated periods during the former, and occasionally sprinkling the water
over the feast during the repetition of the latter.

“ The clothes of the deceased are then divided among the relatives and friends,
and the garland burned — another p?(Ja commencing, ‘ Hong! awigno mastu nomo
sidam, hong! araning^ &c. is then repeated while the remains of the sacred water
is sprinkled over the feast, after which the parties sit down to the enjoyment of it,
invoking a blessing from the Almighty on themselves, their houses and their lands.
Nothing more occurs until the expiration of a thousand days, when, if the memory
of the deceased is beloved and cherished, the ceremony and feast is repeated —
otherwise no further notice is taken.

“ On questioning them regarding the tenets of their religion, they replied that
they believed in a Dewa, who was all-powerful, and that the term by which the
Dewa was designated, was Biimi Truko Sangyang Dewoto Bator ; that the particu-
lars of their worship were contained in the book called Panglawa, which they pre-
sented to me.

“ On being questioned regarding the adat against adultery, theft, and other
crimes, their reply was unanimous and ready — that crimes of the kind were unknown
to them, and that consequently no punishment was fixed either by law or custom —
that if a man did wrong, the head of the village chid him for it, the reproach of
which was always sufficient punishment for a man of Teng’gar: this account of
their moral character is fully confirmed by the Regents of the districts under whose
authority they arc placed, and also by the Residents. They hterally seem to be
almost without crime ; they are universally peaceable, interfere with no one, neither
quarrel among themselves ; it may be unnecessary to observe, that they are unac-
quainted with the vices of gaming and opium-smoking.

“ The aggregate population amounts to about twelve hundred souls ; they
occupy, without exception, the most beautifully rich and romantic spots on Java;
the thermometer is frequently as low as forty-two ; the summits and slopes of the
hills are covered with Alpine firs, and the vegetation common to a European climate
generally prevails.

“ The language does not differ much from the Javanese of the present day,
though more gutturally pronounced — from a comparison of about a hundred words
of the vernacular Javanese, two only differed : they do not intermarry or mix with
the people of the low lands, priding themselves on their independence and pmdty in
this respect.

170

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

Passing from this last vestige of the Hindu worship now acknowledged on
Java, (for the Bedui, though descendants of the fugitives of Pajajaran, scarcely
merit notice in this respect,) I proceed to notice some of the leading observations
which I made on Bali. The notices regarding the prevalence of Hinduism on Bali,
and of the nature of the government and country have hitherto been so scanty,
that on such interesting gi'ound I may be pardoned for entering into some detail,
without which it is impossible to convey a just notion of the subject.

“ The Island of Bali is at present divided under seven separate authorities,
each independent of the other, and of this heptarchy the state of Klongkong is
acknowledged to be the most ancient, its princes tracing their descent from the
princes of Java, and having once possessed authority over the whole Island. In
the regalia of this state are reported to be still preseiwed the Cris of Majapahit, the
celebrated Gong named Bentiir Kadaton, and although the other governments do
not at the present day admit of any interference on the part of this state, they stiU

e\dnce a marked respect and courtesy to this family as the Asal Rajah Bali, the

stock from which they sprung.

‘‘ The population is roughly estimated by the number of male inhabitants
whose teeth have been filed, and whose serHces each prince can command — these
amount to upwards of 200,000 ; the female population is understood rather to
exceed the male, and as it may be considered that only the active and able-bodied
men are included in the above list, an average of four to a family may be fairly
taken, giring a total population for the whole Island exceeding 800,000 souls.

“ The mode of government, institutions, and prevailing habits, are represented

to be the same throughout the Island, and the following sketch of Bailing may

afford a just notion of the whole.

“ The government is despotic, and vested in the Prince alone — he is assisted
by a head Perhakal in all affairs relating to the internal administration of the coun-
try, under whom are immediately placed the heads of Hllages, and by a Radin
Tiimung' gang, who conducts the details of a more general nature, of commerce
and foreign intercourse ; the constitution of each \illage is the same, the head or
chief is termed Perbakal, and the assistant Kalian Tempek. These officers are
invariably selected from among the people of the village, the son, however, gene-
rally succeeding the father, if competent to perform the duties ; — under the head
Perhakal, who has the designation of Perhakal Rajah, are several inferior Perhakals
for general duties and commimications with the rfllages, and under the Radin
Tuniun'gung a similar establishment, bearing the rank and designation of Kalian
Tempek — among the heads of villages are many whose famihes have formerly distin-
guished themselves in the wars of Bali, and who are termed Gusti — the command
of the military is at present vested in a Chief of the Bramana cast, and who seems
to receive honours and respect next to the Prince himself.

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

171

“ Whatever may at former periods have been the extent and influence of the
Hindu religion, Bali is now the only Island in the Eastern Seas, in which that
religion is still prevailing as the national and established religion of the country ^
that high spirit of enterprise which burst the bounds of the extensive conflnes of
India, like the dove from the ark, rested its weary wing for a while on Java, till
driven from thence it sought a refuge in Bali, where even among the rudest and
most untutored of savages, it found an asylum. The four grand divisions of the
Hindus are here acknowledged, and the number of Bramana (Bramins) attached to
the small state of B'liling exceeds four hundred, of whom about one hundred are
termed Pandita.

“ Without entering into the particular tenets of the prevaihng Hinduism of
Bali, which can only be treated of with propriety and correctness after a more
thorough acquaintance with the practical duties, and some knowledge of what is
contained in their sacred records, it may be affirmed without hazard, that Hinduism
as it exists at the present day on Bali, is rather to be considered as the nationalized
Hinduism of Bah, in which a large portion of the native institutions and customs
are admitted, than Hinduism as it is understood to prevail on the continent of
India. The Bramins are, however, held in high veneration, and on being ques-
tioned as to their doctrines, and to what sect they belong, they answer, invariably,
they are Bramana Siwa. They have the same appearance as Bramins wherever
they are met with, and the Indian features at once distinguish them as descended
fi’om a foreign race. The town and small temples which we occasionally observed,
have the appearance of a Mahratta village, and the eye is struck with every thing
strictly Hindu, forming a most unexpected contrast with the present style of build-
ing and appearance of the country on passing through Java and the other Eastern
Islands.

“ On enquiring into the relative rank and importance of their deities, they in-
variably described Bitara Guru as the first in rank, then Bitara Bramah, the spirit of
fire, Bitara Wisnu, the spirit of the waters, Bitara Siwa, the spirit of the winds.

“ Besides these, they describe numerous subordinate deities to whom they pay
adoration, as Dewa Gid’e Segara, the divinity of the great sea, — Dewa Gid’e Dalam,
the divinity who presides over death, — Gid’e Bali Agung, the great and popular deity
of Bali, — Dewa Gid’e Gunung Agung, the great deity of the mountain, which last is
the deity of most general worship.

“ Bitara Guru, though considered as the highest object of worship, is declared
to be subordinate to, and only the mediator with the divinity, whom they designate
by the expressive and appropriate term of Sang Yang Tunggal, The great and

ONLY ONE.

“ The bodies of the deceased are invariably burnt, and the wives and con-
cubines of the higher classes perform the sacrifice of Satia. A few days previous

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172

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

to my landing on Bali, nineteen young women, the wives and concubines of the
younger Rajah, who was lately put to death, sacrificed themselves in this manner.

“ The wTitten language of Bali differs but httle from that of Java, but the
character has a more ancient form ; Kawi is the sacred language, and understood,
or pretended to be understood, by the Bramins — the common language is a mixture
of the original language of the country, and that of Java, in which the latter
predominates.

Deferring until another occasion, a more particular review of the religion, in-
stitutions and habits of this people, I will for the present confine myself to such
observations as occur on the contemplation of the pecuhar and extraordinary cha-
racter they present, for the Balinese differs widely, both in appearance and character,
from the Javan, and indeed from every other nation of the Archipelago.

“ The natives of Bali are about the middle size of Asiatics, larger and more
athletic than the Javans or Malays, and carry an air of independence different al-
together from the appearance of their more pohshed neighbom-s on the opposite
coast of Java, — the women in particular are well-proportioned, they seem to be on
a perfect equality with the men, they are not secluded from society, and their
general intercourse with strangers, even Europeans, is frank and cheerful — they are
fairer than the women in Java, and wearing no covering above the waist, the natural
beauty and symmetry of their shape is neither restrained nor concealed.

“ There are two kinds of slavery existing at Bali, and sanctioned by the laws
of the country; the first is termed Paniak, by which is understood a perfect state of
slavery : the second Rowang, which resembles the condition of the slave-debtor in
Sumatra, and the Malay peninsula. Paniak is synonymous with Humba among the
Malays, and signifies a slave — the master has complete possession of his person, and
may lawfully transfer and punish with death according to his \rfll and pleasure, it
being contrary to usage for the Prince to interfere. In the mode of acquiring this
absolute property, there appears to be but little restriction. Prisoners taken in war,
or families carried off from their countries, are daily sold and transferred, the deed
of transfer, called in Bali Padol, being authenticated by the Tumunggung. In cases
where an outrage occurs in a neighbouring state in alliance, application from the in-
jured party, transmitted through the proper Chief, will cause the persons to be re-
stored, and the perpetrators of the outrage are liable to the punishment of death ;
but in cases where the countries are not immediately in alliance, or when the parties
carried off from a friendly state, happen to want friends to make application in their
favor, no notice is taken of such occurrences. If a free man wishes to many a
female slave, he may obtain her by purchase, provided he can agree with the pro-
prietor, otherwise he may be admitted to marry her on condition that he becomes a
servant with her — this second degree of slavery comes under the title of Rowang.
Persons convicted of offences not of the first magnitude, are generally sold for

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

17.}

slaves by the Prince, or taken to serve him as such. The term Rowang, is used to
express the second or modified degi'ee of slavery. If a man happens to be indebted,
and without the means of payment (the debt exceeding ten dollars) he may be sold
by the Jaxa, and the amount for which he is disposed of is appropriated to repay
his creditor, the surplus being divided between the Prince, the Jaxa, and the Cre-
ditor, as a recompence for their trouble; the man sold in this manner becomes a
Rowa?ig: this state of servitude embraces every feature of slavery, excepting that the
Rowang cannot be sold, put to death, or sent out of the country — if a Rowarig
wishes to marry, he may do so on receiving his master’s consent, but the woman
becomes a Rowang also. But the Rowang possesses this advantage, that he may
redeem himself at any time by paying the amount of the debt, or the money may be
advanced for him, so that his condition becomes that of a debtor bound to serve his
creditor until the amount of his debt is discharged. In the event of the debt not
amounting to ten dollars, the party cannot be sold, but the Jaxa will order the goods
and property of the debtor to be disposed of, and an obligation to be given for the
payment of the remainder, whenever his circumstances may admit. A person in-
debted to another, and unable to pay, may make over his wife and children to
the creditor, who in such case will become Rowang, and on payment of his debt,
eventually, he may demand back his family.

In marriage, the dowry established by custom for all persons of equal rank,
is forty dollars, to be paid to the parents of the bride * ; but as it happens in many
cases, that the husband is unable to pay this sum, he becomes indebted to the
parents for the amount, and this constitutes a third branch of slavery under the
term Tatung' gon — the man and wife reside in the house of the bride’s father, and the
man performs service in attendance on the family, or in assisting in the cultivation
of the land — when the husband is enabled to pay the dowry, he is then at liberty to
quit the father’s house, and to maintain an independent establishment, under the
term of Orang Merclika, or free man. If the new-married man, however, behaves
to the satisfaction of his wife’s family, it often happens that after a certain time the
father-in-law consents to remit the whole or part of the dowry, according to the cir-
cumstances of the parties.

“ The punishments for crimes are death, confinement, and selling into slavery,
neither torture to obtain confession, mutilation, nor even corporal punishment are
used — theft and robbery are punished with death — and for mirrder, treason, and
gang-robbery, in aggravated cases, the punishment of death is inflicted by breaking
the limbs with a hatchet — this, though it assimilates to the manner of breaking on
the wheel, does not appear to have been adopted from Europeans, the practice
being of ancient date — the party is left to finger, sometimes for several days before

“ * In Bali, as well as on Java, the term used for this payment signifies a purchase.'

174

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

death ensues — all executions are in public — other capital punishments are usually
performed with a Cris — open robbery by dayhght is punished by death, but stealing
by confinement only; robbery by night invariably by death. All offences are
jjunished in the Jaxa’s Court, which consists of two Jaxas and two Kancha or
Registers, the Perbakal being the prosecutor — the sentence of the Comt must be
confiiTned by the Prince, previous to execution, whose warrant, or Lontar, is ne-
cessary in all cases. In civil cases the confirmation of the Prince is only required
when persons are sold into slavery — a regular table of fees, in civil as well as
criminal cases is exhibited in Court, and the amount divided between the members
and the Prince. In criminal cases, when the punishment is capital, the property is
confiscated and divided in like manner, but in other punishments, the parties retain
their property. Adultery is punished with death to the man, and the woman
becomes a slave to the Prince — theft is the most prevalent crime, and adultery is
uncommon, perhaps not twenty cases in a year — the husband has the power' by law
to kill both parties at the moment, if he detects them in the fact, but not otherwise.

“ In their domestic relations, however, the conduct of the Balinese appears un-
exceptionable, and there is indeed a superior delicacy to what might be expected,
and the tenderness towards early age speaks strongly in favor of their natural dis-
position. The parental authority is exercised with such tenderness, that it is pecu-
liarly striking when taken in the same view with the apparently rude character of
the people — they seem to evince a careless indifference to the rod of despotism
which hangs over their head, and an air of good-humour and general satisfaction
prevails throughout ; temperate in their diet, and strangers to drmikenness, the
ruling passion is gaming, from cock-fighting to an inordinate and unprincipled desire
for conquest — such is the energy of the character that it must find some powerful
vent, something on which to discharge itself — and not being subject to a fonn of
government calculated to repress their energies, they evidently feel no inclination
to stand still in the scale of civilization. As a nation they are certainly invdncible
to any native power in the Eastern Seas ; still maintaining a high and noble inde-
pendence of character, they perhaps exhibit in a concentrated spot as much of
human nature, checked by regulation, and yet not lowered or refined by it as is to
be found in any part of the universe.

“ If we contemplate the various nations and tribes which inhabit the Southern
Peninsula of India, and the innumerable islands composing that portion of the globe
comprehended within Polynesia and Australasia, our attention is arrested by the
striking uniformity in habits and language which prevails throughout, inducing the
inference either of one common origin, or of early and very general intercourse.

“ Such customs as the singidar practice of filing the teeth and dyeing them
black, noticed by the authors who have vvTitten on Pegu, Siam, Camboja, and Ton-
cjuin, and prevailing generally throughout the whole Malayan Archipelago ; the

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

175

practice of distending the perforated lobe of the ear to an enormous size, noticed in
like manner to exist in the same parts of the Peninsula, and prevailing throughout
the Archipelago in a greater or less degree in proportion with the extension of
Islamism ; the practice of tattooing the body, noticed among the Burmans and people
of Laos, common to many tribes on Borneo, and particularly distinguished in
some of the islands in the Pacific Ocean ; if it is observed that this custom, as well as
that of plucking the beard, was noticed in South America, the question may arise in
what course or direction the tide of population may have flowed. In a recent pub-
lication an idea has been started on the similarity of the languages, that the popu-
lation of the Philippines and of the islands in the South Sea originally emigrated
fi'om America It will not be required of me to go into any description of those
singular appendages to the virile member, noticed by the writers on Pegu, Siam,
and Camboja, and adopted among many tribes of Borneo and the Moluccas ; what-
ever may have been the origin of this very singular custom, traces are to be found
even on Java of the veneration in which it once was held. The practice of triumph-
ing over a subdued enemy may be common to the barbarous state in general, but
the deliberate system of man-hunting, in order to procure heads as a trophy of man-
liness and military gallantry, however it may have originated in this feeling of
uncivilized nature, may be ranked among the peculiarities of this portion of the
globe.

“ The language of the different tribes of Borneo is ascertained to bear a strong

“ * This author notices that observing the proper names of places about the middle of the continent of
South America were very similar to those of the Philippines, he endeavoured to procure a vocabulary of
the country, and to examine the few words of the language of Chili, which ErciUa mentions in his Arau-
cana, and found them perfectly conformable to the language of Tagala. ‘ In examining the structure of
the two lan;Tuages,’ he observes, ‘ we are compelled to conclude that they flow from one and the same
source, and I dare to affirm that the Indians of the Philippines are descended from the aborigines of
Chili and Peru, and that the language of these Islands derives immediate from the parent source, those of the
neighbouring Islands being dialects of this — that there are many reasons, and one in particular, for supposing
that the Islands in the South Sea could not be peopled from the westward, viz. that in all the torrid zone the
east wind generally prevails, which being in direct opposition to the course from Malacca and the adjacent
Islands, it is fair to conclude the inhabitants of all the Islands in the South Sea came from the East, sailing
before the wind, for we have seen it often happen, that the Indians from the Palaos have arrived at the
Philippines precisely under these circumstances. On the contrary we have no instance on record of any of
the Philippine Indians having been, even by accident, carried by the winds to the Islands to the Eastward.’

“ ‘ Here, therefore,’ he concludes, ‘ we appear to have formed the most probable solution of our diffi-
culties, that is, that the first settlers came out of the East, we may presume from the coast of South America,
and proceeding gradually to the westward through the Pacific Ocean, studded as we find it with islands and
clusters of islands, at no very great distance from each other, and of course of easy access before the wind ;
it follows that to whatever point in an eastern direction we trace the Tagalic language, we may conclude
that at that point emigration must have commenced.’ ” — Description of the Philippine Islands, by Martiner
de Tuniga. — Marns. Trans, p. 30.

176

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

resemblance to that of the scattered tribes of Camboja, Champa, and Laos. The
position maintained by Mr. Marsden, that the Malayan is a branch or dialect of the
widely extended language prevailing through the Islands of the Archipelago, to
which it gives name, as well as those of the South Sea, appears to be estabhshed
and confirmed as our infonnation advances, and if we except the Papuas and scat-
tered tribes ha\ing curled hair, we find the general description given of the persons
of the Siamese and the nider population of the adjacent countries which have not
admitted any considerable admixture from the Chinese, to come very near to the
inhabitants of the Ai'chipelago, who may, in fact, be said to differ only in being of
a smaller size, and in as far as foreign colonization and intercourse may have changed
them.

‘‘To trace the sources fi’om whence this colonization and consequent chilization
flowed, and the periods at which it was introduced into different states, is a subject
new to the historian, and not uninteresting to the philosopher.

“ If we admit the natural inference that the population of the Islands originally
emigrated from the Continent, and at the same time the probability that the country
l}ing between Siam and China is the immediate source fi-om whence such emigra-
tion originally proceeded, the history of the Eastern Islands may, ^rith reference to
that of Java in particular, in which a powerful Hindu government was, without
doubt, early established, be dirided into five distinct periods.

“ The first division would include the period commencing with the earliest
accounts of the population down to the first estabhshment of a foreign colony in
Java, of which the ^viitten annals of the country make mention ; the date of this is
pretty accmately ascertained, and may be fixed at about the commencement of the
sixth century of the Javanese era, or A.D. 600, when only the period of authentic
history can be considered to coimuence.

“ The origin of aU nations is buried in obscurity, and unless we may succeed
ill obtaining new lights from Siam or China, we shall have but httle to guide us
during the early part of this dirision, beyond conjectm'e and such general inferences
as may be di'ami from a similarity in person, language, and usages, still found to pre-
vail among the less cirilized tribes. According to the dirision of Sir William Jones,
the original population of the Islands were doubtless of the Tartar race, and pro-
bably from the same stock as the Siamese. The Javans date the commencement of
their era from the arrival on Java of Adi Saka, the minister of Prabu Joyo Boyo,
Sovereign of Hastina, and the fifth in descent from Arjuno, the favourite of Krisna,
and the leading hero of the B’rata Yud’ha. This epoch coiTesponds \rith that of the
introduction of a new faith into China and the further Peninsula by Saka, Shako, or
Sakia, as he is differently termed, and with the chronology of the Hindus, as
explained by Sir Wilham Jones, in which Saca is supposed to have reigned seventy-
nine years subsequent to the commencement of the Christian era; but whether

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

177

Saka himself, or only some of his followers assuming this name, found their way
to Java may be questionable, and it is not impossible that the Javanese may have
subsequently adopted the era, on a more extended intercourse with the further
Peninsula *. A connection would at any rate appear to have existed between Java
and Siam, as this Adi Saka is not only represented to have founded the present era
of Java, but to have introduced the original letters of the Javanese alphabet, by a
modification of the letters used in Western India and in Siam. It does not appear
that either he or his followers established themselves in any authority, and we can
trace but little with certainty dmdng the following five centuries ; some of the Java-
nese accounts refer to the arrival of various settlers during this period, but we find
no traces either of a government having existed, or of the estabhshment of any
extensive colony, until the commencement of the sixth century. I should observe
in this place that the Javanese year corresponds pretty nearly with the Hindu year
of Salivarna, and that the word Saka, in Sanscrit, means an epoch or era, and is
apphed to the founder of an era.

“ The Javanese occasionally use the numerals for recording dates, but more
generally and particularly in dates of importance, they adopt an hieroglyphical inven-
tion termed Chondro Sangkolo, in which the different numerals from one to ten are
represented by particular objects ; this is either effected, in buildings and sculpture,
by the actual representations of these objects, or in writing, by the insertion of their
names, the meaning frequently having some allusion to the fact which the date
records, thus the date of the destruction of Majapahit, in the Javanese year, 1400, is
recorded as follows, the order of the numerals being reversed —

Sima — Hang — Kertaning — Burni
Gone — gone — is the work — of the land

0 0 4 1

“ Anterior to this supposed arrival of Adi Sacha, the two most eventful periods
in the history of these countries, of which tradition and history make mention, are,
first, that which includes the incursions of the far-famed race who have been sup-
posed to have peopled South America f, and, according to Sir William Jones, ‘ im-
ported into the furthest parts of Asia, the rites and fabulous history of Rama and,
secondly, that which includes the consequences of the invasion of India by Alexander
the Great. That the fabulous history of Rama, as well as the exploits of Alexander,
have been current in the Malayan Archipelago from time immemorial, cannot be
questioned ; and it may be remarked, that while the Javans use the term Rama for

“ * The present (1815) Javanese year is 1742 : that of Bali 1733.”

“ t See a former note on the similarity between the languages of South America and the Philippines,
and the recent works of Humboldt, on the existence of Hindu remains still found in America, in support of
this assertion.”

A a

178

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

father, the Malays universally attempt to trace their descent from Alexander, or his
followers. Sumatra was long considered to have been the Taprohdne of the ancients ;
and when we advert to the single circumstance that this was said to be a country in
which the North Polar Star was not visible, or only partially, we must still doubt the
correctness of the modern conclusion in favour of Ceylon. The Eastern Islands
furnish that pecuhar kind of produce which has, from the earhest times, been in
demand by continental nations ; and the same avidity with which, in modern days,
Europeans contended for the rich products of the Moluccas, in all probability actu-
ated, at a much earlier period, adventurers from Western India. Traces of intercourse
with Ethiopia may be found at this day in the scattered tribes of the wooUy-haired
race peculiar to Africa, which are to be found on the Andamans, on the southern
part of the further Peninsula, and throughout the Archipelago ; and that the Hindus
were, at one period, an enterprising and commercial nation, may, I think, be esta-
blished with little difficulty, from the incontestible proofs which at this day exist on
Java, and the traffic which still exists in native vessels, and on native capital, between
the Coromandel coast and the Malayan peninsula. If any country, therefore, in the
Archipelago lays claim to this distinction more than another, it is Java; but pro-
bably it was rather to the Eastern Islands generally, than to one island in particular,
that the appellation was given. Both Ptolemy and the Arabians would seem to have
designated the Islands by one general name ; by the one, they were termed Jabadios
Insulce ; by the others, Jau, or Jawa: hence, probably, the confusion in the Travels
of Marco Polo, and the still disputed question between Java Major and Java Minor *.

“ The second division would include the period between this first regular esta-
blishment from Western India, and the decfine and fall of the first Eastern empire of
Java, which may be fixed, with tolerable accuracy, at about the Javanese year 1000,
or A.D. 1073.

During this period, by far the most eventful in the history of Java, we shall
find colonies of foreigners estabhshing themselves not only on Java, but on various
other Islands of the Archipelago ; that the arts, particularly those of architecture and
sculpture, flourished in a superior degree ; and that the language, literatm*e, and
institutions of the continent of India were transfeiTed, in various directions, through
the Oriental Islands. It was during this period that the principal temples, of which

“ * If we reflect upon the extent and nature of the recent volcanic phenomena on Sumhawa, and the
effects which may have been produced by similar convulsions of nature, we are led to conclude that the
present appearance and form of the various islands of the Archipelago may be very different from what
they were two or three thousand years ago. At that period these Islands may have formed part of the
main land, or have been themselves united in one continent. An authentic account of this extraordinary
phenomenon, as far as it can be collected from information yet received, is submitted to the Society, and
will be found in the subsequent pages of its Transactions. I can vouch for the correctness of the state-
ments, and the raw materials may be found useful in the hand of the natural historian.”

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

179

the niins now exist on Java, were built; and besides the concurring testimonies of
tradition, and the written compositions of the country, the numerous inscriptions and
dates on stone and copper, the characters of which we are now able to decypher, as
well as the ancient coins, would lend essential aid in estabhshing a correct chrono-
logy. On the one hand, we should have to direct our inquiries to the history of the
various continental nations from whence these foreigners might have proceeded ;
and, on the other, to the nature and extent of the establishments, intercourse, and
civihzation introduced by them into the different islands.

“ This period will commence from the anival of Awap, the reputed son of Balia
Atcha, Sovereign of KudjirM, who came in search of a celebrated country described
in the writings of Saka, and under the name of Sewelo CJiolo established the first
regular monarchy of which the Javanese annals make mention; and include the
adventm'es of the celebrated Panji, the pride and admiration of succeeding ages.
Our attention would also be directed in a particular manner to the intercourse be-
tween Java and the other Islands, and the nature and extent of the foreign establish-
ments formed by Java. Tradition and the popular romances of the country repre-
sent not only the kingdoms of Goa and Luhu on Celebes, but even the kingdom of
jNIenagkabu, on Smnatra, to have been established about the conclusion of this
period by Princes from Java.

The third division would include the period from the above date, till the final
overthrow of the second Eastern Empire, in the Javanese year 1400. Some idea
may be formed of the power and opulence of this second empire established at Maja-
pahit, from the extensive ruins of that city still extant : these I took an opportunity
of risiting dming my late tour ; and I believe I am within the mark, when I repre-
sent the walls to have enclosed a space of upwards of twenty miles in circumference.

“ Within this period will be included the establishment of the Western Empire
at Pajajaran ; the subsequent di’sdsion of the Island under the Princes of Majapahit
and Pajajaran ; the eventual supremacy of Majapahit ; and the final overthrow of
the government and ancient institutions of the country, by the general establishment
of the Mahomedan faith.

“ It was dm'ing this period that Java may be said to have risen to the highest
pitch of her civilization yet known, and to have commanded a more extensive inter-
course throughout the Archipelago, than at any former period. Colonies irom Java
were successively planted on Sumatra, the Malayan peninsula, Borneo, and Bali, the
Princes of which countries still trace their descent from the house of Majapahit ; and
that adventurers from Western India, from Siam, from Champa, from China, and
fr'om Japan, frequented Java in the greatest number ; but the object of first import-
ance will be to trace the introduction, progress, and final establishment of the
Mahomedan faith in the various countries where it now is acknowledged as the esta-
blished religion; and particularly on Java, where we find that, notwithstanding

A a 2

180

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

attempts to make proselytes were made as early as the commencement of the twelfth
century, such was the attachment of the people to their ancient faith and institutions,
that they did not effectually succeed, till the latter end of the fifteenth century of
the Christian era.

“ The fourth di\ision would commence uith the establishment of the Maho-
medan government on Java, and might be brought do^^^l to the estabhshment of the
Dutch in the Eastern Seas, say A.D. 1600 ; and a fifth, and by no means uninterest-
ing period, might include the history of the Em-opean estabhshments, dowrn to the
conquests by the British arms in 1811.

“ The fm-ther prosecution of this extensive inquiry would lead me beyond the
limits at present prescribed ; and I must, therefore, conclude with di-a\\ing yom- atten-
tion to the striking similarity between the early state of Greece, and that of the
Malayan Islands : change but the names, and the words of Mitford’s Introduction to
his History of Greece, vdU be found equally apphcable to tliis more extensive Archi-
pelago.

“ ‘ Thus,’ he observes, ‘ Greece, in its early days, was in a state of perpetual
marauding and piratical warfare. Cattle, as the great means of subsistence, were
first the great objects of plunder ; then, as the inhabitants of some parts by degrees
settled to agriculture, men, women, and children were sought for as slaves. But
Greece had nothing more peculiar than its adjacent sea, where small islands were so
thickly scattered, that their inhabitants, and in some measure those of the shores of
the sun’ounding continents also, were mariners by necessity ; W'ater-expeditions,
therefore, were soon found most commodious for carrying off spoil. The Greeks,
moreover, in their more barbarous state, became acquainted with the precious me-
tals ; for the Phoenicians, whose industry, ingenuity, and adventurous spirit of com-
merce, led them early to explore the further shores of the MediteiTanean, and even
to risk the dangers of the ocean beyond, discovered mines of gold and silver in some
of the Islands of the ^Tigean, and on its northern coast they fonned establishments
in several of the Islands ; and Thasus, which lay convenient for communication ^^dth
the most productive mines, became the seat of their principal factor)'. Thus was
offered the most powerful incentive to piracy, in a sea whose innumerable islands
and ports afforded singular opportunity for the practice. Perhaps the conduct of
the Phoenicians towards the uncirihzed nations, among whom the desire of gain led
them, was not always the most upright or humane ; hostilities would naturally ensue,
and hence might first arise the estimation of piracy, which long prevailed among the
Greeks as an honourable practice.’

“ Java has long been advanced beyond that state, in which piracy and robbery
are held to be honourable in the eyes of men ; but the picture wll be found pretty
correct of those Islands strictly denominated ^Malayan.

“ The superior and extraordinary fertility of the soil may serve to account for

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

181

the extensive population of Java, compared with that of the other Islands ; and
when to the peaceable and domestic habits of an agiicultural life are added the facili-
ties for invasion along an extensive line of coast, accessible in every direction, it will
not be surprising that she should have fallen an easy prey to the first invader. She
appears to have lost by these invasions much of that martial spirit and adventurous
enterprise which distinguishes the population of the other Isles ; but, at the same
tune, to have retained not only the primitive simphcity of her own peculiar usages,
but all the virtues and advantages of the more enlightened institutions which have
been introduced at different periods from a foreign source. At all events, when we
consider that her population cannot be less than four millions ; and when we witness
the character and hterature of the people as it is even now exhibited, we must
admit that Java had attained a far higher degree of cirilization than any other nation
in the southern hemisphere.

“ You will, however, expect from me some notice regarding Japan, ‘ that cele-
brated and imperial Island,’ which, to use the words of Sir William Jones, bears ‘ a
pre-eminence among Eastern kingdoms, analogous to that of Britain among the
nations of the West and however slender may have been the information procured,
such as it is I venture to submit it to you, nearly as I received it from the verbal
comniunications of Dr. Ainslie.

“ It may be satisfactory and gratifying, in the first place, to obser\^e, that every
information which has been obtained, tends to confirm the accuracy, the ability, and
the impartiality of Kasmpfer, whose account of Japan is, perhaps, one of the best
books of the kind that ever was written, considering the circumstances under which
he was sent. I am assured that there is not a misrepresentation throughout. He
was a man of that minute accuracy, and that habitude of talent, which saw every
thing as it stood, and not through the mist or medium of any preconception. The
Japanese obseiwe of him, that he is in history ‘ the very apostle of their faith,’ and
from whose works alone they know even their owti country. Their first inquiry
was for a copy of Kaempfer ; and, endeavouring to evince the estimation in which
this author was held by them, their observation was literally that ^ he had drawn
out their heart from them, and laid it palpitating before us, with all the movements
of their government, and the actions of their men.’

‘‘ Referring you, therefore, to the works of Kaempfer for an account of their
histor)', institutions and acquirements, as genuine data on which this interesting
people may be appreciated, I need only offer a few notices on the character which
they appeared to Dr. Ainslie to display, during a residence of four months, and as
far as he had the opportunity of judging.

“ They are represented to be a nerv’ous, \dgorous people, whose bodily and
mental powers assimilate much nearer to those of Europe, than what is attributed to
Asiatics in general. Their features are masculine, and perfectly European, with the

182

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

exception of the small lengthened Tartar eye, which almost universally prevails, and
is the only feature of resemblance between them and the Chinese. The complexion
is perfectly fair, and indeed blooming, the women of the higher classes being equally
fair with Europeans, and having the bloom of health more generally prevalent among
them than is usually found in Europe.

For a people who have had very few, if any, external aids, the Japanese can-
not but rank high in the scale of civihzation. The traits of a vigorous mind are dis-
played in the sciences, and particularly in metaphysics and judicial astrology. The
arts speak for themselves, and are deservedly acknowledged to be in a much higher
degi'ee of perfection than among the Chinese, with whom they are, by Europeans, so
frequently confounded. The latter have been stationary, at least, as long as we
have known them ; but the slightest impulse seems sufficient to give a determination
to the Japanese character, which would progressively improve, until it attained the
same height of chilization mth the European. Nothing, indeed, is so offensive to
the feelings of a Japanese, as to be compared, in any one respect, with the Chinese ;
and the only occasion on which Dr. Ainslie saw the habitual politeness of a Japanese
ever surprised into a burst of passion, was upon a simihtude of the two nations being
unguardedly made, when he laid his hand on his sword.

“ The people are said to have a strong inclination to foreign intercourse, not-
withstanding the political institutions to the contrary ; and perhaps the energy which
characterizes the Japanese character cannot be better elucidated than in that extra-
ordinary decision which excluded the world from their shores, and confined them-
selves within their own limits : a people who had before served as mercenaries
throughout all Polynesia, and who traded with all nations — themselves adventurous
navigators.

“ There is by no means that uniformity among them which is observed in China,
where the impression of the government may be said to have broken down all indi-
viduality, and left one Chinese the counterpart of another. Unlike the Chinese, the
women here are by no means secluded ; they have a society among themselves, as
the ladies of Europe. During the residence of Dr. Ainslie, frequent invitations and
entertainments were given ; on these occasions, and at one in particular, a lady from
the court of Jeddo is represented to have done the honours of the table with an
ease, elegance, and address that would have graced a Parisian. The usual dress of
a Japanese woman of middle rank costs, perhaps, as much as would supply the ward-
robe of an European lady of the same rank for twenty years.

“ The Japanese, with an apparent coldness hke the stillness of the Spanish cha-
racter, and derived nearly from the same causes, — that system of espionage, and tha
principle of disunion, dictated by the principles of both governments, — are repre-
sented to be eager of novelty and wann in their attachments ; open to strangers ;
and, bating the restrictions of their political institutions, a people who seem inclined

TO THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY.

188

to throw themselves into the hands of any nation of superior intelligence : they have,
at the same time, a great contempt and disregard of every thing below their own
standard of morals and habits, as instanced in the case of the Chinese.

“ This may appear to be contradicted by the mission from Russia in 1814,
under Count Kreusenstern ; but the circumstances under which that mission was
placed should be considered. From the moment of their arrival they were under the
influence of an exclusive factory, who continued to rain upon them every possible
ignominy which can be supposed to have flowed from the despotism of Japan,
through the medium of an interested and avaricious factor, who di'eaded competition,
or the pubhcation of his secret. The warehouse in which the Russian mission had
been lodged, was pointed out to Dr. Ainshe, who observes, that ‘ as the rats were let
out, the Count and his suite were let in, where they remained for six long months,
with scarce room to turn ; the mark of obloquy to the Japanese, and the laughing-
stock to the European factory.’ So hvely, indeed, was the impression of the occur-
rence, that the chief Japanese officer asked the Enghsh commissioner if he, too,
would condescend to play the part of the Russian count ; the officer answering to his
omi question, ‘ No, I trust not.’

The mistaken idea of their ilhberafity in religious matters, seems to have been
fully proved ; and the late mission experienced it in a degree hardly credible, and
little expected by themselves, from the representations previously made to them.
The story of the annual test of trampfing on the crucifix at Nangasaki and the other
important cities is a story derided by the Japanese priesthood. On \dsiting the great
temple on the hills of Nangasaki, the English commissioner was received with
marked regard and respect by the venerable patriarch of the northern pro\inces,
eighty years of age, who entertained him most sumptuously. On shewing him
round the courts of the temple, one of the English officers present heedlessly
exclaimed in surprise, ' Jasus Christus.' The patriarch, turning half-round, with a
placid smile, bowed significantly, expressive of * We know you are Jasus Christus
well ; don’t obtrude him upon us in our temples, and we remain friends ;’ and so with
a hearty shake of the hands these two opposites parted. This leave-taking reminded
Dr. Ainshe very forcibly of the story Dr. Moore tells so well of the Duke of Hamilton
and himself taking leave of the Pope. The Pope, who had conceived a regard for
the young Duke, on the latter making his conge, said, ‘ I know you laugh at the
benediction of a Pope ; but the blessing of an old man can do you no harm ;’ and
laid his hand on his head, and blessed him.

“ The massacre of Samebarra is, by the Japanese, attributed to European in-
trigue ; and even Kaeempfer notices that the European ships of war formed the prac-
tical breach through which the Japanese entered, and perpetrated that massacre, to
which, it would appear, they had been originally prompted by others.

That the negociations from England, on a former occasion, should not have

181

MR. RAFFLES’ ADDRESS

been more successful than the late attempt from Russia, may easily be accounted
for, when we reflect on the possibility of the favoured factor ha\ing said to them.
Forty years ago your throne has been all but overturned by the intrigue of these
heretics ; this embassy comes from the King who has married the daughter of the
head of that cast, and fi'om whom you can expect nothing less than an irruption still
more fatal to your tranquillity.’ Such an argument, pushed by a narrow-minded and
interesting factor, could not but carry weight with the Japanese, accustomed to
respect, and to place all confidence in their western visitors.

" They are not averse to the indulgence of social excess, and on these occasions
give a latitude to their speech, which one would hardly suppose they dared to do in
Japan.

" It is an extraordinary fact, notwithstanding the determination of the empire
not to enter into foreign commerce, that for seven years past, since the visitation of
Captain Pellew, the English language has, by an edict from the Emperor, been culti-
vated with considerable success by the younger members of the College of Interpre-
ters ; they were, indeed, anxious in their inquiries after English books.

“ While the commissioner was at Nangasaki, there arrived a large detachment
of officers of rank, who had been out nearly four years, and not yet completed one-
fourth of a survey on which they were engaged. These officers were attended by a
numerous and splendid retinue, and were employed in making a practical survey of
every foot of the empire and the dependant isles. The survey appeared to be con-
ducted on a scientific principle, to be most minute and accurate in its execution, and
to have for its object a regular geographical and statistical survey of the country.

“ In a word, the opinion of Dr. Ainslie is, that the Japanese are a people with
whom the European world might hold intercourse without compromise of character ;
for the Japanese themselves are wonderfully inquisitive in all points of science, and
possess a mind curious and anxious to receive information, without inquiring from
what quarter it comes.

“ In the same spirit let us hope that now, when

‘ That spell upon the minds of men
Breaks, never to unite again’ —

no withering policy may blast the fair fruits of that spirit of research which has gone
forth from this Hall ; nor continue, under any circumstances, to shut out one-half of
the world from the intelligence which the other half may possess.”

While thus occupied in the encouragement of every object calculated to promote
the good of the people whom he governed, and to enlarge our knowledge of their
institutions, habits, and character, not only Mr. Raffles but his superiors also in
Bengal remained entirely ignorant of the intentions of the Government at home.

UNSETTLED TENURE OF JAVA.

185

or of the East India Company, as to the future condition of the Island. Years
had elapsed, and still nothing was decided on its fate. One of the chief difficulties
with which Mr. Raffles had to contend, and which indeed affected every measure,
arose from this uncertainty. He had to administer the government of the Island
without kno^^^ng whether it was to belong to the King or the Company, which led
to embarrassment, and created differences of opinion, as the wishes and interests
of indiHduals were likely to be affected by the decision. Mr. Raffles wrote to Mr.
Ramsay, Secretary of the East India Company, on this subject.

To W. Ramsaij, Esq. from Mr. Raffles.

Batavia, Jan. 8, 1813.

“ There is perhaps no point of view in which the possession of Java deserves
to be more seriously considered, than in its connection with China, and its influence
on the Company’s interests and prospects there. It is of the first importance to
them, that in any arrangements which may be made for the future government of
this colony, or for throwing the trade of India open to individuals, the nature of
this connection, and the extent of this influence should be fully known, in order
that the Company’s interests at Canton, and their exclusive trade to China may not
be interfered with.

“ It seems to be the general opinion that the government of Java will be
assumed by the Crown ; and if this is the case, it is probable that a free trade will
follow. Batavia may become the mart, from whence America and the Continent
will be supplied with the products of China ; and, from its central situation, become
an emporium, which, in the hands of any other powder than that of the Company,
must be destructive of its best interests in China. The trade between Europe,
India and Bata\ia, and between Batavia and Chind, will fall into the hands of indi-
viduals, against whose interference restrictions would be vain.

“ The balance of trade, under the existing circumstances of the European
market, is heavily against Java, both from Europe and from India, there being no
actual produce of Java to afford a return that is saleable ; and, consequently, the
greater extent to which this trade is carried, the greater the demand for silver and
gold, and the greater the difficulties and distresses of the Government. China,
however, offers an advantageous mart for almost all her productions, as well as
those of the Eastern Islands in general ; and it is to this market only that we can
look. A great proportion of this trade is now carried on by Chinese capitalists,
trading direct to Batavia from Amir and the northern ports of China, with which a
constant intercourse is kept up ; and it woidd be impossible to restrict a trade which
appears to have been so long established, and which proves so essential and advan-
tageous to all concerned in it.

“ The state of the Company’s finances in China has already induced the super-

B b

186

TRADE OF JAVA AND OF CHINA.

cargoes to open a commmiication on the subject. They represent the deficiency of
their funds, and ask for consignments from hence, offering the advantage of di*a\v-
ing bills on the Supreme Government for the amount. This arrangement is exactly
what the colony stands in need of. The drain which woidd otherwse exhaust Java
from Europe and India will be avoided by the circulation of bills on Bengal, wiiich
will be gi'anted to the amomit of the consignments to China ; and the supercargoes
in China w ill be furnished in the most advantageous manner possible with funds for
the homew^ard cargo, without requiring that export of specie wiiich must otherwise
become essentially necessary.

If Java remains in the hands of the East India Company, this arrangement may
be earned to any extent, and Java and China thus mutually assist each other, while
the Company’s finances w^ould derive an obvious benefit. If Java becomes a King’s
government, and the trade to the Eastern Islands is thrown open, it will be difficult
to impose restrictions, and impossible to prevent an intercourse with China, which,
under such circumstances, would prove highly disadvantageous to the Company.

“ As far as my experience goes, it will be impossible for a British government
to exist on Java with a respectable estabhshment, without avaihng itself of the
resources within its reach. Java cannot be held on the same footing as Ceylon. It
is by extending its trade, and not by confining it, that the interests of its local
government can alone be secured.

Another point of moment is the extent to which printed-cottons may be
introduced into Java fi'om England. I am most sanguine in my expectations of
success, provided strict attention is paid to the patterns and sizes as well to the
other suggestions w'hich accompany the musters ; the consignments, however, should
in the first instance, be considered rather as an experiment ; and, afterw'ards, if the
cloths are once generally and advantageously introduced, there will he no difficulty
in increasing the quantity to an unlimited extent. The extent to which other
staples and manufactures may he imported with advantage, I have stated in a
Report

^ ^ ^ ^ *

On the prospect of the Island of Java being transferred to the crown, and the
probability of a King’s officer being appointed to the government. Lord Minto
displayed a generous concern to promote and secure the interests of his friend,
to whom he wTote as follows : —

February 22d, 1813.

^ ^

I have already written to you concerning the operations of this event (the
arrival of General Maitland) upon your situation ; and I need not repeat my former

• The inliabitants of Java are now, 1829, principally supplied with the cotton and woollen manufac-
tures of England.

GOVERNMENT OF JAVA.

187

communication on a subject which is, however, deeply and sensibly interesting to
my "wishes and feelings.

“ But I have to acquaint you with an honourable retreat, if your present office
should pass into other hands. Mr. Parker has been compelled by ill-health to quit
Bencoolen. If any obstacle should arise to the view's which I suppose you might
entertain on Java, in the event of a change of government, or if you should prefer
the Residency of Fort Marlborough to any other situation that might be open for
you in the East, my resolution is to appoint you to succeed Mr. Parker. It must
not be forgotten, at the same time, that the orders of the Court of Directors are to
place a civil servant of the Bengal establishment in that office. That circumstance
will not prevent me from appointing you, because I flatter myself the claims which
made so strong an impression on me w'ill be admitted by others ; and I am unwil-
hng to doubt the Court’s confirmation of the measure, and the many w^eighty and
forcible considerations wffiich certainly recommend it.

“ If there should be any hesitation on the subject, I should feel some reliance
on the early exertion I shall have an opportunity of making, in person, at home,
my departure from hence being fixed for next January. ^ ^ ^

“ My opinion now is, that in military questions affecting especially the economy
of your government, you should adopt and carr}' into effect firmly, the measures
wffiich, after every proper reference to the Commander of the Forces, and with every
due deference to his sentiments, you ultimately judge to be either expedient in them-
selves, or conformable to our instructions. To give way on the spot, and refer to
us to reverse the measures, which have been conceded merely in a spirit of con-
ciliation, is a very slow and dilatory process, considering the distance and length
of time required for communication betw'een Java and Bengal. It might, perhaps,
be admissible, if the instances were rare; but opposition on such points being not
only frequent but uniform, an exercise of the powder vested in you on the spot
becomes indispensable.

Pray let me know your wishes on the subject of your appointment to Ben-
coolen as soon as possible. But I shall take care to make the office accessible to
you by an actual appointment, subject to your owm option, as soon as I know with
certainty that the present government of Java is to be changed. You have had,
and will still have many competitors here, and some of the very highest rank, merit,
and pretensions in India ; but so far as the power of this government can avail, you
may consider the affair as decided.”

From Lord Minto to Air. Raffles.

“ Calcutta, May \0th, 1813.

“ Although nothing is certain, I should think, on the whole, that Lord Moira
will arrive in Bengal in July, or say by the 1st of August.

B b 2

188

APPOINTMENT TO BENCOOLEN.

“ This expectation occasions a great embarrassment and anxiety about you ; for
the final decision concerning Java may not be known in the country during my
government, and there will consequently be a difficulty in appointing you to Ben-
coolen, if that should be the case: for I presume you would not wish to renounce
Java definitively until the necessity of doing so should be positively ascertained.
What I can do at present is to keep Bencoolen open. If I should learn, while I
am in office, that you are certainly to be relieved at an early period, I shall make
your appointment to Fort Marlbro’, and send it to you at Batavia, that you may go
at once from Java to your own station.

All that can be said is, that I shall be watchful for your interest, and shall
omit nothing that depends on me to accomplish what I think due to your merits
and services, as well as to evince the esteem and affection which I have sincere
pleasure in professing towards you.”

Extract of a Letter from Lord Minto to Mr. Raffles.

“ June 22d, 1813.

“ I cannot safely wait longer for authentic accounts of the resolution taken in
England concerning Java ; and I have, therefore, adopted the measure of at once
appointing you formally to Fort Marlbro’ ; to take effect on your being relieved from
your present office or resigning it ; the allowances to commence from the time of
your departure from Java.

The letter which I have just addressed to you as President of the Literary
Society of Batavia, leaves little for me to add to the very gratifying proof of their
kind recollection and regard furnished by the address which you enclosed to me,
and I shall only say, in the sincerity of private correspondence, that I have derived
from it very particular satisfaction. I hope you will ply your labours — the field is
extensive, and to a great portion even of the learned world new — diligence has not
been wanting, and ability has been abundant in your era — for which, certainly, much
is due to you, as you are truly told. I am very grateful for the great stone from the
interior of your Island; in w^eight, at least, it seems to rival the base of Peter the
Great’s statue at St. Petersburg!!.

“ I shall be very much tempted to mount this Java rock on our Minto craigs,
that it may tell eastern tales of us long after our heads lie under smoother stones.

“ Your Twelve Caesars* are placed on handsome pedestals in the marble hall
at Calcutta, and you would be pleased to see how well they suit that fine room, and
how ornamental they are to it. An inscription on the pedestal of Julius Caesar is to

Busts formerly in the Government Hall of the Dutch Governor-General at Batavia, and sent by

Mr. Raffles to Lord Minto.

CALLING IN DEPRECIATED PAPER.

189

make him tell his own history and that of his successors, and how they all came
there. He will (prophetically it must be) introduce your name into this chapter of
liis Commentaries.

*******

“ I learnt with great pleasure that you have determined to accept the Resi-
dency of Fort Marlbro’. When I first made this proposition I was not aware that
I might soon lose the power of making the appointment. I have since felt con-
siderable uneasiness lest I should be overtaken by an event which cannot be distant,
and disabled fi'om accomphshing an object which I have so much at heart. I wrote
you by the Hussar under that apprehension, and before I had entirely determined
the course I should pursue.

Fro?n Lord Minto to Mr. Raffles.

“ Calcutta, June 24<A, 1813.

We have received the documents you have furnished in support of the mea-
sures adopted by you, respecting the courts of Solo and Djocjocarta — we wash, of
course, fi'om the great importance of the subject, not only to give it a full consider-
ation, but to accompany the judgment we are to pass upon it with a satisfactory ex-
planation of the grounds on which the opinion is formed. This requires a little, and
but a little more time than, oppressed as we now are by the winding up of an ad-
ministration of seven years, and by the despatch of ships to England, it has been
possible for us to afford — you need not, however, feel any uneasiness on account of
this short delay : I have myself read all the papers with the gi*eatest attention, and
have perused a second time all that your correspondence and the proceedings of
your government furnish on this subject; I am happy to say that I am myself en-
tirely satisfied; and although the members of Council have not yet read all the
papers, the conversations which I have held with them on the subject leave me no
doubt that we shall concur in the result.

Our judgment on this and several other capital points of your administration,
which are not included in the official dispatches by the Nearchus, \vill be forwarded
in a week or two after the departure of that ship. Amongst these are the operation
of calling in the depreciated paper which hung so heavily on your finances, an opera-
tion which is highly applauded ; and the sale of lands which enabled you to execute
the former measure, which is also approved.

“ You will receive an official approbation by the present dispatches of your
resolution to ratify the Probolingo transaction, which I trust will prove satisfactory
to you.”

190

LETTER TO W. B. RAMSAY, ESQ.

To William Brown Ramsay, Esq.

“ Buitenzorg, June, 1813.

“ 'N'S'e are still here, wthout any change, or even nunours of a change, which,
after the uncertain period which has passed, may be considered as a very gi-eat imme-
diate gratification to us ; but I am not so untutored in the ways of the world, or so
confident in the propriety of the measures of our government at home, as to calculate
with any certainty on the residt. I am prepared and ready to meet a change when-
ever it may occur. At Bencoolen I am promised the chief authority, if removed
hence ; at Penang my standing in the serrice would insiwe me a seat in council, but

I confess that I should say farewell to Java vdth a hea\y heart.

*******

“ I do not know whether I am to attribute your silence to an habitual laziness
in every thing which concerns business, or to a carelessness about me and mine ; the
latter I must doubt, and I would hope that you will not allow the former to super-
sede what, as a fi-iend, I have a right to think my due.

“ It is most likely you think much less about us than we think about you, and
perhaps it is natural that it should be so : I will only say, that if you forget me, I
will not forget you.

“ Adieu, and beheve me ever yours, with sincerity and truth,

« T. S. R.”

To W. B. Ramsay, Esq.

“ Java, September \5th, 1813.

Every thing is going on prosperously here ; and, as I have often told you
before, if the authorities at home leave us alone, every thing must continue to go on
prosperously. You wll hear of some war here ; but I think you know enough of my
disposition to believe that I prefer peace and harmony, to war and anarchy ; and that
I would rather have kept my little army (about 12,000) in comfortable quarters. My
measures have been throughout successful.

“ I shall come home, not laden \rith riches and spoils, but, I trust, with some
little honour and credit.”

The following letter is to a relation :

To the late Elton Hammond, Esq. from Mr. Raffles.

Buitenzorg, October, 1813.

“ My Dear Elto\,

“ It has been gratifjdng to me to find that you take an interest in the
affairs of these colonies, they are of much higher importance than is generally

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DEPRECIATED STATE OF PAPER CURRENCY.

191

imagined ; and while they remain under my administration, no exertions shall be
wanting to bring forth their resources. Under existing circumstances, it is essential
they should be inquired into ; and few questions are likely to excite more interest
than those you have noticed. They cannot be considered without reference to the
state of the colony ; and, as connected with its eventual prosperity, they demand a
considerable share of my time.

“ Until the revolution in Holland, and the discontinuance of communication
between this colony and Europe, large sums in silver were annually sent out to pay
the establishments and purchase the investments ; and, generally speaking, the
importations in bullion were the most considerable. The specie, also, when sent
by the Batavian government to British India, either procured a return of silver, or
the proceeds by which opium, cloths, and the principal importations required by
Java, could be purchased. For the last ten years, Java lost these advantages ; and
the only supply of bullion was received from the Americans, who purchased colonial
produce. The blockade giving rise to extraordinary measures of defence, the whole
Island was by Marshal Daendels forced to submit to military exactions ; and, inde-
pendant of the forced and voluntary loans obtained from the inhabitants, upwards
of four millions of Rix Dollars and Paper Currency was thrown into the market.
At the period of the establishment of the British government, this Paper had
fallen in the market to the rate of six and a-half Rix Dollars for one Spanish Dollar
silver.

The public service required that, in the first instance, a supply of cash should
be throum into the Island for the pay of the troops ; and, for a certain time, while
the government were accumulating a small capital, a large proportion of this was
kept on the Island.

The restrictions on commerce which had heretofore existed being gradually
withdrawn, the value of the silver in the market was soon ascertained. From
Europe the importations of silver no longer existed. The specie, with which we
might have purchased the valuable articles of Indian produce required here, were
no longer at our disposal, the Moluccas being a separate establishment, dependant
immediately on Bengal : — and the consequence was natural, that the silver should
disappear. The small quantity imported in the first instance by the British govern-
ment was soon soaked up in so thirsty a soil ; and the circumstances above stated,
added to the total want of demand for the produce of the colony, may account for
the present very imfavourable balance of trade and exchange. The coffee alone,
had the American war not broken out, and the Orders of Council been revoked,
would have afforded us an importation of specie of nearly two millions of Spanish
Dollars annually. At present it is literally rotting in the stores.

The above may give you a general idea of our present situation; but, as
Paper Cm’rency is the point on which we are speaking, it may be interesting to you

192

DEPRECIATED STATE OF PAPER CURRENCY.

to be infoiTned of an important measure which has been undertaken here. The
Paper Currency of Batavia, which was originally issued at par, amounted to about

8.500.000 Rix Dollars (£2,125,000 at par). At our first establishment it was respected
and guaranteed by Lord Minto at six and a-half for one ; but, in the course of a year,
and not^nthstanding it continued to be received in the government treasury at the
rate originally fixed by Lord iNlinto, it fell to twelve and thirteen for one, — making
a difference of near one hundred per cent, in its actual current value in the market.
It followed, that government must either retain it in the Treasury, or if they issued
it in papnents, do so at the cmTent market price of the day, at a loss of one
hundi'ed per cent. ; — for the proclamation of Lord Minto required that they should
receive it at six and a-half; and to the troops, or any of the fixed estahlishments,
it could not be issued except at its value in the market. If purchases were to be
made, or agreements entered into, it mattered little whether the rate of six and
a-half or that of thirteen were stated, as individuals would take care to regulate the
amount according to the current value.

“ It may not be necessaiy to go -into all the causes of this suiquising depreciation.
The general state of the Island, and the demand for silver, ^rill, in a gi’eat measure,
account for it ; and something may be attributed to the speculations of indiriduals,
who were considerable debtors to public Institutions, and to government, and, con-
sequently, interested in the depreciation.

“ Under such circmnstances, you may easily conceive that property was ver\'
insecure ; and that very little public confidence was to expected : — but how was it to
be altered ?

“ I resolved to \rithdi'aw the whole from circulation by a partial sale of lands,
and by such other means as were ^ritliinmy reach ; and I succeeded in securing the
whole in the coin*se of three months. The principle on which this measure was
adopted, is as follows, — the amount of Paper Currency could be considered in no other
light than a colonial debt, the amomit of which was due by government to the public.
It is true it was not incurred by the British government ; but Lord Minto had
guaranteed it to a certain extent ; and whatever might be the eventual fate of the
colony, the burden arising from the depreciation must fall upon us. The question,
therefore, ^vas, whether we shoidd ^rithdi'aw this paper hy means of British capital, or by
means of Colonial capital ; or, in other words, whether we should draw on Bengal for

1.300.000 dol. (£325,000 at par,) or whether other means might not be devised, that
would eventually fall upon the colony. The heavy demands on the Bengal treasury
for the supply of cash to Europe, the assm*ances I had given on the capability of the
Island to maintain itself, and the necessity of preventing the possession fi'om becoming
a ch'ain upon our more permanent possessions, induced me to devise means witbin my
immediate reach : and I conceived it was impossible to adopt a more justifiable plan
than to sell a portion of the domains of the colony for the liquidation of the debt. I

WANT OF SPECIE.

193

have accordingly done this ; and about one-fourth of the debt may already be consi-
dered as extinct. The same principle followed up will reduce the whole in a few
years ; and in the mean time, an issue of the Treasury notes has been made, bearing
an interest of 6 per cent., and payable at pleasure, which retain, and are likely to
continue to retain, their original value. To meet the demand for circulation, which
the withdrawing of so large a floating medium occasioned, the Lombard bank has been
authorised to issue promissory notes or obligations to a certain extent, payable in nine
months ; which notes are issued to indhiduals on the security of real and personal
property redeemable at the expiration of six months fi-om the date of the loan.

“ These last mentioned notes, with a small quantity of certificates issued from the
Treasury, to enable the public to settle outstanding accounts in the old Batavian
currency, have, generally speaking, maintained their credit ; that is to say, they have
never been at a discount with silver of more than 20 or 25 per cent. ; and no extra-
ordinary means have been taken by government to keep them up ; they have literally
been left to find their level in the market.

“ From these circumstances you will be able to judge of the state of public
credit.

“ The quantity of silver is however daily becoming less. Gold has disappeared
altogether ; and copper is the only metal in general use among the population. A
general demand exists for a more extended currency ; and many of the most wealthy
indi\iduals are threatened with ruin from the want of means to pay their debts. In a
few months, if a change does not take place, silver mil not be procurable at any
price ; and in establishing a colonial currency, it becomes a question what shall be
considered the standard ; if silver, its price will be so high, that we may expect to
pay 100 per cent, addition to our fixed expences ; and if copper is made the standard,
we at once declare our poverty among the nations with whom we hold commercial
intercourse.

“ I am happy that you concur in the propriety of the Probolingo sale. Our
proceedings in this, as well as in every other measure, have met the approbation of
the supreme government.

“ Whilst adverting to this, I ought to notice a very important arrangement
which is now in progress, and one which I consider by far the most important of my
administration, and that is the establishment of a land rental, and the entire aboli-
tion of the farming system, and of the forced deliveries and services at inadequate
rates, which heretofore existed.

“ A system of internal management, similar to that established in Bengal, has
been introduced throughout the whole of this fertile and populous Island ; and the
revenue and police regulations have been placed on a footing to ensure to the cul-
tivator the fruits of his industry, and to the government its just dues for the sup-
port of the state ; the whole system of native management has been exploded, and

c c

19t

REVENUE OF JAVA.

the mass of the population are now no longer dependent on a Regent or other Chief-
tain, but look up direct to the Em-opean power which protects them.

To enter into an account of the natm-e of landed tenm*e in Java, or of the
state of society, would require more time than I can at the present devote to the
purpose, and a partial or imperfect \dew of the subject can only lead to error.

“ Hereafter, when I may have more leisure, or when I may make up my mind
to uTite a book on Java, I shall go fully into these important points ; for the pre-
sent, it may be sufficient for you to know, that under the Dutch government the
revenue was almost entirely derived from the profits of commercial monopoly.
After the loss of the Spice Islands, and all communication with Europe being cut
off, some attempts to raise a territorial revenue were made by Marshal Daendels ;
but the amount realized, and the principle on which it was raised, deserve little
comment or approbation ; \rith the exception of the country in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of Bataria, the internal management was confided entirely to native Chiefs,
termed Regents ; who, on condition of furnishing to government a certain quantity
of rice, &c., and a small recognition-money annually, udth all the labour and neces-
saries which government might from time to time require, were left to do uith the
bulk of the population pretty nearly as they pleased. They were, in short, the lords
of the country, and while they complied with the requisitions of government, and
were ciril to the Resident, their conduct was little enquired into. The abuses and
oppressions attached to such a system were eveiy where apparent, every where felt.
The Dutch themselves, to whom such a lazy system of management might seem
most congenial, were, in a great measure, ashamed of it. Commissions upon com-
missions were appointed to propose a better system of government and internal
administration ; but either these commissioners were misled by those in office, who
fattened upon the vices of the existing system, or they themselves wanted courage
or ability to propose a radical change. All their partial changes had no effect either
in improving the revenue or in alleriating the condition of the inhabitants. It was
left to the British government to confer that boon on the Island, the establishment
of which Arill fonn a bright era in the page of her history.

In the first instance, the lands are let, generally speaking, to the heads of
villages, as this description of people appear to me to he the resident superintending
farmers of the estate. In so extensive a population, there will naturally require
some deviations in different districts : — but the plan of \fillage rents will generally
prevail. After the experience of one year, — leases for three years wll be gi'anted ;
and, at the conclusion of that period, the leases may either be made for seven, or for
ten years, or the lands granted to the actual possessors in pei*petuity.

“ You will thus see, that I have had the happiness to release several millions of
my fellow creatures fi'om a state of bondage and arbitrary oppression. The revenue
of government, instead of being wrung by the gi'asping hand of an unfeeling farmer

PROPOSED LITERARY WORK.

195

from the sa\’ings of industry, will now come into the treasuries of government direct,
and be proportioned to the actual capability of the country. A system of check and
control can now be introduced into every department; and in a more extensive
political view, we may contemplate that the mass of the population will for ever re-
main attached to the British power, under whatever circumstances the Island is placed.
You must pardon the hasty and unconnected account of this important measure.

“ I have already, in my official letters, wi'itten so much on the subject, that I
have exhausted all I had to say ; and now that I sit down to wi'ite to you on the eve
of the departure of the ships, I am too much fatigued to enter fully into it. I will
only add, that, connected with this change, all the internal tolls and imposts, which
heretofore checked cultivation and internal trade, have been abolished; that all the
ports of the Island have been thrown open to shipping, with a remission of almost
all export duties ; and that every obstruction in the way of free cultivation, and free
trade, is gradually remoring.

“ The spm* which must thus be given to industry and speculation is, at any
rate, calculated to assist in reducing the unfavourable balance of trade, by increasing
our exports: — and, at all events, the individual interests and energies of millions,
who can have no views beyond the Island, is better calculated to effect this object
than any monopoly in the hands of a temporary and foreign power.

“ I observe wffiat you mention respecting the advantages attending a literary
w^ork, such as a statistical account of Java ; — and, although I am fidly sensible of
my incapacity to appear before the public as an author, I feel some inclination to
the undertaking. In my present situation, the demands on my time are so heavy,
that any attempt of the kind would be fruitless. The most that I can do, is to
collect materials; and, in this respect, I feel myself tolerably well prepared for an
essai, whenever I may have sufficient leisure to devote to the subject. Should a
change take place in this government, which is more than probable, I shall have
plenty of time on my hands. I believe there is no one possessed of more informa-
tion respecting Java than myself: — but how far I maybe able to put it together,
and to bring it before the public, I know not.”

The time was now arrived when Lord Minto was to take his departure from
Calcutta, on wffiich occasion he WTote to Mr. Raffies the following letter, expressive
of the fiiendship he felt, and the warm interest he continued to take in his w^elfare.

Calcutta, November, 1813.

“ In taking leave of my pubhc relation with you, as I must in this letter, I am
at a loss how to proceed. On the one hand, there are so many points, or rather
extensive subjects, on which a free communication of my sentiments is due to you,
that every hour wffiich remains of my residence in India would be too few to acquit
myself of that debt, in a manner entirely satisfactory to myself or you. On the other

c c 2

196

LORD MINTO’S LAST LETTER TO MR. RAFFLES.

hand, the last, or I may say more properly, the posthumous duties of my station in
India, added to the preparations for my departure, and the very interesting offices of
society and friendship which belong to the occasion, leave only moments, when days
would be wanted, for the demands still outstanding against me. You uill, therefore,
not impute to me want of interest in the matter I have now before me, if I aim at
conciseness and brertty in a greater degree than I am accustomed to do. My official
authority, and, therefore, my personal interj3osition in public business, was to end
somewhere ; and the arrears which the excess of labour required in this government
beyond the powers of human diligence, must unavoidably cause, at the close of my
Indian administration, have carried my demise a little higher than the nominal termi-
nation of my office, in such a manner as to leave the formal decision of several affairs
which arose in my own period, to the authority which succeeds me.

“ You will accept, therefore, what I am now able to offer, as only the friendly
suggestions of the deep and lively interest I can never cease to take in all that con-
cerns your public trust, and your personal reputation and welfare. In this I may be
less careful than I might otherudse be, to separate my pubhc from my private senti-
ments in this letter.

* ^ ^

“ On the financial operation of uithdi'audng the depreciated paper from circu-
lation by a considerable sale of lands, the resolutions of this government must be con-
veyed to you by my successor ; but I am unuilling to withhold from you my indi-
vidual sentiments on a measm*e of so much importance.

“ I begin, therefore, by assenting without reservation to the absolute and exi-
gent necessity which was the motive, and is the justification, of the proceeding.
The revenues and all the demands of government were paid in paper which could
not be re-issued ; there was, therefore, a rtrtual suspension of receipt at the public
treasuiy. To avoid this total loss, the paper must have been issued again, at the
discount of the day, which \vould have discredited the cm-rency still more, and would
have involved an enormous and constantly-recun’ing loss. This state of things left
you no option but to withdraw the paper, to make room for some better medium of
circulation, and the operation of the ertl w'as too rapid to admit of delay.

“ The only plan for the redemption of the paper which could be found, appears
very clearly to have been precisely that to which you had recourse — the sale of
public property ; and it must be deemed fortunate that this resom-ce existed, and
proved to be immediately available.

“ I consider, therefore, your measure to have been an able expedient in a case of
great emergency.

“ At the same time I conceive the necessity of a prompt remedy to fonn the essen-
tial, and, indeed, the indispensable ground of the resolution that was taken, for I
should not, I confess, have thought an extensive alienation of the public domains

LORD MINTO’S LAST LETTER TO MR. RAFFLES.

197

ad\isable in itself, under the particular circumstances of the colony at the time.
First, it was too important a measure to he adopted dm'ing a provisional government,
the duration of which is more than precarious. Secondly, it ought (and naturally
would, without the pressure of immediate necessity) to have received the previous
sanction of the supreme government. Thirdly, although my views, as you know,
lead to the transfer of public territory to the management of individual industry, and
the creation of a genuine landed interest, with all its immediate benefits and amelio-
rating tendencies, in the room of the deplorable system of vassalage and dependence
under which land is now held in Java ; yet I have felt that this change could not be
brought about suddenly, partly from the very nature of all extensive changes, partly
from the circumstances of the colony, which contains at present neither capital nor
capitalists enough to afford a comparison between the value in the market, of land
and money, either fair or at all approaching to fair. I should have inclined, there-
fore, to small and partial sales of land, if alienation in perpetuity should have been
thought advisable at all, proportioned in some degree to the disposable quantity of
money in the hands of individuals. But the general course to be recommended I
conceive to be short leases, followed by longer, and ultimately by perpetuities. I touch
upon these points the more willingly, for the purpose of conveying to you a caution
on the subject, founded on our knowledge of the sentiments which appear to be the
most prevalent at home, but which you may not be apprized of.

There is a great division of opinion on the question of permanent settlements,
and the extension of that system to the newly acquired provinces under the Presi-
dency of Bengal, which has in a great degree been carried into effect during my
administration.

The introduction of that system has been gradual in those provinces, but yet
more sudden than is approved at home. But Java is in a state infinitely less favour-
able to perpetual alienations, and you may depend upon such measures, unsupported
by particular exigency, being disapproved, and, indeed, disavowed and annulled by
the authorities in England.

“ There are many other points of public business, indeed much too many, in
which I am in your debt, but, as I have already said, I must break my staff somewhere.

“ I have had an early communication with Lord Moira * concerning your ap-
pointment to Bencoolen ; and I have the happiness to say, that he acquiesced en-
tirely in the arrangement that was made, and specifically in the propriety of your con-
tinuing to administer the government of Java, until the future destiny of that Island
should be fixed by the government at home.

“ I ought not to conclude without congratulating you on the success of the
Sambas expedition. ******

His Lordship had just arrived in Calcutta as successor to Earl Minto.

198

SALE OF LANDS.

“ Your measures at Palembang, you will have seen, have had our entire concur-
rence. * * * * * ^ ^

My picture was far advanced before I received yoiu* intimation that the
smaller pictm'e formerly sent would be accepted as an anticipation of the request
contained in the address. I think you wiU be glad of this, as the full-length, as
large as hfe, which is now ready, is one of the best works I ever saw, and every
way worthy of the respectable body at whose command it has been executed.

" I propose, when that picture amves at Batarta, to request that you will
accept and keep the latter for my sake.

“ I must close here, but not take leave, for I hope for one more opportunity.

" Believe me, ever most faithfully and affectionately yom'S,

“ Mixto.”

The sale of lands alluded to in the foregoing letter, it will be seen, was highly
approved by Lord Minto as an able expedient in a case of great emergency ; and of
his ability to judge from local knowledge, as w'eU as general experience, no one
doubt. It was, in fact, the only expedient that could be devised to support the
credit of the new government, at a time when it was most important to create a
favorable impression upon the population, on the change of their rulers. Yet it
was strongly condemned by the Comd of Directors ; perhaps because they did not
possess either the local knowledge or the experience which were necessary to form a
right judgment.

The sale of lands was no new measure ; it had been resorted to at different
periods under the Dutch government, and more especially in the administration of
Marshal Daendels, w'hen not only large estates, but whole districts, had been thus
disposed of. The English government succeeded in a moment of the greatest public
distress, when the Dutch had been unable to pay even their lowest establishments,
when the funds of the public charities had been appropriated to the necessities of
the state, and the finances of the colony were bankrupt. The Enghsh government
succeeded also to the existing colonial laws and usages, by which they were borne
out in the right of alienating such lands as might be found necessary for the support
of the state, and as a partial sale of lands had been estimated among the available
resources for the expenses of the cm’rent year, and had passed mthout comment by
the supreme government, a tacit consent might be implied that the measure in
itself was justifiable.

The expedition to Sambas, also alluded to in the foregoing letter, originated
in a report brought by a trading vessel of the loss of the ship Coromandel, and the
encreasing depredations of the piratical Chief of Sambas. This report was sent to
Captain Bowen, then senior officer of his Majesty’s navy on the station, with a

EXPEDITION TO SAMBAS.

199

request that he would direct his attention to that quarter. Captain Bowen in con-
sequence expressed his intention of proceeding to Sambas, and requested a hundred
men to act as marines, his ships being short of their complement. General Gil-
lespie ordered the men to be supplied ; but the expedition was purely a naval one,
and the supply of these men the only concern the Java government had in it.

CHAPTER VII.

General Nightmgall appointed to relieve General Gillespie — General Gillespie brings charges against Mr.
Raffies — Decision of the Court of Directors on them— Ancient characters on stones from the temples —
Establishment of the improved system of government — Principles on which it was founded — Institu-
tions of Majapahit, his division of society into classes — Mr. Raffles’ reasons for introducing the change
in the tenure of the land — His anxiety and fatigue during its progress — Support of General Nightin-
gall — Eventual fate of Java — Hesitation of supreme government to give any rule for the guidance of
the government — Forced to act in every measure of importance, in consequence, on his own responsibility
— Suppression of piracy — Slave-trade declared to be felony, by a Colonial Law — Can only be repealed
by the mother country — Leading inhabitants concur, and registered their slaves — Mission to Japan —
opening of trade with it — Disapproved by the Bengal government — Approved by the Court of
Directors.

The difference of opinion before alluded to with General Gillespie involved Mr.
Raffles in great trouble, and augmented the cares and anxieties connected with the
administration of his extensive government. Owing to some misapprehension, and
to other causes, which it is needless now to enumerate, tw^o months after the departm'e
of Lord Minto, General Gillespie conceived it his duty to represent to the Governor-
General in council at Calcutta, that certain parts of Mr. Raffles’ administration were
neither so purely nor so wisely conducted as the public service required. Of course
the Bengal government required specific charges to be framed, which, when received,
were forw'arded to Mr. Raffles for his replies.

The charges embraced such a variety of topics, indeed almost the wfflole extent
of his government, that, had Mr. Raffles not been perfectly master of his subject, or
had he been less correct in every branch of his duties, the severity of this scrutiny
would have been fatal to his public character, even had it not touched wiiat every
upright man is still more punctilious in protecting from the breath of slander — his
own private fair fame. But the result in Mr. Raffles’ case w'as highly beneficial ; for
the inquiry rendered it imperative upon him to enter into many discussions, which
delicacy w'ould otherwise have prevented his making public ; and, in fact, compelled
him to lay bare the whole system of his administration, with a minuteness wiiich,
under any other circumstances, would hardly have been allow'able ; but wiiich in his
case, under these circumstances, was an absolute duty.

GENERAL NIGHTINGALE APPOINTED TO RELIEVE GENERAL GILLESPIE. 201

In those distant regions, where the means of communication with Europe are few
and uncertain ; and where, even on the spot, the intervals which elapse between the
dispatch of letters and the receipt of answers, are often of gi'eat duration ; it requires a
long period before such misunderstandings are cleared up. Nevertheless, the clouds
which at first threatened to obscure Mr. Raffles’ hard-earned renown gradually cleared
off ; and, one by one, his enemies, if, indeed, he ever really had enemies, gradually
admitted, not only the purity of all his motives and conduct, but perceived and
acknowledged the sagacity of his public measures. So irresistible, indeed, was the
force of truth, as exemplified on this occasion, and so universal its effect in Mr. Raffles’
favour, that there seems no reason to doubt, had General Gillespie not fallen into an
honourable and early grave, he, as well as others, would have borne a willing testi-
mony to the unsullied reputation of his former colleague ; when, upon the minutest
acts, as well as the most extensive measures of his administration, being exposed to
pubhc investigation, all of them were able to bear the scrutiny.

The following letter from Lord Minto to Mr. Raffles, dated Calcutta, the 22d
May, has reference to the foregoing subject, and was written previously to General
Gillespie’s quitting Java ;

“ Sir George Nugent proposed appointing General Nightingall to take the com-
mand in Java, and place General Gillespie on the staff in Bengal. This plan com-
bined so many advantages, that I instantly conveyed to the Commander-in-Chief my
hearty, and, I must joyful, concurrence in every part of the proposition.

“ The first benefit, afforded by this measure, will be to relieve your government
from obstacles Avhich it has become next to impossible to surmount, and yourself
from personal vexation, very difficult to live under. On the other hand, a good
retreat, or rather an honourable and advantageous station, is prepared for Gillespie,
whose military character and services I shall always admire and venerate ; and I
shall always rejoice in the opportunity of testifying those sentiments, by contributing,
as far as my power goes, to confer upon him those honours and advantages to Avhich,
notwithstanding his civil defects, he is so eminently entitled as a soldier.

“ Another desirable consequence of this exchange, I hope, may be the super-
seding the necessity of investigating and pronouncing upon his pohtical conduct in
Java.

“ I shall now say a word of General Nightingall ; of his military qualifications I
am not able to speak, of my own knowledge, but he has seen a good deal of service,
and has, I understand, served with distinction. This I can say, however, that he is
a man of honour, and a gentleman in the highest degree ; his manners, in all respects,
as amiable as I really believe his conduct to be.”

The following letter will shew that, in the midst of the storm of public affairs,

D d

202

GENERAL GILLESPIE’S CHARGES AGAINST MR. RAFFLES.

Mr. Raffles retained all the kindliest affections of private life. It is addressed to the
son of his early friend and protector, the late Mr. Ramsay :

To W. B. Ramsay, Esq.

“ Buitenzorg, March 2\st, 1814.

“ While you are quietly ghding on in the smooth and sunny stream of private
life, it is my lot to be tossed on boisterous billows, and to be annoyed with all the
clouds and erils which ensue from party spirit.

“ Without family pretensions, fortune, or powerful friends, it has been my lot
to obtain the high station which I now fill ; and I have not been without my due
proportion of en^y in consequence.

“ After this, you ^rill not be sui*prised at what follows. You are aware of the
differences which occurred between me and Major-General Gillespie, and that he, in
consequence, apphed to be reheved from the military command. Arriving in Bengal
after Lord IVIinto had left it, he found the new Governor-General unacquainted with
all that had preriously passed, and succeeded, to a certain extent, in impressing him
favourably in his behalf. He was committed, in the course of some of om* chffer-
ences, by assertions which he had made ; and finding that he had succeeded in
directing the current of public opinion a good deal against me, he has brought
regular charges against both my administration and character. The whole are, I
thank God, easily to be repelled ; and the closer the investigation, the pm*er my con-
duct will appear. Lord Minto is fully aware of the violent faction which has taken
up arms against me, and will defend me in England. In India I have possession,
and a clear character to maintain it ; let Satan do his worst. ^ ^

For myself I will declare, that so far fi'om time and distance having quenched a single
spark of the friendship I once bore you, I am at this moment more animated with
affection towards you than ever. I think of you, and feel for you, as I w'ould for a
In'other ; and the anticipation of once more meeting with you, brightens the prospect
of my return to my native country.

My enemies have said much, and written much ; but, in the end, truth and
honesty must prevail.

“ T. S. R.”

The charges reached Java at a period when Mr. Raffles was engaged in draw-
ing out his plans for the change of system, which he was about to introduce into the
Country. Nothing can more strongly mark the facihty and the despatch with which
he replied to them all on the moment, than the circumstance of his having at the
time his house filled with company, and that he never absented himself fi'om the
hours of social intercourse, or neglected his usual and regular routine of business.

GENERAL GILLESPIE’S CHARGES AGAINST MR. RAFFLES.

20.‘}

The minute which he drew up and recorded on this occasion, and wliich, wlien
printed, filled a quarto volume of moderate thickness, is a lasting monument of the
powers of his mind.

It would be foreign to the object of this work, and to the principle stated in
the preface, to enter into a minute detail of these proceedings ; but the Reader can-
not be otherwise than interested by the perusal of the following extract from a letter
of Mr. Raffles, referring to the period of General Gillespie’s departure from Java,
when the differences which had occurred between them had seemingly ceased to
exist, and a complete reconciliation had appeared to take place.

“ The reconciliation was brought about by Captain Elliott. I had no motive
for wishing to withhold my consent; the public interest would, undoubtedly, be
benefited by it. My differences of opinion, and the discussions that had arisen in
consequence, were before the Supreme Government, and in no instance had I stated
a personal or private accusation, or one, the nature of which was not apparent in my
coirespondence with the General himself. As soon, therefore, as it was understood
that no reference was to be made to what had passed, and could not be altered, I
hesitated not to meet the proposal.

“ There could be no personal consideration in this mode of procedure, because,
whatever mischief our mutual references could produce had already been produced ;
the references were gone, and could not be recalled. I therefore confided in the
honour of the General as a man and a soldier, that nothing had passed on his part
inconsistent with our becoming friends ; concluding that General Gillespie would no
more profess a friendship for a man, whom he had accused of base and corrupt acts,
than I would have condescended to accept the hand of one whom I knew to have
accused me of them.

“ It is further to be observed, that General Gillespie, in frequent conversations
with me, declared his regret at what had passed, and his fixed resolve to support the
measimes of my administration ; nor was it to me alone that this was said, it was
repeatedly stated to the gentlemen of my family ; even his last letter contained the
same, imputing to the misrepresentation of some persons about me, the occasions on
which we had formerly differed.

My cause, my honomr, my public reputation and private character, are now
before the Supreme Government. I ask only a patient hearing. Errors in judg-
ment may be found in the complicated administration with which I am entrusted ;
measures of policy depend in a considerable degree on opinion, and there may be
some difference of opinion, perhaps, with regard to those which have been adopted
by this government ; but the accusations against my moral character must be deter-
mined by facts, and on this ground I will challenge my accusers to produce any one
act of my government, in which I have been actuated by corrupt motives, or guided
by views of sinister advantage to myself.

D d 2

204

DECISION OF THE COURT OF DIRECTORS.

“ I have thus deliberately discussed the present charges, and endeavoured to do
so without anger or violence, but, my Lord, my feelings of the injury I have sus-
tained are not the less acute. I have been denied the means of knowing the
charges until all the influence of a first and ex parte statement could be exerted, and
the current of public opinion continued to flow unrestrained, until the reports ob-
tained an unmerited credit from the very want of contradiction.”

\\'hen this business was laid before the Court of Directors, they expressed their
decision in the following letter to the Bengal Government ; but before this period
the fate of Java had been decided ; its restoration to the Dutch had been agreed
upon, and Java and its dependencies had ceased to be of any interest to the public
authorities of Great Britain.

“ We have received your letter in this department of the 8th December, 1815,
in which you draw our attention to your proceedings relative to the charges vvhich
were preferred by the late Major-General Gillespie and Mr. Blagrave against Mr.
Raffles, late Lieutenant-Governor of Java, and communicated the judgment you have
formed and recorded, as the result of a deliberate investigation of those charges.

‘‘ After a scrupulous examination of all the documents, both accusatory and ex-
culpatory, connected with this important subject, and an attentive perusal of the
minutes of the Governor-General, and of the other members composing the Council,
when it was under consideration, we think it due to Mr. Raffles, to the interests of
our service, and to the cause of truth, explicitly to declare our decided conviction,
that the charges, in as far as they went to impeach the moral character of that gentle-
man, have not only not been made good, but that they have been disproved, to an
extent which is seldom practicable in a case of defence.

“ It is not our intention now to discuss the expediency of the leading measures
of the administration of Java, while Mr. Raffles presided over the government of the
Island. The policy of these measures is not only separable ft'om the motives which
dictated them ; but there are cogent reasons why they should be kept altogether dis-
tinct and separate on the present occasion.

“ Before pronouncing upon the financial operations of that government, we are
desirous of fuller information and further time to deliberate on their tendency and
effects, as well as on the circumstances under which they were adopted.

“ Were their unreasonableness, improvidence, and inefficiency clearly established,
this would only indicate error or defect of judgment, or, at most, incompetence in
Mr. Raffles for the high and, in many respects, exceedingly difficult, situation which
he filled.

“ But the purity, as well as the propriety, of many of his acts, as Lieutenant-
Governor, haring been an'aigned, accusations haring been lodged against him, which

LETTER TO MR. MARSDEN.

205

if substantiated must have proved fatal to his character, and highly injurious, if not
ruinous to his futm-e prospects in life, his conduct having been subjected to a regular
and solemn investigation, and this investigation having demonstrated to our minds
the utter groundlessness of the charges exhibited against him, in so far as they
affected his honour, we think that he is entitled to all the advantage of this opinion,
and of an early and public expression of it.

“ Mr. Edmonstone, in his elaborate and able minute, has taken so comprehen-
sive and just a view of all the acts which constituted the grounds of imputation
against the personal character of Mr. Raffles, that it is quite unnecessary for us to
enter into a detailed scrutiny of the matters, either of charge or refutation. On
most, if not all of the points at issue, we concur with Mr. Edmonstone, both in his
reasonings and conclusions ; and whatever judgment may be ultimately passed on
the various measures of the late government of Java, which underwent review in the
course of the investigation into the conduct of its head, we are satisfied, not merely
that they stand exempt from any sordid or selfish taint, but that they sprung from
motives perfectly correct and laudable.”

Mr. Raffles wrote the following letter to Mr. Marsden about this time, on the
various subjects to which his attention was then directed.

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Buitenzorg, Jan. 12, 1813.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ I had the pleasure to write to you about six weeks ago, since which
nothing very important has occurred in this part of the world.

‘‘We still remain without official information respecting the future government
of this colony, although the public opinion seems decided in favour of its being
transferred to the crown.

“ It will, I am sure, afford you satisfaction to know, that every thing goes on
prosperously ; and that the resources of the colony, during the last year, have fully
equalled my most sanguine expectations. The unfortunate state of commerce in
general, and the distressed condition of the Island, at the period of its capture,
have been much against us ; but the happiest results have followed the decisive blow
which I found it necessary to strike at Mataram : and the country throughout is in
the most perfect state of tranquillity.

“ Had it not been for the uncertainty which exists respecting the future govern-
ment of the Island, it was my intention to have effected an entire new system and
settlement of the revenue. The Dutch appear to have been terribly behind-hand
in every arrangement of the kind ; the principal resources of the government were

206

BATAVIAN SOCIETY OF ARTS.

received in kind ; and the contingents or quota of the different Chiefs fixed without
reference to their means or ability.

" In the pro\inces lately transferred to the European government, the whole of
the uncertain revenues collected by the native princes has been reduced to a fixed
land-rent, payable in money half-yearly : and, if circumstances had admitted, I
should have carried the same system through the comitry. In all changes, however,
some difficulties are in the first instance to be encountered ; and unless I felt satis-
fied, that I could fjilhj establish the new system before I attempted its adoption, I
might, by a imrtial interference, hamper and annoy the government which is per-
manently to rule over the Island. No exertions are wanting in collecting the most
useful and extensive information ; and we are already far advanced in a statistical
account of each district. You are aware that we have the advantage of Colonel
Mackenzie’s abilities; and that a commission of the best-informed colonists has
long been dehberating on the best means for improving the country, and ame-
liorating the condition of the inhabitants. That we are not altogether idle will be
evident, from the honourable notice which Lord Minto has been pleased to take of
our proceedings; and as his Lordship’s last address to the College of Fort William
pays so high and grateful a tribute to the memory of my departed friend. Dr. Leyden,
I enclose you the Gazette.

“ The Juliana takes home a very compact collection of quadrupeds, birds, and
insects, prepared by Dr. Horsfield for the Oriental Museum at the India House. A
large collection of dried plants is also sent. Any observations which you may offer
on this first attempt will be veiy usefiil.

“ In my last letter, I apprised you of the general state of the Batavian Society
of Arts and Sciences, and of my exertions to rerive it. You will now learn -with
pleasure, that this Society is once more in full rigour. The former regidations were
by no means calculated to keep alive a spirit of enquiry or research ; on the conriary,
they seemed to shut the door against every thing new, as an innovation ; and it, there-
fore, became necessarv to remould the constitution. With the celebrated Rudema-
cher the Society seems to have lived and died ; at least, it has been nearly in a torpid
state ever since. The lethargy', with which all the members seemed to be oppressed,
when I first started the subject, gave me but little hopes of success ; and the jealousy,
with w'hich they w^ere apt to look upon any interference, at first discouraged me ; but
a more liberal spirit bas at last prevailed ; and, I trust, will soon pervade the wiiole
body. The new' regulations are simple ; and, I think, you will approve of them on a
consideration of how' much has been effected against prejudice and colonial notions,
which, I am sonw' to say, are miserably contracted.

“ Colonel Mackenzie has visited Majapahit, and every part of the Island ;
and a large stone, weighing several tons, with a long inscription in ancient cha-
racters, has been brought from the ruins to Sourabaya. The characters on this

REVENUE OF JAVA.

207

stone are, I believe, somewhat different from those found at Brambana ; and there is
an old man at Sumanap who pretends to decypher the character. I have seen some
of his translations of similar inscriptions in Madura ; and they appear to record vol-
canoes and battles ; but I must hesitate in offering an opinion, until I have time to
examine the whole personally. While on the subject of ancient monuments, it will
be interesting for you know, that we have not failed to take drawings of all that have
been found, at least of the principal. I have one drawing of the temple at Bram-
bana, representing the edifice as it originally stood in its most perfect state ; and it
makes a most splendid appearance.

“ The undivided and unremitting attention, which the duties of my present
situation require, deprives me of the time which I should be happy to devote to
hterary pm’suits and scientific research ; but I have made very considerable collec-
tions ; and a few leisme months, at any time, wiU enable me to put them in some sort
of order. The field is so extensive and untrodden, that I am cautious how I venture
to form an opinion, or even communicate information on any particular point.

“ I hope it will not be long before the Batavian press produces a Javanese
Vocabulary, with some idea of the construction of the language. I have at present
materials enough to undertake it ; but I would much rather induce some abler hand
to come forward.

You must excuse the hasty and careless style of this letter. I am obhged to
snatch a moment now and then from public business to get through it as it is.

“ As a copy of the Malayan Bible, printed at Batavia, may form an addition to
your hbrary, I have the pleasure to send you one.”

Reference has been already made to the change which Mr. Raffles introduced,
especially with regard to the revenue in Java; but, before entering in the details on
this subject, it may be well to state his ovra opinions of the country and the people.

‘‘ Six milhons in Java, as many more in its dependencies, established on one
of the richest and most fertile soils in the world, happy in their original Institutions,
were subjected to the arbitrary demands of the European authority to deliver the
produce of their soil either gratis, or at such nominal rates as that authority thought
fit to bestow as a boon, and to give their personal services on all occasions of public
or private call without any reward or return whatever, the demand on each district
depending on accident, or the convenience of the local or commanding-officer for the
time being. As it affected the general prosperity of the colony, the system was one
which closed every avenue to general commerce, repressed every energy, and de-
stroyed every incitement to industry and improvement. In its results to the Euro-
pean power, it had reduced the Government to beggary, while it vitiated and cor-
rupted all its officers, and all its departments.

“ Under these circumstances, it was determined to take a comprehensive view
of the revenue and resources of these possessions, and of the various and important

208

IMPROVED SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT.

interests involved in them, and to consider whether the introduction of a system of
administration more analogous to that of our more permanent possessions in India
might not be both adnsable and practicable. That it was most advisable there
seemed to be little doubt, for the Dutch themselves had for many years declared the
advantage of some such change ; their deplorable condition abundantly proved its
absolute necessity, and the result of every inquiry that was made proved that the
interests of all concerned must be benefited by such an arrangement.

“ That the existing system was vicious and niinous, all good men were agreed,
commission after commission hanng been appointed by the Dutch government nith
a view of effecting a change ; that authority at last came to the resolution that it was
impracticable and unsafe : impracticable, because the difficulties to be surmounted
and the corruptions to be put down were too formidable to be opposed; and unsafe,
because it considered that any attempt to interfere with the existing order of things
amongst the natives would lead to certain disorder and bloodshed, and endanger the
supremacy of the European power.”

Mr. Raffles introduced what is called the village system, founded upon that of
the Hindus; for though the natives had fi'om compulsion adopted the religion of
their Mahomedan conquerors, they were strongly attached to their ancient Hindu
institutions. To accomplish this introduction, he rfsited each district, in person
made arrangements with the several Chiefs, and in heu of the contingents and
arbitrary exactions of the European government, established a peimanent money
revenue direct from the land, which afforded the means of defraying the expenses
of the public establishments with regularity and certainty, instead of learing the
government dependent on the state of a foreign market for the irregular and un-
certain sale of its produce. All the ports on the coast were opened to the general
trader, and Cultivation and Commerce rapidly improved.

In the judicial department and police, independently of the regulations for the
interior of the country, which formed part of the revenue and judicial system, es-
sential reforms were required in the several European courts of justice established
at Bataria, Samarang, and Sourabaya; Mr. Raffles introduced the trial by jury, and
a clear and simple code was compiled, containing the rules for the different courts,
and instructions for their officers. These rides were printed in English and Dutch ;
they shew that the practice of the Dutch courts was revised and modified on the mild
and just principles of the British constitution; and the fact of its continuing in force
under the Dutch government, will be sufficient proof that it was applicable to the
circumstances of the settlement. It would be needless to dwell on the research,
labour, and caution which such an undertaking required; those who are acquainted
with the difficulties and responsibilities of government under ordinary circumstances,
will estimate the difficulties and responsibilities of these changes, in the miserable
state to wiiich Java had been reduced.

CAPTAIN TRAVERS’ ACCOUNT OF MR. RAFFLES.

209

The following extract from the Journal of Captain Travers describes Mr.
Raffles at this period of anxiety and trouble.

“ At the time Major-General Sir Miles Nightingall arrived to take command of
the troops in Java, Mr. Raffles was busily engaged in his favourite plan, and making
suitable arrangements for the introduction of an improved system of internal manage-
ment, and the establishment of a land-rental on the Island, a measure which has
given to his administration a lustre and widely-spread fame, which never can be for-
gotten. The measure is so fully explained, the necessity for its adoption so clearly
pointed out in the public records of government, that 'I shall confine myself to the
private circumstances connected with its introduction.

“ When first this measure was proposed, it met, if not with opposition, with
at least such a cold and cautious approval from the members of council, some of
whom spoke from long experience, and a supposed knowledge of the native cha-
racter, as would have damped the ardoiw of a less zealous mind than Mr. Raffles
possessed, and indeed it was the opinion of almost every Dutchman \rith whom he
conversed, that such a system would never succeed, and that the attempt to intro-
duce it would be attended with very bad consequences. But Mr. Raffles had formed
a very different opinion, founded upon the soundest principles of reasoning, and
vrith a philanthropy peculiar to his character, he made himself perfectly acquainted
with the reception which such a change of system would experience generally
throughout the Island, and the result justified the opinion he then gave. It was in
1813 Mr. Raffles first acquainted the council of his intention to amend the system
of land-revenue on the Island, and the minute which he then recorded, clearly and
distinctly develops the just and liberal, as well as very able and enlightened view
which he then took of the subject.

“ In obtaining the necessary information to enable him to frame such a system
as, whilst it abohshed the ^dcious practice hitherto pursued on the Island, would
strengthen the resources of the government, and by doing away feudal servitude,
encourage industry in the cultivation and improvement of the land, the greatest
exertions were required on Mr. Raffles’ part, and he devoted himself with his
accustomed enthusiasm to the task ; night and day he worked at it. To satisfy
himself upon all local points, to obtain personal intercourse and become acquainted
with the character of the native Chiefs connected with, or in any way affected by,
this new system, Mr. Raffles deemed it adrisable to proceed to the eastern parts of
the Island, wdiere he remained a considerable time, and visited every place, often
undergoing the greatest personal exertions and fatigue, which few accompanying
him were able to encounter ; indeed, several were sufferers from the very long
journies he made, riding sometimes sixty and seventy miles in one day, a fatigue
w'hich very few constitutions are equal to in an Eastern climate. To give effect to
the measure he was aw'are that his personal presence W' ould afford an influence and

E e

•210

CAPTAIN TRAVERS’ ACCOUNT OF MR. RAFFLES.

energy not otherwise to be obtained, whilst all delay for official reference would be
avoided. He therefore did not return to Bata\ia till he had the satisfaction of see-
ing the complete success of this measure, which gave to his administration the credit
of abolishing the most vicious and barbarous system, and of introducing one which
gave to a most deserving and industrious population a freedom which had been
hitherto most cruelly withheld from them.

“ Mr. Raffles returned to Batavia in good health and high spirits, naturally
elated with the complete success of all his plans, and finding in General Nightingall
a cordial supporter. I consider that at this period he felt more enjoyment than at
any other during his administration in Java.

“ The most friendly intercourse subsisted between the Governor’s and General
Nightingall’s families ; they were constantly together ; and to the purest feelings of
friendship and attachment which General Nightingall felt towards Mr. Raffles, he
seemed to add the highest opinion and admiration of the shining talents and abilities
which he found him to possess. At Buitenzorg the house was constantly filled with
visitors, and I well remember at the time when Mr. Raffles was di'awing up the
minute of council which he recorded on the 11th of February, 1814, we had a
large party at breakfast, dinner, and supper, from which he never absented himself,
but on the contrary, was always one of the most animated at table, and yet contrived
to find time sufficient to write that minute, which in itself would establish him to be
a man of considerable ability and acquirement ; and this was written and composed
so quickly, that he required three clerks to keep up and copy what he wrote, so that,
in fact, this minute was vvTitten with the gi'eatest possible haste ; Mr. Raffles’ object
being to have a copy made and sent home by a vessel then under despatch in the
roads at Batavia, and this he accomplished.

“ But Mr. Raffles’ quickness at composition was reiuarkable. He wrote a very
fine, clear, legible hand ; and I have often seen him write a letter at the same time
that he was dictatiirg to two assistairts.

“ Immediately after recording the minute herein alluded to, despatches were
received froirr Bengal, coirrmunicating to Mr. Raffles the unlooked-for, and very un-
expected intelligence of Major-Geireral Gillespie haviirg preseirted to the Supreme
Govermrreirt a list of charges against his administratioir in Java. These charges were
of a most grave and serious irature ; but Mr. Raffles met them like air innoceirt man.
On the first perusal of them, his plan of reply was formed ; and he answered every
charge in the most clear, full, aird satisfactory inamrer, as will be seen on refereirce to
the book printed at Batavia, contaiiring these charges aird reply. But it is well
worthy of remark, that when Mr. Raffles had finished his answer to the charges, he
handed the whole to General Nightingall to peruse, who having gone through them,
declared that although (as he declared on his first assuming the command of the
forces in the Island) it was his fixed interrtion to have avoided all interference with

CAPTAIN TRAVERS’ ACCOUNT OF MR. RAFFLES.

211

past occurrences, and to have kept clear of any differences which had taken place
previous to his arrival ; yet after a careful perusal of the documents which had been
laid before him, and with a full and firm conviction on his mind of the entire innocence
of Mr. Raffles of all and every charge brought forward by Major-General Gillespie,
he could no longer remain a quiet spectator, and therefore in the handsomest, because
altogether unsolicited, manner, he came forward to offer Mr. Raffles all the support
and assistance in his powder to give.

“ Nothing could he more gratifying to Mr. Raffles’ feelings on such an occasion
than to have the support of an officer of General Nightingall’s respectable character,
obtained solely by a confidence in the rectitude and purity of the conduct he adopted
since the commencement of his administration, every act of which was known to and
most carefully examined by General Nightingall previous to his making this kind and
friendly offer ; and indeed it will only require a momentary look at the charges, to
feel convinced of their unfounded nature.

“ At the time when these charges were received, and their reception was a sur-
prise to every person, the Government-house at Buitenzorg was quite filled with
strangers. A large party, composed of Dutch and English, had been invited to wit-
ness the performance of a play, which was got up chiefly by the members of the
Governor’s staff. During this anxious time, when Mr. Raffles had so much upon his
mind, not a visitor could perceive the slightest alteration in his manner ; he was the
same cheerful animated person they had always found him ; at dinner, and in the
evening, he appeared perfectly disengaged, and only seemed anxious how best to
promote and encourage the amusement, and contribute to the happiness and enjoy-
ment of all around him.

“ When the clear and satisfactory reply was drawn out, repelling every charge
brought against Mr. Raffles, a proposition was made in council, and was recom-
mended by General Nightingall, that confidential friends should be sent in charge of
copies of these despatches to Bengal and to England, to meet the ex parte statements
which were known to be in circulation in both places. Mr. Assey, then secretary to
government, was selected to proceed to Bengal, and as a vessel was then under
despatch for England, it was deemed advisable to send me in charge of those
despatches, together with a copy of the charges, and the reply sent to the Supreme
Government. Before the vessel reached England the fate of Java had been decided ;
its restoration to the Dutch had been agreed upon, and consequently Java and its
dependencies ceased to be of any interest to Great Britain.”

Before proceeding to a detail of the effects produced upon the civil and pohtical
situation of Java by the introduction of so entire a change in the government, a
riew of those reasons which induced the opinion so strongly urged by Mr. Raffles
may not be unacceptable. Under the guidance of the enlightened and benevolent
views of Lord Minto, means were adopted to obtain every information, and to

E e 2

212

CHANGE IN THE TENURE OF LAND.

institute that local inquiry, so essential to the success of the measures proposed.
His Lordship, in his instructions on the establishment of the government, expresses
himself thus : —

“ Contingents of rice, and indeed of other productions, have been hitherto
required of the cultivators by Government at an arbitrary rate. This also is a
vicious system, to be abandoned as soon as possible. The system of contingents
did not arise from the mere solicitude for the supply of the people, but was a
measure alone of finance and controul, to enable government to derive a high
revenue from a high price imposed on the consumer, and to keep the whole body of
the people dependent on its pleasure for subsistence.

“ I recommend a radical reform in this branch to the serious and early attention
of government. The principle of encouraging industry in the cultivation and
improvement of land, by creating an interest in the effort and fruits of that industry,
can be expected in Java only by a fundamental change in the whole system of
landed property and tenure.

“ A wide field, but a somewhat distant one, is open to this great and interest-
ing improvement ; the discussion of the subject, however, must necessarily be
delayed, till the investigation it requires is more complete. I shall transmit such
thoughts as I have entertained, and such hopes as I have indulged, on this gi’and
object of amelioration ; but I am to request all the information and all the lights
that this Island can afford. On this branch nothing must be done that is not mature,
because the exchange is too extensive to be suddenly or ignorantly attempted. But
fixed and immutable principles of the human character and of human association,
assure me of ultimate, and I hope not remote success, in \iews that are consonant
wth every motive of action that operates on man, and are justified by the practice
and experience of every flourishing country of the world.”

In pursuance of these objects, the first subject which offered itself to the con-
sideration of Mr. Raffles was as to the actual right of property, so far as it could be
ascertained ; it being with him a principle, “ that nothing should be done to injure
the existing rights of any class of the people, or to break down the barriers which
prescriptive usage or actual institutions had authorized in the possession of property.”

It appeared, from the most deliberate investigations, that in Java there existed
no actual right of landed property between the Sovereign and the cultivator : the
several officers, whether at the heads of districts, divisions, or towns, were nomi-
nated by the chief authority, and removable at his pleasure. It was not unusual to
find the descendants of those, who had once been high in office, reduced to a state
of poverty among the lowest classes of society. Policy and justice required that
some provision should be made for those actually in office at the time of the intro-
duction of that change, which would at once deprive them of all their privileges.

It appeared that, under the late Dutch government, no communication what-

DUTCH SYSTEM IN JAVA.

213

ever was held with the people. Through their Resident, living at the principal town
in the district, all orders were conveyed to the Regent, who nominated the inferior
officers, and from whom the amount of revenue was received, the mode of collection
remaining in his hands, unchecked by the controul of any legislative measure
whatever.

The service of the people was also required by the officers of the govern-
ment, without any compensation being afforded : the example was naturally followed
by the native Chiefs ; and thus were the industry and energies of a people crushed by
a system of feudal ser\ice, as destructive in its operation as repugnant to humanity
— rendering the efforts of the cultivator hopeless to himself and unproductive to
the state. Justice, humanity, benevolence, policy, and necessity, called for that
change, the beneficial effects of which were so speedily and so gratefully realized.

The Dutch government looked for their revenue only in their commercial mo-
nopoly. The resources of the eastern districts were sacrificed to the exclusive com-
merce of Batavia, the capital; and prerious to the administration of Marshal
Daendels the whole amount of monies collected from those districts did not exceed
150,000 Spanish dollars per annum (j£37,500 at par). Some improvements were
effected in 1803 by Marshal Daendels, but the system of monopoly and of farming
the public revenues being permitted to remain, no essential or permanent advantage
was derived, either to the government or the people.

At the period of the capture of Java by the British, some partial and temporary
relief was afforded to the poverty of the country, by a large sum of money brought
with the army and circulated in the country. The military disbursements of govern-
ment in cash, the increase of commerce after the removal of the blockade, together
with the fi-iendly intercourse estabhshed with Western India, contributed to alleviate
some portion of the distress : but as the system of farming the revenue to the Chinese,
and of collecting the rental from the Regents only, excluded the peasantry from any
immediate connexion with government, the specie thus circulated from the public
treasury fell into few hands ; the suiqjlus w^as exported or hoarded, without benefit
to government or advantage to the people.

Remoring the banier w'hich existed to indiridual industry, giving to the cidtivator
security for his crops, abolishing the feudal service and transit duties, and at the same
time affording a hberal compensation to the Chiefs and other officers for the loss of
that authority, of which they were in actual possession, formed the leading features
of that change which was, with such unparalleled celerity and success, introduced by
Mr. Raffles.

That no difficulty might arise in the execution of Mr. Raffles’ well-matured
designs, such instmctions were given, conformable to the pecuhar circumstances of
the various districts, as precluded almost the possibility of error on the part of the

214

INSTRUCTIONS TO RESIDENTS.

executive authorities ; although those authorities were not at all times disposed to
concur in the principles laid down.

The follo\nng is an extract from instructions to Mr. Hopkins, who was appointed
a commissioner for settling the revenue in those districts which were transferred from
the Chinese, and similar instructions were circulated to the other Residents in the
eastern districts, as far at least as local circumstances admitted.

“ The internal management of the districts is to be taken into the hands of go-
vernment, and to be administered mthout the intervention of native authority. The
lands are to be rented for an annual payment in money, on the following general
principles.

“ It has been deemed advisable, on the first introduction of these arrangements,
to enter generally into such a detailed system of management as w'ould include an
immediate consideration of the rights and interests of each individual cultivator ; and
in the instructions given in the other districts, it has been directed that the lands be
in the first instance rented to the chief local authority in each village or community,
whether recognised under the designation of Petingi, Bakal, Sm'ah, or other title.
But as the state of society and cultivation in the districts, lately held by the Chinese,
may admit of an exception, and a more detailed settlement than elsewdiere, you are
authorized to introduce the same, to such an extent as may appear safe and practi-
cable, with a due attention to the prejudices of the people and the tranquilhty of the
countiy.

“ The heads of villages or communities being thus considered, leases are to be
granted in the Javanese language.

“ In fixing the amount of rent, you wiU ascertain, as far as practicable, the
extent of all existing brndhens, imposts, and serrtces wJiatever, and endeavour to
determine the amount these have hitherto borne to the produce of the soil ; which
amount, after an equitable and hberal allowance for any oppression hitherto felt, is
to form the basis of the rental to be demanded as the dues of government.

“ As far as my personal information extends, I am inclined to consider that
these dues may be generally commuted, one district with another, for a payment in
money equivalent to about two-fifths of the annual gross rice produce of the soil.

“ That the government and the country may receive the full benefit of the
arrangements now in rtew, and that the principle may be clearly defined, it has
been resolved to abolish all internal taxes, contributions, deliveries at inadequate
rates, and forced serrices, whether to the European or native authority ; and hence-
forward, whatever produce or laboiu* may be required for the service of govern-
ment, is, in every case and without exception, to be paid for at the cm'rent market
rate.

“ As the first settlement to be made can only be considered as preparatory to a

INSTRUCTIONS TO RESIDENTS.

215

more accurate and permanent arrangement for the assessment of the lands, it is not
deemed advisable that the leases should exceed the period of one year.

“ It being essential and just that a liberal provision should be made for the
Regents and other Chiefs, and there being no objection to their retaining a certain
portion of land, the Regent of Passaruwang is to be allowed lands which will afford
him an annual revenue of 2,000 rl. battoo ; and an equitable pro\dsion, in propor-
tion, is to be made for the Regents of Poegar and Banjo wangy.

“ In order, however, that these appropriations may not interfere with the
general system, these lands are to be regidarly assessed in common with the other
lands of the district, and entered upon the general rent-roll ; but the rent is to be
remitted, and considered as the amount of the respective pensions or salary of each
individual.

“ With these exceptions, and such other as political reasons may dictate, the
whole of the lands are to be rented out to the Chiefs of the villages, on the principles
already laid down.

“ An entire separation is to be made between the judicial and revenue depart-
ments ; and you will, as early as practicable, and as the existing system may be
superseded by that now directed, forward a list of such permanent establishment of
officers, writers, &c. for each, as may be necessary for the efficiency of the pohce
and the dispatch of business.

“ The Regents are, in futm’e, to be considered as the chief native officers in
their respective districts ; but it will be obvious, that by the new arrangement they
must be effectually deprived of all political or other undue influence : and as the
tranquillity of the coimtry is an essential and necessary object in estabhshing the
new order, it is presumed they may be most advantageously employed in the depart-
ment of police, while it must not be forgotten, that the watchfid attention of the
Resident must ever be directed to their conduct in the execution of this duty.

“ On this account, and as compensation for further emoluments foregone by
the introduction of the new system, in addition to the advantages derived from the
appropriation of land already directed, the Regent of Passaruwang is to be allowed
a salary of 3000 rl. battoo ; and the Regents of Poegar and Banjowangy in propor-
tion, and to the extent that their services may be useful or available under the new
arrangements.

“ The whole arrangements now directed are in no way to interfere with the
payment of the contingent, recognition, or other dues to the government or the
Regent, up to the present period, from which date the new organization is to be
considered as entered upon.

“ This, however, being the middle of the Javanese year, and as inconveniences
might result therefrom, in determining the amount of arrears to be paid on the old
system, it is considered that the line may be equitably drawn, by fixing the same at

216

LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR’S PROCLAMATION.

one lialf-year’s amount of the whole, a principle which you will observe in balancing
the accounts of the Regents with government, and to be attended to in determin-
ing the demands to be made by them on the people.

“ That the country may feel the effects of the new system immediately, the
free ex]5ortation of rice and paddy to eveiy part of Java has been authorized.”

The principles thus laid down in these instructions were further confirmed by
the following proclamation, dated Bataria, 15th October, 1813 :

“ The Honourable the Lieutenant-Governor in Council has, after the most
minute consideration, deemed it advisable to establish an improved system of poh-
tical economy throughout the Island, Arith the intention of ameliorating the condi-
tion of all its inhabitants, by affording that protection to individual industry, which
will ensure to every class of society the equitable and undisturbed enjo}Tnent of
the fi-uits of labour ; and while it is confidently expected that private happiness
and public prosperity will be advanced under the change of system, such alterations
and amendments will be hereafter adopted as experience may suggest, or the improv-
ing habits and manners of the body of the people may require.

The following principles fonn the basis of the new aiTangements, and are
made public for general information.

“ 1. The undue influence and authority of the native Chiefs have been restricted ;
but government avails itself of their services in the important department of the
native police, which will be arranged upon fixed principles, adapted to the habits
and original institutions of the people.

“ A competent proHsion in lands and in money has been allotted to such
Chiefs ; and it therefore becomes both their duty and their interest to encourage
industry, and to protect the inhabitants.

“ 2. Tlie government-lands will be let generally to the heads of villages, wiio
will be held responsible for the proper management of such portions of the country
as may be placed under their superintendence and authority. They will re-let these
lands to the cultivators, under certain restrictions, at such a rate as shall not be
found oppressive ; and all tenants under government w ill be protected in their just
rights, so long as they shall continue to perfonn their correspondent engagements
faithfully ; for it is intended to promote extensive industry, and consequent improve-
ment, by giving the people an interest in the soil, and by instituting amongst them
an acknow ledged claim to the possession of the lands, that they may be thus induced
to labour for their own profit and advantage.

“ 3. The system of vassalage and forced deliveries has been abolished gene-
rally throughout the Island ; but in the Batavian and Preangu regencies such a mo-
dification of the former arrangements has been cari’ied into execution as it w'as
found practicable, under existing circumstances to introduce ; and provisionally the
Blandong system will be continued to a certain extent in the central forest districts.

LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR’S PROCLAMATION.

217

“4. To encourage the cultivation of so important an article of export as coffee
may become, when the trade of Europe and America may be thrown open to free
competition, government have stipulated to receive any surplus quantity of that
commodity fi’om the cultivators, at a reasonable and fixed rate, when a higher price
cannot be obtained for it in the market.

“5. To extend free trade and commerce, and to promote a spirit of enterprize
and speculation amongst the inhabitants, the Bloom Farms have been abolished, the
duties upon the principal articles of export have been taken off, and it is intended to
modify and amend the custom-house regulations before the 1st of January. The
toll-gates and transport duties of the interior have been diminished as much as pos-
sible, and in the gradual progression of improvement they will be finally abolished.

“ 6. Every facility will be afforded towards obtaining teak timber for the con-
struction of small craft, and of such additional tonnage as, upon the improved system,
wiU be imdoubtedly required.

“ 7. Government have taken upon themselves the exclusive management of
the salt department. It appears that the inhabitants in most parts of the Island paid
a very irregular and exorbitant price for this necessary article of consumption ; while
the system adopted by the farmers was radically vicious, and equally oppressive
and vexatious to the people, as it was detrimental to the immediate interests of
government.

“ Such an improved system for the supply of salt will be immediately adopted
as may appear advisable; and in this and every other arrangement, the government
propose the advancement of the interests and the happiness of the people at large,
and the promotion of the public prosperity of this colony.

Given at Batarta, this loth day of October, 1813. By me, the Lieutenant-
Governor of the Island of Java and its dependencies,

T. S. Raffles.”

“ By order of the Honourable the Lieutenant-Governor in Council,

“ C. Asset, Sec. to Government.

“ Council Chamber, Oct. 13, 1813.”

In order to convey a still more clear idea of the efficacy of these measures, a
shght sketch of the peculiar circumstances imder which many of the provinces
were placed, may not prove unacceptable.

At the conquest of Java, it appears that the extensive tracts of the beautiful
and fertile country of Bantam, at the north-western end of Java, were in the hands
of a rebellious subject; revolt, universal anarchy, and distraction had for many
years deflowered its fertile plains, and bhghted its fairest hopes ; all idea of raising
a revenue on the part of government had been abandoned, and the utmost that
could be looked for was a tranquil settlement of the country under European au-

F f

•218

DISTURBED STATE OF THE COUNTRY.

thority. A land-rental was introduced, and a revenue settlement was effected for
one year. The result was, that in one year the territorial revenue amounted to
100,000 rupees (£12,500 at par), while an increasing confidence and tranquilhty
on the part of the people held out the prospect that, at no far distant period, this
country, once the richest in Java, would again afford a revenue proportionate to
its extent and population.”

The district of Cheribon was also found in a state of tumult and confusion.
The lands had been for the greater part faiTned out to Chinese. In proportion as
the Chief raised the fann or rent, their extortions increased, and the share due to
the common people became less, or they were deprived of the whole.

Tranquillity was not restored to this district until the new system was intro-
duced; the effect of which will be at once seen by referring to the abstract statement
which follows of the land-rental and revenue, and where is also shewn the improved
state of other districts, as compared \rith their impoverished and devastated state
under the Dutch government.

European power in Java, previously to the occupation of the Island by the En-
glish, appears to have been exercised only to invade and to destroy the property of
the natives.

"NMioever has riewed the fertile plains of Java,” says Mr. Raffles, in a minute
on the introduction of the new system of government, “ or beheld with astonishment
the sm-prising efforts of human industry, which have canied cultivation to the sum-
mit of the most stupendous momitains, will be inclined to consider that nothing short
of a permanent interest in the soil could have effected such a change in the face of
the country ; and it ought not to be forgotten, that anterior to the establishment of
the Mahomedan religion in Java, the cultivators of the soil were considered to rank
as the first class in the state; for, according to the institutions of Majopahit, it w^as
ordained, ‘ that, next to the Sovereign, shall be considered and respected the culti-
vators of the soil ; they shall be the first class in the state below the Sovereign ; next
to them shall follow the other classes ; first, the artists ; secondly, the warriors ; and,
thirdly, the merchants.’

“ Who will not pause for a moment, to contemplate the peaceful, the beneficent
influence of such institutions. The cultivators of the soil shall be the first class !”

How do we find these wise institutions of iMajopahit supported and protected ? —
forced servitude — taxes so numerous as to become difficult of enumeration. Not
one article of produce, manufactiu'e, or consumption, which passed through the
comitry, but what some tax was leried upon it, and that too by corrupt and ex-
tortionate agents.

In every district a different mode of taxation existed — and, in general, these
taxes w^ere fanned out to Chinese. As a proof how far these vexations were carried,
in many instances, on goods passing from one toll towards another, when the gi'ant-

DEBASING EFFECTS OF THE DUTCH SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT.

219

ing of something like a certificate of the last duty paid became necessary for the
interests of the farmer, the chop or stamp was not marked on the goods to be
transported, but on the body of the man who conveyed them, and who, on exhibit-
ing the stamp at the next toll, had it effaced, and a new impression made, to pass
him onward in his miserable journey.

^^^hen such expedients, where human ingenuity must have been almost tortured
in the invention, were resorted to, was it astonishing that the Javanese should hold
the Chinese in utter abhorrence ? and yet, these were the only class of people
entnisted by the government with the collection of their revenues.

The banefid influence of this system was but too clearly developed in the
debasement of the popular mind, and in that hstless and apathetic feeling which
appeared to characterize the Javanese nation. Whilst the rich and powerful were
living in pampered luxury, the poor provincials laboured under all the horrors of
penury and want : but blessed with a fruitful soil and an humble submissive mind,
they were enabled to bear up under all these accumulated deprivations and mis-
fortunes.

The administration of justice in the courts of circuit partook ahke of this dread-
ful intolerance. The jury required did not exceed five in number, and these were
chosen from a class of men who could have no common feehngs — no common
rights ; who, being Eirropeans, were in no way whatever the equals of the person
tried.

The law was the law of Europe. The jury, under their best prejudices, were
influenced by that law ; and its meanings and penalties were apphed to a people who
reasoned in a manner so entirely different, and who often, for the first time, became
acquainted with those laws when denounced as their victims.

How different were the principles adopted by Mr. Raffles, and so ably seconded
by many of the local authorities, among whom, none appeared to hold a higher
place in his esteem than Mr. Hopkins, whose sentiments upon this subject deseiwe
to be recorded in his own words : — “ If law,” says this gentleman, “ be a rule for
the conduct of mankind, derived from the authority which the particular nation to
which it is apphed considers as sacred, the people of Java are yet without a code of
national laws, and labour under the dangers of foreign legislation and irreconcileable
prejudices. Yet the Javanese have a law, which, though not equal in its pm'ity to
the code of the Dutch, is yet better adapted to their habits, and is that which the
general system of British pohcy would extend to them.

“ I confess my inabihty,” continues Mr. Hopkins, “ to reconcile with the com-
mon principles of British justice the subjection of the inhabitants of Java to the laws
of Europe, in what regards any other description of crime than murder, against
which the hand of Providence has written the sentence of death, in the language of
all nations, and confirmed the judgment in the feelings of all mankind.”

F f 2

220

EFFECTS OF THE ENGLISFI SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT.

The Koran, with the commentaries upon it, forms the general law of Java,
and every sentence against a prisoner, not to offend the prejudices of the faith,
should be supported by some texts of that sacred book, or some gloss of the orthodox
commentator. A procedure instituted conformably to this rule, would be compre-
hended by the understanding, and approved by the judgment of the people.

It has been the principal featime in the British policy, it has been the brightest
decoration of the British government in India, to secure to the inhabitants, whether
Hindus or Mahomedans, the possession of their own laws, and a trial conformable
to the practice of their own courts. The experiment has been successful beyond
measure : the example invites imitation. There is nothing which can be alleged
against it ; while every thing in practice, analogy, and humanity, urges to its imme-
diate adoption.”

So entirely did Mr. Raffles concur in this view, that in order to provide for the
prompt and due administration of justice amongst the natives, in a manner the most
consistent with their notions of right and wrong, one member of each of the courts
of justice was appointed a judge of circuit, to be present in each of the Residen-
cies, at least once in every three months, and as much oftener as found necessary.
The formalities of the Roman law were avoided. A native jury, consisting of an in-
telligent foreman and four others, decided upon the facts ; the law was then taken
down as expour.ded by the native law-offlcers, and the sentence, with the opinion of
the judge of circuit, upon the application of the Dutch and colonial law on the cases,
was forwarded for the modification or confirmation of the Lieutenant-Governor.

Enough has been said, it is hoped, to convey some idea of the extent of that
change, which the enlarged policy of its Governor introduced into the Island of Java ;
and this portion of his life may be closed with a few observations of his own upon the
effects which the change had produced, and was in the act of producing.

“ If I look forward,” observes Mr. Raffles, “to the effects of the change of
system as it may contribute to the happiness of the people, the improvement of the
country, and the consequent increase of the public revenue, the result is incalculable.
Let the present wretched state of the Dutch metropolis of the^ East be contrasted
with the flourishing state of the British establishments, wherever they have been
formed, and it will speak a volume in favour of the change. Desolation and niin
would seem to have tracked the steps of the Dutch power wherever it has extended ;
indi\idual prosperity and national riches have accumulated under the English. The
principles of government are radically different, and with such experience before us,
can it be a question on which side w'e shall rely ?

“ The mass of the population, snatched as they are, at a favourable moment,
from the destructive grasp of Mahomedan despotism and indefinite exaction, and
established in the possession of property, to be secured by impartial justice, adminis-
tered to them in a simple and prompt mode, adapted to their peculiar sentiments

REASONS FOR CHANGING THE TENURE OF LAND.

221

and institutions, afford a wide scope to the philosopher as well as the statesman. A
new people, still advancing in civilization even under the former restraints, with what
accelerated progress will they not proceed, when their natural energies have fair
play ? It was but a few months ago, when the lower class of Javanese were appa-
rently lost to every idea of their own advantage, governed by apathy, and almost in-
sensible to the value of property ; so strongly prejudiced in favour of their Chiefs, so
simple and so unenlightened, that the least breath of disaffection could blow up the
flames of rebellion. Mere machines in the hands of designing artifice, they could be
rendered subservient to promote the views of ambition, or the frenzy of religious
fanaticism. They looked not up to the superior power, but to the intermediate
authority : they knew little of the European character, and Europeans were still less
acquainted with their habits and customs. The former government had seldom con-
sulted the advancement of their interests, and the result was what might have been
anticipated.

“ On the part of the Javanese I am justified in asserting, that they feel the
present interference in favour of the cultivators of the soil, as a revival of that due
consideration of the interests of this important class of the community, which has not
existed since the days of Majopahit ; and I have the satisfaction to believe, that nothing
will be found to have been done, or to be in progress, but what will be useful, and a
necessary preliminary to any more permanent or approved system which may be
ordered, and which may have for its object justice for individuals, the improvement of
mankind, and the prosperity of the government, founded on the mutual advantages of
the people.”

The reasons for introducing the change in the tenure of the land are given
by Mr. Raffles to Lord Minto, in a letter dated January, 1814.

“ These measures took their first rise when the province of Bantam fell under
our administration. It then became essential that the principles for its future
government should be defined without the least practicable delay. Fully aware of
the great importance of those measures, I determined to postpone their adoption
until the sentiments of the Supreme Government could be received. A reference
was accordingly made as far back as 1st May, 1812. But to this no reply was
received, and a much longer period having elapsed than was requisite for its trans-
mission, it was concluded, from the silence of the Supreme Government, that no
objections existed to the arrangements proposed. Acting on this inference, and the
increased necessity of adopting some measures, a system of land-rental was ordered
to be introduced into that province according to the plan first suggested. This also
was communicated to Bengal, and I have since received the sentiments of the
Supreme Government on it, expressed in the strongest terms favourable to the
change.

“ The arrest of Bugis Rengin, and the restoration of tranquillity in the pro-

NECESSITY OF ABOLISHING FEUDAL SERVICE.

’2’2’2

vince of Cheribon, placed the resources of that extensive and valuable country' once
more in the hands of the European power. The disturbances which had so long
distracted it were traced to the pnnciples on which its administration under the
fonner government had been fixed, and it became indispensable to establish a better
order of things ; an object that was only to be effected by the abolition of all those
oppressive regidations which had existed under the Dutch government. Nor would
the exigency of the circumstances admit of the slightest delay : to have postponed
such a measure woidd have been perhaps to have thrown the country back into that
anarchy from which it was just recovering.

“ The rich and populous districts of the Cadoe, with the other possessions
transferred by the late treaty, were to be taken possession of by the European
power ; this act could not but be accompanied with the establishment of some system
of management, and it could not be a question whether that should be introduced
w'hich in every \iew stood universally condemned, or one w^hich was more congenial
to the principles of the British administration in India.

“ I am happy to add, that w^hat was done in this respect met with the entire
approbation of the Supreme Government.

“ An unfortunate occurrence in Probolingo led to the resumption, on the part
of government, of the valuable lands sold to the Chinese in the eastern districts
by Marshal Daendels, and the state of these districts rendered it indispensable that
w'hatever measures w'ere adopted should be without the slightest delay. With the
experience before us of w^hat had so recently taken place, and impressed with a
conriction that while feudal service existed the tranquillity of the country might
alw^ays be endangered, there was evidently but one line of proceeding to be adopted
in these districts.

“ Thus, in the natural course of events, as a necessary consequence from them,
the introduction of the new system of management had become indispensable in
several parts of the Island, and the inquiries which had been long on foot in the
others, and in wiiich the Regents had been employed, had prepared them for the
reception of a similar change.

“ It had happened that in the arrangements for Bantam and Cheribon, the
Sultans had resigned all authority and interference, and in the prorinces transfen'ed
by the native Chiefs and Chinese there were no Regents to be provided for. These
officers, therefore, in other districts, ignorant of what provision might be made for
them, and inferring that a similar mode to what had already been followed wmuld be
adopted eveiy w^here, without regard to local circumstances, might naturally have
been alanned, in contemplating the progress of the change, lest they should not be
personally considered, and this alarm may have been heightened by the knowiedge
of the unreserved opinion of the reformists under the former government, that they
should be expressly excluded. In point of fact, I have reason to know that such an
2

INTRODUCTION OF THE LAND-RENTAL.

22li

alarm did exist, and it was not until I was confidentially informed by the Resident,
Mr. Hope, that delay would occasion danger, that I directed any decided measures
in the Eastern districts.

These circumstances, added to those detailed in my minute of the 11th, on
the introduction of the land-rental, and the happy result of the measures in the
peace and prosperity of the country, and the unqualified satisfaction of every class
of its inhabitants, will, I trust, remove from your Lordship’s mind any unfavourable
impressions regarding any apparent haste on the part of the government, and tend
to prove that the change which was effected was one of those great political mea-
sures only to be attended with success if adopted at the moment, and that the
e.xigency which dictated it was sufficient to justify the responsibihty taken by the
local authorities.

It was never in contemplation to diminish the emoluments of the Regents,
or to deprive them of their rank ; in the settlement which has been effected, the
whole of them have been hberally provided for. The only real difference, indeed,
between the former and present system in this regard has been, that in lieu of their
precarious, confined, and frequently taxed emoluments under the Dutch administra-
tion, has been substituted a certain, clear, and equitable allowance, which I can
confidently assert has proved agreeable to every one of them. The principle which
I adopted in settling the amount to be paid to each, was as follows : I visited each
district in person, explained myself to the Regent the nature and object of the
system to be introduced, and desired him to state the amount of his then emolu-
ments in every shape. I then fixed what he should in future receive, always at a
sum exceeding what he stated, and proportioned the payment in money or lands,
at his option. By this arrangement the emoluments of no one could be diminished,
and as they were still to be employed as the chief native officers in each district,
their rank and authority are fully upheld.

In such districts where it has not been thought necessary to separate the
collection of the revenues from the general administration, the Regents are employed
under the Resident, not only in the collection of the revenues, but are also placed
at the head of the judicial and police departments. Where this separation has been
made, there are both a Collector and Resident in the same district.”

This amended system was not one hastily digested and introduced, but was
originally arranged with Lord Minto previously to his quitting Java; it was deh-
berately considered for two years before it was introduced, and its practicability and
justice formed a principal point of enquiry in a commission, at the head of which
was Lieutenant-Colonel Mackenzie ; and so far from having subverted the just
rights and authority of individuals, or ahenated the minds of any class of the people
from the British government, it placed the rights of all classes on a foundation which
they never before possessed; and the tranquillity of the country, the increase ol

LETTER TO LORD .MINTO.

'2'2i

industry, improvement of revenue, and known attachment of the Javanese to the
system, proved that it was equally beneficial to the interests of government, and
conclusively tenchng to the industry and happiness of the extensive population of
the Island.

Extract of a Letter from Mr. Raffles to Lord Mhito.

“ Buitenzorg, Febrmry \^th, 1814.

* ^

“ Y om- Lordship is aware of the entire change of management which was con-
templated by me some time pre^^ous to your quitting India ; and although no official
notice has yet been taken of my minute on the subject transmitted to the Supreme
Government in July last, I have been able to collect a general opinion on the nature
of the settlement you would most approve, from the obser\'ations contained in your
confidential letter of the 22d November, in which you enter fully on the question of
the sale of lands, and the decided objection to perpetual settlement.

“ I had already completed my airangements for the land-rental when that letter
arrived ; but before I had put the finishing stroke to the judicial regulations, and the
general instructions to the Collectors, the Fifth Report of the House of Commons
fell into my hands : and you ^^^ll be happy to hear that on comparing what I had
done and what I had in contemplation, mth what seemed most approved by the
authorities in England, I found that I had exactly hit on a settlement which, wlfile it
was peculiarly applicable to Java, was considered the most advantageous one for
India generally. The principles of the rijotxoar settlement had suggested themselves,
^vithout my knoAvdng that they had been adopted elsewhere ; and although I may
not easily gain credit for the original design, the promoters and supporters of that set-
tlement will, no doubt, find a strong argument in its favour, from the circumstance of
its having been so early and so easily adopted in a foreign and distant colony.

The principles of the settlement which I have effected, as well as their apphca-
tion, are so fully stated in a minute which I have recorded on the subject, that I
cannot do better than forward it to you. In that minute I have first attempted to
prove the necessity and policy of the measure, which being established, an abstract
statement of the settlement which has been effected is considered ; and I have con-
cluded by observing on the tenures of land and the principles of the detailed system
of management which is in progress. May I request your Lordship’s opinion on what
has been done, and your suggestions on what ought to be attended to in future.
Whether Java remains under my control or not, yom* sentiments on the subject will
be most interesting to me. You \\ill observe that I have throughout considered my-
self as the agent acting under your Lordship’s instructions ; and I can assure you that
my ambition ^^^ll be gi'atified by an assurance that I have not failed in acting up to
your original design.

■ .-C‘

I • ^ ■'l''0'‘ ' * '■ ■ ’ ' ! ■' : ’ ,

*•' '■%■■

1 ■■ .'‘ 'V'.tifc" i- Vi MA ' 7 .’i<5,-^'

• Mia. - «r -

A.- vV / • • - • . ; - — ■

•»</>/, ' Mki ;'•■'■ ’ 'Ai,f

*• . * i , ' . •« 1 • * ‘

; I ■^ »l .

LETTER TO LORD MINTO.

225

“ I have said so much on the effects of the change, and they are so obvious on
general principles, that I should but intrude on your time by enlarging upon them
here. I cannot but look upon the accomplishment of this undertaking as the most
conspicuous and important under my administration ; and in its success or otherwise
I am willing to stand or fall. I need not tell your Lordship, that while it was in
agitation I had many an uneasy hour, and I suffered no small share of mental
anxiety and bodily fatigue while it was in progi'ess : but now that it has been happily
accomplished I am amply repaid for all. It was my lot personally to superintend the
settlement in every district ; the necessity of that personal superintendence obliged
me to leave Batavia at three several times, and during the last to be absent for three
months fi-oni the capital ; but my immediate presence in the different parts of the
Island could alone have concluded the settlement in so short a period, and it has had
the advantage of rendering me intimately acquainted with every thing. I have been
able to judge for myself throughout, and although I have not failed to avail myself of
all the talent and experience I could find, I may safely say that I have in no case
decided without a conviction brought home to my own mind that I was right.

The arrangements for the interior of the country being completed, my next
object wll be to simplify and modify the unwieldy establishments of the towns, par-
ticularly those in Batavia.

“ I have gone on as long as it was possible from day to day in the expectation
of a change of government, but I shall not feel myself satisfied in longer delaying
those radical reforms, so essential for the health and character of our government.
Much odium has already attached from the continuance of the Dutch institutions so
long, and I owe it to my own character, and to your Lordship, to render my admi-
nistration ‘ not only without fear, but without reproach.’

“ Next to the internal administration of the colony, I have to request your at-
tention to the interests of the Eastern Islands generally ; the kind caution which you
sent me regarding our pohcy,' induced me to think very seriously on all I had done,
and to weigh well the principles which I had laid down for my guidance. I became
the more confirmed in the first view which I took on the subject.

“ On the reception of the principles which I have in some cases adopted, and
in others recommended, on the two great points of our home and foreign administra-
tion, must depend the character of my government; to you, my Lord, I submit
them, in full confidence that they will be riewed with an indulgent eye.

“ These great questions being submitted to your Lordship’s judgment, I feel
myself relieved from all the anxiety which attached previous to my putting them to
paper. I consider them as now fairly before an impartial judge. I shall, unless
otherwise directed by a superior authority, continue to be guided by the principles
which I have laid down, and which have appeared to me, after the most deliberate
consideration, to be just and right.

G g

226

LETTER TO LORD MINTO.

I must now proceed to a point which I ought first to have adverted to. I
allude to the firm support which I have invariably received from Major-General
Nightingall. He is open and candid in his sentiments; regular and economical in
all his public plans, particularly the mihtary. I have reason to believe that he is
now planning a general revision and reduction of the military establishment ; he sees
the necessity of it, and I am led to hope that the period is not far distant when all
our financial difficulties will be removed.

“ The expenses in the military department do not fall short of three lacs of
rupees in each month. This must be paid in silver, and silver is not to be obtained
on any terms, except by bills on Bengal, and these with difficulty.

“ The great changes in Europe promise to create a demand for our colonial
produce, particularly the coffee ; but it will be some time before that belonging to
the government, or the produce under British administration, will come into play.
The larger quantity belonging to the capital must first he shipped off. The prize
agents have at last sold the whole, but it wiU be a long time before tonnage can be
obtained to carry it off : the coffee alone exceeds 150,000 piculs measures in pounds
still in store. Silver is as scarce as ever, if not decreasing in quantity: the colonists
are crying loudly for paper, but as they would no sooner possess it than run it down
to a discount, it cannot be issued; it will, therefore, be some time before Java is able
to support an extensive /orcigw military establishment.

“ I am happy to inform your Lordship that Banca thrives well under the
administration of Captain A’Court. A report upon the Island by Dr. Horsfield will
be sent to the Court of Directors by this opportunity, accompanied by specimens of
the mineralogy of the Island.

“ The intercourse with Japan has been opened, and we have received a very
advantageous retiwn in copper and camphor. I look forward to the possibility of
estabhshing a permanent British interest in that quarter; but I will reserve this
subject for another letter.

“ I am, &c. &c.

“ T. S. R.”

Extract of a private Letter from Mr. Raffles to the late Sir Hugh LigUs.

“ Feb. 13, 1814.

*****

“ Whatever may be the eventual fate of Java, whether it is decided that the
colony be attached to the Company’s possessions, or even given up at a peace to a
foreign power (which God forbid), the inhabitants of Java will have the happiness
to bless the day which placed them under such a system of government.

“ I trust that the subject will receive an indulgent consideration; and that I
may he honoured with the Court’s instructions for my future guidance.

LETTER TO SIR HUGH INGLIS.

227

In every reference which has latterly been made to the Supreme Government,
a hesitation in forming an opinion for the guidance of this government has been
evinced, arising from the uncertain and provisional tenure of the government as it
now stands ; and it is possible that the same hesitation may still exist with regard to
the two great questions now submitted, and it is on this account particularly that I
am induced to seek early instructions from Europe.

“ I have been forced to act, in every measure of importance, on my own
responsibility, not from the superior authorities being ignorant of the real interests
of the colony, but from a hesitation on their part to involve themselves with the
government which might be finally fixed.

“ I have invariably invited and courted the commands of the superior authori-
ties on questions which I considered of moment ; and necessity alone, and the con-
viction that the favourable moment for action might otherwise be lost, has induced
me to act expressly from my own judgment. Those only who have been in similar
cases, can feel the weight of responsibility which attaches.”

Referring to the suppression of piracy, Mr. Raffles writes thus to W. Petrie,
Esq. Governor of Prince of Wales’ Island: —

“ The principles of my suggestions for the suppression of piracy throughout
the Archipelago have been, that nothing can tend so effectually to the suppression
of piracy, to the encouragement and extension of lawful commerce, and to the
civilization of the inhabitants of the Eastern Islands, as affording a steady support
to the estabhshed native Sovereigns ; and assisting them in the maintenance of their
just rights, and authority over their several Chiefs, and along the shores dependant
upon their dominion.

“ It appears to me that the adoption of this principle, and the estabhshment of
British agents accordingly at the leading ports, would gradually change the bar-
barous and uncivilized life of the people who inhabit the shores of these Islands ;
and, united with the beneficial effects of the abohtion of the slave-trade, would, by
its effect of lessening the means of plunder, and securing the exertion of legal
superior authority, gradually tend to agricultural improvement, and to the pros-
perity and interior trade that naturally must follow.”

* *

“ Yoms, &c. &c.

« T. S. R.”

Mr. Raffles was anxious to diffuse the blessings of freedom throughout the
whole of the varied populations under his charge ; and, as the British Parhament had
at this time passed an act, which declared the slave-trade to be felony, he esta-

G g 2

228

TRANSFER OF JAVA TO THE DUTCH.

blished it as a colonial law : and it continues in force to this day, since it cannot
be repealed without express authority fi'om the mother-country.

The leading inhabitants possessing slaves, concurred with him in his efforts to
abolish this dreadful e\il throughout the Dutch possessions, the whole of the slaves
in the Island were registered, according to the forms of the West India Islands, —
with the ^^ew of giving them their liberty. The Bengal authorities, however, refused
their sanction, because, as they alleged, it had not been determined whether the go-
vernment of Java was to be -permanently administered by the King, or by the Company.

Soon after this determination was received, the face of public affairs entirely
changed in Europe ; the Dutch colonies were to be restored without reserve, or con-
dition in favor of this unfortunate class of beings. As a last struggle in their behalf,
Mr. Raffles effected the establishment of a society termed the Java Benevolent So-
ciety,” in the hope of interesting in this effort those who succeeded him.

In a letter to Lord Minto, dated July 2, 1814, Mr. Raffles, referring to the
transfer of the Island to the Dutch, says, “ If I were to believe that the Javanese
were ever again to be nded on the former principles of government, I should, in-
deed, quit Java with a heavy heart; but a brighter prospect is, I hope, before them.
Holland is not only re-established, but I hope renovated; her Prince has been edu-
cated in the best of all schools — adversity; and I will hope the people of Java will be
as happy, if not happier, under the Dutch than under the Enghsh. I say happier,
because Java will, in importance, be more to Holland than she could ever be to
England ; and the attention bestowed by the one country must naturally be gi-eater
than that likely to be afforded by the other.

“ Mr. Muntinghe has often reminded me that, when conversing with your
Lordship on the judicial regulations, you observed, it was not certain whether Eng-
land would retain permanent possessions in Java; hut in the mean time let ns do as
much good as we can. This we have done, and whatever change may take place, the
recollection can never be unpleasing.

“ While Java exists, the name of Minto will be revered, and thousands bless
the day on which you landed.”

The Dutch would appear never to have knowm, and certainly, as a nation, never
to have availed themselves of, all the advantages of this fine Island; and yet Java was
for many years the queen of the East, and the gi*eat financial support of Holland.
The hopes of Mr. Raffles upon this subject are thus given by himself : — “ For-
tunately for Java, a new era has arisen, and I have reason to expect that even in
the first years of the British possession, more will be known of its resources, and
more actually done for ensuring its permanent tranquillity and prosperity, than has
been effected throughout the whole period of the Dutch dominion.”

In all the attempts to introduce a better order of things, Mr. Raffles received
the warmest support from Mr. Cransen and Mr. Muntinghe, two Dutch gentlemen

TRADE WITH JAPAN.

229

of Batavia. In the first period of the British administration, necessarily attended
with many difficulties, the active penetration, the clear understanding, and the sound
judgment of Mr. Muntinghe, afforded most substantial and essential support.

In the introduction of the land-rental, Mr. Muntinghe took a distinguished part,
and his intimate acquaintance with the native character and institutions rendered his
assistance and co-operation of great value.

Mr. Muntinghe, as well as Mr. Cransen, although they both approved of and
supported the measure ultimately, were ai first alarmed, and apprehensive that it
would not succeed. The view taken of the subject by Mr. Raffles, the information
which he had collected, much of which was new even to Mr. Muntinghe, led him
eventually to form the sanguine expectation which he afterwards expressed, but it
will appear on reference to the minute which he recorded at the time, that his opi-
nion was given with great caution at first.

Mr. Raffles had long considered an intercourse with Japan an object of great
importance to the English nation. The peculiarity of the China trade — the mono-
poly of the tea — and the uncertainty with which it was attended, made him desirous
of opening the trade with Japan to the British merchant. To establish a British
Factory in Japan, and furnish a population of not less than twenty-five millions
with the staple commodities, and with the manufactures of Great Britain, was in
itself a great national object ; but it was of more particular consideration from its
relative importance to China, and the apparent facility of eventually superseding the
commerce which exists between that country and Japan.

From the year 1611, when the Dutch established commercial relations with
Japan, till 1671, (a period of sixty years) their speculations were unrestricted, and
their profits enormous. This they called their golden age of trade; they opened a
mine of wealth, and they thought it inexhaustible, as well as easily wrought. In
1640, the Company obtained a return in gold which yielded a profit of upwards of a
million of guilders. For some time previous to 1663, they procm'ed a return of
silver to the extent of two hundred chests, of one hundred pounds each, and it was
suggested that it would be desirable for as many chests of gold of the same weight
to be sent in future. These gold and silver ages of Japan commerce passed away,
and in the latter part of the seventeenth century commenced what the Dutch called
its brazen age, that is, its export in copper, which has ever since continued the
staple of the Japan market. Mr. Raffles resolved, therefore, to send a mission for
the purpose of transferring to the British government the trade exclusively enjoyed
by the Dutch (but which even with them was confined to two annual ships from the
port of Bata\'ia, and this had ceased for four years), and for opening to the manu-
facturers of Great Britain the supply of that extensive empire, in exchange for the
valuable commodities that might be received in return.

Two gentlemen were united in the mission : one of these had formerly resided

MISSION TO JAPAN.

2.J0

in the country as director of the Dutch factory, On their arrival they found the
Dutch commercial Director averse from acknowledging the British government, (the
transfer of Java being then made known to him,) and he even refused to dehver over
the Factory. But the commercial objects of the voyage were accomplished, the con-
tinuance of the trade to Japan was provided for, and ai-rangements were entered into
for putting matters in train to secure the introduction of the Enghsh, and the preju-
dices against them were in a great measure done away with. These had been very
much excited by an unfortunate occurrence with the Phaeton frigate in 1808, in
consequence of wiiich the Governor of Nangasaky and five principal officers to the
Prince of Tisung, who commanded the Imperial Guards, w'ere ordered to rip them-
selves up and die, an order that was usually obeyed, and the Prince himself was
spiked up for one hundred days in his house, without leave to have his beard shaved ;
fi-om this cause not only the Prince, but many of the principal Japanese, had sworn to
kill every Englishman that fell in their way.

Few opportunities were afforded of communicating with the natives, for which
they appeared anxious, and which was a matter of some importance, Nangasaky
being the sole point of contact of Japan with foreign nations, and the sentiments
entertained of foreigners being communicated directly to the capital through the
established official course, might be presumed to influence the opinion of the Gover-
nor of Nangasaky resident at Sulu, an officer wiio possesses the entire control of the
department, wiiich comprises every description of foreign relations, and who has a
considerable personal interest in the advantages derived fi'om the foreign trade of the
kingdom.

The Emperor w'as considered to have bestowed a very unusual mark of favour,
in condescending to accept the w'hole of the presents for his own use ; this was looked
upon as a veiy flattering testimony of regard.

The character of the Japanese, it was evident, had been subject to the misre-
presentation which the jealousy of the Dutch had industriously spread over the
whole of their Eastern possessions. They appeared to the Commissioners to be a
race of people remarkable for frankness of manner and disposition, for intelligence,
inquiry, and freedom from prejudice. They are in an advanced state of civilization,
in a climate wJiere European manufactures are almost a necessary comfort, and
w^here long use has accustomed them to many of its luxuries.

The limited extent of the trade latterly carried on by the Dutch was owing, in
no trifling degree, to the conduct of their officers, in sacrificing the pubfic interest to
a regard for their owm private emolument, which was effectually consulted by narrow-
ing the trade : as on that contracted footing, their means of advantage bore a greater
proportion to the whole extent, and the smaller number of officers required m con-
ducting it afforded them every advantage of concealment.

At such a distance from control, and himself the channel of communication to

LETTER TO LORD MINTO.

2.31

his superiors, the Dutch Resident, in common with the other public officers of the
Dutch government, receiving but a very limited salary, was left to his own discretion
to improve the advantages, of whatever nature, his place could be made to yield him,
a situation little calculated to command or obtain respect ; and the spectacle of the
representative of his nation, scrambling for every petty advantage, degraded the cha-
racter of his countrymen in the eyes of the Japanese, endowed as they are with no
common share of intelligence and discernment.

While Mr. Raffies was directing his attention to this subject, he addressed the
following to Lord Minto : —

“ Buitenzorg, Feb. 13, 1814.

“ My Lord,

“ I now proceed to detail to you the result of our communication with
Japan ; in which if we have not obtained complete success, we have at any rate
opened the door for future intercourse ; and, I trust, at no distant period, for the
permanent establishment of the British interests in that quarter.

“ Your Lordship wdU recollect the arrangement made for sending Dr. Ainslie,
and the very little hope of success entertained by the Supreme Government. Had
my views been confined to the continuance of the trade with Batavia on its former
footing, that object would have been without difficulty accomplished ; but I had
considered the subject more extensively, and as it might affect our interests perma-
nently. I was too well informed of the corruptions, and of the degraded state of
the Dutch factory, to suppose for a moment that it would be either creditable or
advantageous to carry on the trade on its former footing, or through Dutch agents.
The information we have now obtained is conclusive on this point ; and the very
peculiar circumstances, in which we find ourselves placed, dictate the necessity and
advantage of a more enlarged policy.

“ I shall enclose for your Lordship’s information some papers on the subject :
from these you will perceive the difficulties which attended the first communication,
and what has been done with a view to our future intercourse.

“ It is made clearly to appear, that the trade heretofore carried on with Bata-
via forms no criterion by which the extent and value of the trade is to be judged,
when a more liberal and upright policy is pursued. It was just as extensive as it
suited the personal interest of the Resident to make it ; but on a different system it
may be contemplated, that its importance will not fall short of that 'which is now
attached to China. The restrictions which exist do not arise so much from the
limitations and institutions of the Japanese, as from the nature and constitution ot
the Dutch factory : the degraded state of which would appear to have sunk the
Dutch character very low in estimation. The Japanese are a highly polished people,
considerably advanced in science, highly inquisitive and full of penetration.

“ There seems no reason to doubt the estimate of the population (twenty-five

232

LETTER TO LORD MINTO.

millions) ; nor the high character given of the country, and of the people, by the
early voyagers ; and on the score of religion and its prejudices, on which so much
has been industriously circulated by the Dutch, they are found to be simple and
inoffensive. Perhaps on further acquaintance, it may be found that the Dutch were
not inactive agents in the dreadful massacre of the Catholics. The inter]Dreters do
not hesitate to throw out insinuations to that effect akeady. The ceremony of
walking' over the cross, and the degrading ceremonies to which the Dutch have
represented themselves to be subject, are in a gi'eat measure fictitious ; and, \rith
the exception of the ceremony of obeisance by prostration to the emperor, imne-
cessaiy. The Dutch are only despised for the ceremonial which they perform to the
inferior Chiefs.

“ A British Factory once established, that of the Dutch would be superseded for
ever ; and all their misrepresentations and collusions would but serve to complete
the destmction of their interests, and the detestation with which their character
must be ^'iewed, when compared nith that of those who succeed them. The
demand for woollens and hardware, the staple manufactures of Great Britain, would
be unlimited. No prejudices are to be surmounted ; the climate and habits of the
people create a want Avhich it would be our interest to supply ; and the returns
might either be made in those articles which we now receive fi’om China, such as
tea, silk, and cloths, or in copper, corn, or oil, the staples of Japan. In a word,
Japan can furnish in retimi every article that is now obtained from China, of better
quality, and at a lower price. The fact of the principal export from China to Japan
being woollens speaks for itself ; and the observations of Dr. Ainshe tend to prove
that it would be an easy matter to supersede the ten Chinese junks now allowed to
trade annually.

“ Whether, therefore, we consider Japan separately, as affording an extensive
field for the commercial capital of Great Britain, as affording a copious outlet for
oiu staple manufactures, or in a political riew, as it may tend to the security of
the China trade, it is most important.

“ In Japan we should find all the advantages that could be derived from China
without any of the humihations, any of the imcertainties, any of the tricks, impo-
sitions, and difficulties, with which we are now hampered. As connected with the
present China trade, would not a knowledge of our influence at Japan render the
Chinese more humble ? they look up to the Japanese as a most superior race of
people, and the Japanese, in return, treat the highest Chinese \rith the greatest
indignity. Or should any accident put a stop to the trade at Canton, either par-
tially or m toto, would it not be of essential importance to be able to have recourse
to Japan ?

“ In every point in which I can view the subject, it appears to me most import-
ant; and as the acquisition of the trade, and the pennanent establishment of our

LETTER TO LORD MINTO.

2R3

interests, is almost \vilhin my gi'asp, I should consider it a dereliction of my public
duty did I not strain every nerve to effect the accomplishment of an object in
every way so inviting and so interesting. We are now no longer amused with the
speculative dreams of what Japan is supposed to be ; we have the evidence of a
British agent to speak to every fact ; and when his detailed Memoir is completed,
in which he purposes taking an historical review of the trade and intercourse with
Japan, I am confident it will be found that, in no instance, have we advanced what
cannot be clearly proved.

“ The question is of too much importance for your Lordship not to take a deep
interest in it. I acknowledge that I am anxious to accomphsh the task which I
have undertaken, and I appeal with confidence, but with the utmost sohcitude, to
your Lordship to assist me, by urging a quick reply, and an immediate and parti-
cular attention to my requisitions.

“ Java, my Lord, is yours, and every act of mine in its administration has
been considered as springing from your parental direction ; the British influence is
now spreading into every quarter of the Archipelago ; the civihzation of so large a
portion of the human race will, I hope, emanate from the just and wise principles on
which you established the British empire in the Eastern Seas. Japan is yet uncon-
nected with this conquest, and I have only to entreat that I may be empowered to
act as your agent.”

Mr. Raffles was disappointed in this hope. The Bengal Government did not
consider it a matter of importance, hut the subject was referred to the Court of
Directors. The Court, indeed, approved of Mr. Raffles’ plans, but by the time their
answer was received, Java was no longer under British authority ; and the favourable
moment, once passed over, could never be recalled, and it is believed the attempt
has never been renewed.

CHAPTER VIII.

Domestic affiictions — Tour of the Island for the benefit of his health — Native companions — Malay cha-
racter— Origin of their race — Their literature — Civilization — The Moluccas — Celebes — Expedition
to Bali and Macasar — People of Bali — Casts — Funeral ceremonies — Wives burning — Account of erup-
tion of Tomboro mountain — Prospects of the Restoration of Java to the Dutch — Letter to Lord Buck-
ingham on advantages of retaining it — Value of the Moluccas — Banco — Character of the East insular
tribes — New government proposed for Java — Merits of the individuals employed — His own labors —
Javanese language — Ancient sculpture and remains — Intention to write the History of Java — Review
of his administration in Java — Close of it.

At this period (1815) it pleased God to deprive Mr. Raffles of some of his nearest
and dearest connections as well as of many of his earliest and most intimate
friends ; and whilst he was mourning the death of these, he heard, to use his owm
words, “ that Lord Minto was snatched away from the embraces of his friends and
family, at the very moment he was to receive the only reward which in this world
could recompense his past labours — a calm and placid recollection of the successful
career he had run,” To an ardent enthusiastic mind, warmly alive to the brightest
feelings of friendship, and dehghting in all the closer ties of domestic life, such a
rapid succession of melancholy events, added to the anxiety and uncertainty of public
duty, was most trying ; and even Mr. Raffles’ buoyant spirit yielded to the pressure.
For a long time it was feared his life would fall a sacrifice to the keenness of his
feehngs. The moment he was able to attend to any business, he was recommended
to make an excursion over the Island, in the hope that change of scene would dispel
the weight of grief with which he seemed to be overwhelmed.

During this tour he found employment for his active mind, in visiting all the
remains of antiquity in the country, and collecting information connected with its
early history, with which Em-opeans were previously unacquainted. These materials
were, at a future period, published in his History of Java.

But though his mind was thus occupied, his health derived no material advan-

* Death of Mrs. Raffles. Mr. Raffles married, in the year 1805, the widow of W. Fancourt, Esq. of
Lanark, North Britain.

MALAY CHARACTER.

235

tage from the journey*. It was thought advisable that he should leave Buitenzorg,
and remove to Ciceroa, a more elevated situation. He took with him several of his
staff, and a party of natives, whose good sense and intelligence had attracted his
notice, and whom he had brought with him from the eastern part of the Island.

With these last he passed the greater part of every morning and evening in
reading and translating, with the greatest rapidity and ease, the different legends
with which they furnished him, particularly the Brata Yudha. His translation of
this singular and curious poem will be found in his History of Java. It was a work
requiring considerable labour and time ; but it was a common remark with him, that
if a man were fully and seriously determined on accomplishing any undertaking
'within human power at all, he would succeed by diligence and attention. At this
time he rose early, and commenced business before breakfast ; immediately after this
he went through the official duties of the day ; after which he devoted the remainder
of the morning, till dinner-time, to the natives who were living with him. He dined
at four o’clock, and took a walk for the sake of his health in the evening ; and,
until he retired to rest, he was occupied in reading, translating, and compihng. But
his strength and health did not return, perhaps from his not being able to amuse his
mind without over-exertion and too much application.

The foDowing are letters which he wrote at this period :

To Mr. Marsden from Mr. Raffles.

“ January Is#, 1815.

“ My Dear Sir,

5ie Jif ije * * *

“ The Malays are a people by no means far advanced in civilization ; nor in
their traditions, regarding their origin, do they trace back to a far distant date. In
common with other nations in a similar state of civilization, their ideas may not be
very numerous, nor their abstract notions very correct ; but their meaning and their
attention to passing events are remarkable. Their generally wandering and preda-
toiy life induces them to follow the fortune of a favourite Chief, and to form them-
selves into a variety of separate clans. They may not be inaptly compared, as far as
their habits and notions go, to some of the borderers in North Britain, not many
centuries ago. The traditions regarding their early history are far less blended with
the marvellous than the mighty feats of Fingal ; and if in their attempts to account
for their origin, we find a mixture of mythological fable, this surely is not of itself
sufficient to invalidate what may otherwise be considered as matter of fact.

“ In relating any event which has recently passed, a Malay is always peculiarly
simple and clear. The following character of a Malay, as a man, will be found tole-
rably correct :

H h 2

236

MALAY CHARACTER.

“ ^ The Malay, living in a country where nature grants (almost without labour)
all his wants, is so indolent, that when he has rice, nothing will induce him to work.
Accustomed to wear arms fi’om his infancy, to rely on his own prowess for safety,
and to dread that of his associates, he is the most correctly polite of all savages, and
not subject to those starts of passion so common to more civihzed nations. But
with all his forbearance, he is feelingly ahve to insult ; submits with a bad gi*ace to
the forms to wiiich, in a civilized life, he finds himself obhged to conform ; and w^hen
these are either numerous or enforced with supercilious contumely, or the delays of
office, he flies to the w^oods, where, with a little rice boiled in a bamboo, eaten with
sprouts of the suiTounding trees as a leaf, he feels he is free.

“ Example will gradually generate w^ants ; and w'ants, industry, and a sense of
safety supersede the use of arms, and generate other manners.

“ That strong predilection w hich has been observed in the natives of the Malay
peninsula and suiTOunding countries, for the English, will soon cease on their more
intimate connection, if treated with the contumely common in India. This results
from the independant spirit of the people, who value that independance beyond any
consideration of advantage, if accompanied with what they deem insult.

“ The consequence of such behaviour is first felt by individuals who interest
their famihes, a number of families interest a clan, a number of clans a nation, and
in their revenges they await with patience for years, when they seldom fail to re-
taliate, and that often on the innocent.

“ As a scholar, it is allowed that the only knowledge of which he is inclined to
boast, is derived from the Arabs. That literary compositions should bear the stamp
of Mahomedan direction will, therefore, not be surprising ; but it will be observed,
that in poetry, and in every essay from the heart, allusion is only made to natural
objects, and the earlier fables of Hindu mytholog)^ ; while in historical and diy com-
positions of the head, these more natural feelings usually give way to Mahomedan
notions. This distinction is easily discernable by any person in the least acquainted
with Malayan literature, for literature I must call it.

“To prove that the traditions and historical notices of the Malays are not alto-
gether devoid of interest, would require little more than the publication of a fair
translation of some of their more popular performances. I hope, at no very distant
date, some of these may appear.

“ The Indian Islands appear to have been veiy fertile in alphabets ; they are all,
with the exception of the characters now used by the Malays, of Hindu origin. It
was long the idea that Sumatra was the Tapro Bana of the ancients.

“ The general opinion entertained regarding the origin of the different native
establishments in the Indian Archipelago, and which is supported by tradition and
native history, and by the traces of character, language, and habits discernable
among the different nations at the present day, is, that the Indian Islands were first

ORIGIN OF THE MALAY NATIONS.

•237

peopled from the continent of Asia ; and the country lying between the Gulf of Siam
and China was, in all probability, the main-land from whence the first settlers
emigrated.

“ This probability is supported by the contiguity of this part of the continent to
the Islands ; its extensive population ; the intimate connection which appears in the
earliest time to have existed between tbe principal states of the Archipelago and the
comitries of Siam, Laos and Champa ; the similarity which still exists in many of
the customs and usages, and in the languages of the less civilized tribes in the
Eastern Seas.

‘‘ At what period this emigration first took place, is at present beyond rational
conjectiu'e ; but a more intimate acquaintance with the Eastern Peninsula of India
may hereafter throw some light upon the subject.

If the original inhabitants are thus admitted to have issued from this part of
the Continent, it will be no difficult matter to account for the resemblance of the
Malay to the Tartar, and the similarity which is found to exist in all the genuine
languages of the Islands.

“ The next point is to trace from whence those rude and savage tribes received
their first rudiments of civilization ; whether from Egypt or the colonies established
by that power, or at a subsequent period from an Indian country, may be matter of
doubt, but that they were early visited by traders from the west of India seems
established on incontrovertible evidence.

“ The Javanese annals do not trace the first coming of the people from Western
India much beyond a thousand years back, but tradition justifies us in believing,
that long before Java was civilized, the inhabitants of the more Eastern Islands, and
particularly the Moluccas, had considerably emerged from a state of barbarism.
This tradition is strongly confirmed by the probability that the rich productions of
the Spice Islands would have been the first to excite the cupidity of Indian traders,
in the same manner as they were subsequently the first to attract the attention of
European speculators ; and by the circumstance of the acknowledged antiquity and
superiority, even at this day, of the language spoken in the Moluccas.

“ It is an extraordinary fact, that while the question regarding the country from
whence the Malayan tribes first issued, should be confined almost exclusively to
Smnatra and the Peninsula of Malacca, the highest Malay is admitted to be spoken
in the Moluccas ; in proof of this fact, it is only necessary to refer to the Malayan
version of the Scriptures, printed by the Dutch government, which is universally
allowed to be composed in the best language, and in the language of the Moluccas,
but to be scarcely intelligible to ordinary readers belonging to the more Western
Isles.

When the intercourse between Western India and the Eastern Islands

ORIGIN OF THE MALAYAN NAME.

•23vS

declined, or when it was first replaced by the traders from Arabia, we are not cor-
rectly informed.

“ In Java the Indians would appear to have established their principal colony :
hut traces of their communications \nth the other Islands may be easily found, par-
ticularly in Sumatra, and in the Celebes, where the written characters now in use
bear the e^ddent stamp of Sanscrit origin. From this intimate connection between
Western India and all the Islands of the Archipelago, we may easily account for the
extensive introduction of Sanscrit teiTns into the languages of the Islanders, and
to the estabhshment of the earliest independent states of which tradition makes
mention.

Thus the sovereignties of the Moluccas, of Celebes, of Java, and of Sumatra,
may have been first established, while colonies from these, in process of time, ex-
tended the habits of cirilization to the coasts of Borneo, the adjacent Islands, and
the Peninsula of Malacca.

“ Before the Eastern Seas were visited by European navigators, the Moluccas
had fallen under the sway of the Chieftains of Celebes, and the people had lost much
of that importance of character for which in earlier times they had been distinguished.
Yet there is reason to believe that many of the petty states in the Eastern part of
the Archipelago and in the South Seas were first planted by colonies fr'om the
Moluccas.

“ But it was principally from the Island of Celebes at a subsequent period that
colonies were throv\Ti out : these peculiar and enterprising people appear to have ex-
tended their infiuence at one period, so as to have included within the range of their
authority the Philippines on one side, and the countries in the Straits of Malacca on
the other. Acheen and the Peninsula of Malacca were early visited by adventurers
from Celebes ; audit was in one of these distant expeditions that the people of
Celebes are said to hav^e established the kingdom of Menangkabu in Sumatra, and
to have given the designation of Malaya to the people now so called.

“ The people of Celebes have a tradition that when their celebrated Chief,
Sawira Ceding, was exploring the Western countries, he put into one of the rivers
in Sumatra, where a considerable part of his followers deserted him, and mnning
into the interior, connected themselves with the people of the country, and established
the kingdom of Menangkabu. These people were for the most part of the lowest
class, employed by Savrira Ceding in cutting fire-wood and procuring water for his
fieet, and are represented by him to have been captives from the Moluccas, or
savages from the interior of Celebes, and have the term Malaya, fr'om Mala, to bring,
and aya, wood : Malaya, a wood-bringer, or as we should say a woodcutter, and to
this day the people of Celebes look down with the greatest contempt on a Malaya,
and are in the habit of repeating the origin of the name.

MALAYAN LANGUAGES.

239

“ The people of Celebes have from time immemorial, been distinguished among
the Eastern nations, for their spirit in commerce in maritime enterprise, at a period
when the more peaceable inhabitants of Java were diligently cultivating the soil, and
confining their \dews to domestic concerns. This entei-prising people will be found
to have established themselves in almost every other part of the Archipelago.

“ The tradition above noticed regarding the origin of the Malays, is supported
by the very great similarity of language, of features, of character, of dress, and of
habits, as observable at the present day : the Malay resembles the inhabitant of
Celebes very closely, both in his features, and fonn, in his moral character, his dress,
and his occupations; but in every thing he is his inferior — a lower caste of the
same character and people.

“ It was probably during this period, that the Malay countries first imbibed
that portion of Javanese literature which is to be found in their books; but the
principal accession which the Malay and other languages derived from the Sanscrit,
was in all probabihty received direct at a much earlier date ; and this supposition
will account for the Sanscrit words which are used by the Malays being, in some in-
stances, much purer than those forming part of the Javanese language.

The higher language of Java is almost entirely Sanscrit ; but the termination
of the words would appear in many instances to have assumed an arbitrary form. In
the Malayan language, the Sanscrit words are not subjected to this arbitrary or pecu-
liar form, and when words of this description, of which there are many, are engrafted
on the jVlalayan, the Malays invariably term them B'husa Java, or the Javanese
language.

“ At the period when the influence of Java was thus extending itself over the
Archipelago, it was arrested in its progress, by the rapid establishment of the rehgion
of Mahomet, and Java itself had scarcely recovered from the shock of conversion to
this faith, when the Europeans found their way round the Cape of Good Hope.

“ To bring forward aU the evidence that could be adduced in support of the
above general conclusions would swell this,” &c. &c. * * * * * * ^

To Mr. Marsden,

“ Buitenzorg, Feb, 7, 1815.

“ My Dear Sir,

I have first had the pleasure to receive your kind letter of the 21st of
August, and lest any attempt to bring up the long arrears standing against me,
might delay my reply beyond the period fixed for the departure of the Alcyon, I
proceed at once to notice the points alluded to in this letter, without particular re-
ference to your former communication.

“ I am ashamed to acknowledge that the accusation of not wnting oftener hes

EXPEDITION TO BALI AND MACASAR.

•210

against me. I can only plead in my excuse, the heavy and unremitting duties of
my public situation, and recently afflictions which have befallen me in private life.
I have not, however, been inattentive to your kind suggestions ; and although my
communications have been sparing, my collections have been gradually increasing.

^ ^ ^ *

“ I have lately sent an expedition under General Nightingall, to Bali and Ma-
casar ; the information obtained from Bali is briefly as follows : — The natives are
divided into four castes, Braniana, Satriga, Wisya, and Sudi’a.

“ The Bramanas are of two classes, Bramana Sava and Bramana Budu ; the
former prevails. The Budus eat of all food, even dogs, and it is said by the Bra-
manas (their enemies) that they eat rice off a coi'pse which has been kept several
months. The Bramanas do not perform pubhc religious offices, the Sudras have
charge of the temples ; there are rude images among them and in these temples,
they worship chiefly tutelar deities of places; a Bramana is respected according
to his age and learning, he cannot eat from the hands of a younger. The Bramana
does not worship idols. They say the four castes issued from the mouth, breast,
l)elly, and feet of Brahma.

“ A Bramana may marry into another caste, the offspring are called Bujanga,
a distinct class. There are outcasts called Chandalas — potters, dyers, distillers,
butchers, and sellers of toddy.

“ The Bramanas have care of law and religion ; they try the sovereign ; can
order a second trial, but not alter the decision. They cannot serve in any mean
condition, nor are they bound to make obedience to any other caste or class.

“ The Siva Brahmins say nine-tenths of them originally emigrated from Java,
about the time of the destruction of INIujapahit.

“ The Budus, who are very few, occupying only three districts, reckon the
commencement of their era (which is 1735,) corresponding \rith the year of Christ
814, as the period at which they came.

“ The Rajahs are Sadrayas or Wisayu ; after death the coi*pse is kept a long
time, by the higher classes above a year, by the lower at least two months ; the
dead bodies are preserved by daily fumigation with benzoin, &c. ; they are then
bm’ned, except children who have not shed their teeth, and persons dying of small-
pox, who are buried immediately. The widow of the Sadraya and Wisayu classes
generally burns herself with her husband’s coi’pse, this, however, is voluntary, and
not the wives only, but concubines, and female slaves also, sacrifice themselves on
such occasions. The father of the present Rajah of Balibing was burned with seventy-
four women. It is customary with some classes to throw the dead bodies into
the sea.

“ The era is denominated Isahia, each month has thirty-five days, the year
four hundred and twenty.

ACCOUNT OF THE ERUPTION FROM THE TOMBORO MOUNTAIN. 241

“ The Brahmins do not eat beef, or drink milk, the latter, however, is not pro-
scribed. Hogs-flesh is the common food of the Buluse.

“ The Bali language is written in the Javanese character, but the language is
different. Balinese books of law and religion are numerous. I have set further
enquiries on foot. I entirely concur with you in thinking a grammar and dictionary
of the Javanese language an important desideratum, and at one time I was in hope
works of the kind would have been attempted.

I can, however, assure you that however reluctantly I may attempt a work
of the kind, I shall go home, whenever I leave this, prepared with the materials for
breaking the ice. My vocabularies are extensive, and I have some idea of the gram-
matical construction, but the words are so numerous and the phraseology so various,
that it is one of the most difficrdt languages I ever met with ; but I wall, at all events,
keep sufficient materials by me to work upon, should no other better qualified
person undertake the task.

“ In my late affliction I found it necessary to take a trip to sea, and if the wea-
ther had permitted, it was my intention to have made an incursion into the Lampong
country. We were, however, prevented from landing, and all I could do for you
was to correct the names of places in the map ; a copy also of the best Dutch map
of Sumatra is now in hand for you, and shall be forwarded by an early opportunity.
General and Mrs. Nightingall still remain with us, his appointment for Bombay not
having arrived ; they are now residing with me at Buitenzorg, and I shall part
wdth them with a heavy heart whenever it may be necessary for them to leave Java.’’

Mr. Raffles gives the following account of the eruption from the Tomboro
Mountain, in the Island of Sambawa, which took place at this time, (the 11th and
12th of April, 1815,) one of the most violent and extraordinary of such explosions
yet knowm.

"To preserve an authentic account of the violent and extraordinary eruption of
the Tomboro Mountain on Sambawa, in April last, I required from the several Re-
sidents of districts on this Island a statement of the circumstances that occurred
within their knowledge, and from their replies, the following narrative is collected ;
it is, perhaps, incomplete until some further accounts are received of the immediate
effects upon the mountain itself; but the progress is sufficiently knovm to render in-
teresting a present account of a phenomenon which exceeds any one of a similar
description on record. The first explosions were heard on this Island in the even-
ing of the 5th of April, they were noticed in every quarter, and continued at intervals
until the followang day. The noise was, in the first instance, almost universally at-
tributed to distant cannon ; so much so, that a detachment of troops were marched
from Djocjocarta, in the expectation that a neighbouring post was attacked, and
along the coast boats were in two instances dispatched in quest of a supposed ship
in distress.

'U2 ACCOUNT OF THE ERUPTION FROM THE TOMBORO MOUNTAIN.

“ On the following morning, however, a slight fall of ashes removed all doubt
as to the cause of the sound, and it is worthy of remark, that as the eruption con-
tinued, the sound appeared to be so close, that in each district it seemed near at
liand; it was attributed to an emption from the ISIarapi, the Gunung Kloot or the
Gunung Bromo.

“ From the 6th, the sun became obscured : it had every appearance of being
enveloped in fog, the weather was sultry, and the atmosphere close and still ; the
sun seemed shorn of its rays, and the general stillness and pressure of the atmosphere
foreboded an earthquake. This lasted several days, the explosions continued occa-
sionally, but less \'iolently, and less frequently than at first. Volcanic ashes also
began to fall, but in small quantities; and so slightly as to be hardly perceptible in
the western districts.

“ This appearance of the atmosphere remained with Kttle variation, until the
10th of April, and till then it does not appear that the volcano attracted much ob-
servation, or was considered of greater importance than those which have occa-
sionally burst forth in Java. But on the evening of the 10th, the emptions were
heard more loud, and more frequent from Cheribon eastward; the air became dark-
ened by the quantity of falling ashes, and in several situations, particularly at Solo
and Rembang, many said that they felt a tremulous motion of the earth. It is uni-
versally remarked in the more eastern districts, that the explosions were tremendous,
continuing frequently dmdng the 11th, and of such \dolence as to shake the houses
perceptibly ; an unusually thick darkness was remarked all the following night, and
the greater part of the next day. At Solo, on the 12th, at four P.M., objects were not
visible at 300 yards distance. At Gresie, and other districts more eastward, it was
dark as night the greater part of the 12th of April, and this saturated state of the
atmosphere lessened as the cloud of ashes passed along and discharged itself on its
way. Thus the ashes, which were eight inches deep at Banyuwangi, were but two
in depth at Sumanap, and still less in Gresie ; and the sun does not seem to have
been actually obscured in any district westward of Samarang.

“No description of mine, however, can so well express what happened, as
the extracts from the reports at several places ; the remarks there made are appli-
cable also to all the other districts, only in a lesser degi'ee, as the same became
more distant trom the cause of the phenomena.”

Extract of a Letter from Gresie.

“ I woke on the morning of the 12th, after what seemed to be a very long-
night, and taking my watch to the lamp, found it to be half-past eight o’clock ; I
immediately went out, and found a cloud of ashes descending ; at nine o’clock no
day-light ; the layer of ashes on the terrace before my door at the Kradenan mea-
sures one line in thickness ; ten A. INI. a faint glimmering of light can now be per-

ACCOUNT OF THE ERUPTION FROM THE TOMBORO MOUNTAIN.

243

ceived over-head : half-past ten, can distinguish objects fifty yards distant ; eleven,
A.M. breakfasted by candle-light, the birds begin to chirrup as at the approach of
day ; half-past eleven, can discover the situation of the sun through a thick cloud
of ashes ; one, P.M. found the layer of ashes one line and a half thick, and mea-
sui'ed in several places with the same results ; three, P.M. the ashes have increased
one-eighth of a line more ; five, P.M. it is now lighter, but still I can neither read
nor ^\Tite without candle. In travelling through the district on the 13th, the
appearances were described with very httle variation from my account, and I am
universally told that no one remembers, nor does their tradition record so tremen-
dous an eruption. Some look upon it as typical of a change, of the re-estabhshment
of the former government ; others account for it in an easy way, by reference to the
superstitious notions of their legendary tales, and say that the celebrated Nyai Loroh
Kidul has been man’^dng one of her children, on which occasion she has been firing
salutes from her supernatm’al artillery. They call the ashes the dregs of her
ammunition.”

Extract of a Letter from Sumanap.

“ ^ On the evening of the 10th the explosions became very loud ; one in parti-
cular shook the town, and they were excessively quick, resembhng a heavy can-
nonade. Towards evening, next day, the atmosphere thickened so much, that by
four o’clock it was necessary to light candles. At about seven, P.M., of the 11th,
the tide being about ebb, a rush of water from the bay occasioned the river to rise
four feet, and it subsided again in about fom* minutes ; the bay was much agitated
about this time, and was illuminated from a northerly direction. On the Island of
Sahotie, fire was seen distinctly at a short distance to the south-east. The uncom-
mon darkness of this night did not break till ten and eleven, A.M. of the 12th, and
it could hardly be called day-hght all day. Volcanic ashes fell in abundance, and
covered the earth about two inches thick, the trees also were loaded with them.’ ”

Extract of a Letter from Banyuwangi.

“ ^ At ten, P.M. of the first of April, we heard a noise resembling a cannonade,
which lasted, at intervals, till nine o’clock next day ; it continued at times loud, at
others resembling distant thunder; but on the night of the 10th, the explosions
became tndy tremendous, fi'equently shaking the earth and sea riolently. Towards
morning they again slackened, and continued to lessen gradually till the 14th, when
they ceased altogether. On the morning of the 3d of April, ashes began to fall like
fine snow ; and in the course of the day they were half-an-inch deep on the gi’ound.
From that time till the 11th the air was constantly impregnated with them to such
a degi'ee, that it was unpleasant to stir out of doors. On the morning of the 1 1th,
the opposite shore of Bah was completely obscured in a dense cloud, which gradually

I i 2

24 i ACCOUNT OF THE ERUPTION FROM THE TOMBORO MOUNTAIN.

approached the Java shore, and was dreary and ten-ific. By one, P.M. candles were
necessary ; by four, P.M. it was pitch-dark ; and so it continued until two o’clock of
the afternoon of the 12th, ashes continuing to fall abundantly : they were eight
inches in depth at this time. After two o’clock it began to clear up ; but the sun
was not visible till the 14th, and during this time it was extremely cold. The ashes
continued to fall, but less violently, and the greatest depth, on the loth of April,
was nine inches.

“ All reports concur in stating, that so violent and extensive an eruption has
not happened within the memory of the oldest inhabitants, nor within tradition.
They speak of similar effects in a lesser degree, w'hen an eruption took place from
the volcano of Carang Assum, in Bah, about seven yeai-s ago ; and it was at first
supposed that this mountain w^as the seat of eruption in the present instance. The
Balinese attributed the event to a recent dispute between the tw'o Rajahs of Bah
Baliling, which terminated in the death of the yomiger Rajah, by order of his
brother.

“ The haziness and heat of the atmosphere, and occasional fall of volcanic ashes,
continued until the 14th, or, in some parts of the Island, until the 17th of April;
they were cleared away universally by a hea\y fall of rain, after w'hich the atmosphere
became clear and more cool ; and it w^ould seem that this seasonable relief prevented
much injury to the crops, and removed an appearance of epidemic disease, which w'as
beginning to prevail. This w^as especially the case at Bata^aa, w'here, for the two or
three days preceding the rain, many persons w'^ere attacked with fever. As it w^as,
how^ever, no material injury w'as felt beyond the districts of Banjniw'angi. The cid-
tivators every w^here took the precaution to shake off the ashes from the growing
})addy as they fell, and the timely rain removed an apprehension very generally
entertained, that insects would have been generated by the long continuance of the
ashes at the root of the plant. At Rembang, where the rain did not fall till the 17th,
and the ashes had been considerable, the crops w'ere somew'hat injured. In Gresie
the injury was less ; but in Banymvangi and the adjacent part of the Island, on
which the cloud of ashes spent its force, the injury was more extensive : 126 horses
and eighty-six head of cattle also perished, chiefly from want of forage during a
month from the time of the eruption.

“ The local effects of this emption have been ascertained by Lieutenant Owen
Phillips, who proceeded to Sumbawa for this purpose, and was charged to distribute
to the sufferers a supply of rice, dispatched by this government on hearing of the
extreme distress to which the inhabitants of Sumbawa had been reduced.

The Noquedah of a Malay prow from Timor had reported that on the 11th
of April, while at sea, far distant from Smnbawa, he was in utter darkness ; that on
his passing the Tomboro mountain at a distance of five miles, the low^er part of it
was in flames, and the upper part covered with clouds ; he went on shore for water.

ACCOUNT OF THE ERUPTION FROM THE TOMBORO MOUNTAIN.

215

and found the gi'ound covered with ashes to the depth of three feet, several large
prows thrown on the land by a concussion of the sea, and many of the inhabitants
dead from famine. On lea\ing Sumbawa, he experienced a strong current to the west-
ward, and fell in with gi*eat quantities of cinders floating on the sea, through which
he with difficulty forced his w^ay ; he was surrounded by them the whole of the night
of the 12th, and says they formed a mass of two feet thick, and several miles in ex-
tent. This person states that the volcano of Carang Assam in Bali, was in com-
motion at the same time ; and it appears from the several reports, that a greater
rumbling than usual w'as heard in the mountains in the Rembang district, as w^ell as
in the Gunnug Gede in the Preanger Regencies, but after a strict enquiry, it does
not appear that any simultaneous movement or connection could be traced on this
occasion along the chain of Volcanic Mountains running east and west in Java.’”

The Honorable Company’s ciaiizer Benares, was at this time at Macasar,
and the following official report, received from the Commander of this vessel, con-
firms the circumstances ah'eady related.

“ ^ On the 5th of April, a firing of cannon was heard at Macasar, continuing at
intervals all the afternoon, and apparently coming from the southward: — towards
sun-set the reports seemed to have approached much nearer, and sounded hke
hea\y guns, with occasional slight reports between. Supposing it to be occasioned
by pirates, a detachment of troops was embarked on board the Honorable Company’s
ciaiizer Benares, and sent in search of them, but after examining the neighboming
Islands, returned to Macasar on the 8th, without having found any cause of the
alarm. During the night of the 11th, the firing was again heard, but much low er,
and tow'ards morning the reports were in quick succession, sometimes like three or
four guns fired together, and so heavy that they shook the ship, as they did also the
houses in Fort Rotterdam. Some of them seemed so near, that I sent people to the
mast-heads to look out for the flashes, and weighed at day-dawn, proceeding to the
southward to ascertain the cause. The morning of the 12th was extremely dark and
low'ering, particularly to the southward, and S.W., the wind light, and from the east-
wm*d. At eight A.M. it w^as apparent that some extraordinary occurrence had taken
place ; the face of the heavens to the southward and westward had assumed a dark
aspect, and it was much darker than before the sun rose ; as it came nearer it as-
sumed a dusky red appearance, and spread fast over every part of the heavens ; by ten
it was so dark that a ship could hardly be seen a mile distant; by eleven the whole
of the heavens were obscured, except a small space near the horizon to the east-
w^ard, the quarter from which the wind came. The ashes now" began to fall in
show"ers, and the appearance was altogether truly awful and alarming. By noon
the light that had remained in the eastern part of the horizon disappeared, and
complete darkness covered the face of day. This continued so profound dirring the
remainder of the day, that I never saw any thing to equal it in the darkest night ;

246 ACCOUNT OF THE ERUPTION FROM THE TOMBORO MOUNTAIN.

it was impossible to see your hand when held up close to your eyes. The ashes
fell ^\^thout intermission throughout the night, and were so light and subtile, that
notmthstanding the precaution of spreading awnings fore and aft as much as pos-
sible, they per\'aded every part of the ship.

“ ‘ At six o’clock the next morning it continued as dark as ever, but began to
clear about half-past seven; and about eight o’clock objects could be faintly dis-
cerned upon deck. From this time it began to get lighter very fast.

“ ‘ The appearance of the ship when day-hght returned was most singular ; every
part being covered with the falling matter : it had the appearance of calcined pumice
stone, nearly the colour of wood-ashes ; it lay in heaps of a foot in depth in many
parts of the deck, and several tons weight of it must have been thrown overboard ;
for though an impalpable powder or dust when it feU, it was, when compressed, of
considerable weight ; a pint measure of it weighed twelve ounces and three-quarters,
it was perfectly tasteless, and chd not affect the eyes with painful sensation, had a
faint burnt smell, but nothing like sulphur ; when mixed with water it fonned a
tenacious mud difficult to be washed off.

^ By noon of the 12th, the sun made his appearance again, hut very faintly,
through the dusky atmosphere ; the air being still charged with ashes, which con-
tinued to fall hghtly all day.

“ ‘ From the 12th to the 15th, the atmosphere remained thick and dusky, the
rays of the sun scarce able to penetrate through it, with httle or no wind the whole
time.

“ ‘ On the morning of the 13th left Macasar, and on the 18th made Sumbawa;
on approaching the coast passed through gi'eat quantities of pumice-stone floating
on the sea, wiiich had at first strongly the appearance of shoals, so much so that I
sent a boat to examine one, which, at the distance of less than a mile, I took for a
dry sand-bank, upwards of three miles in length, with black rocks in several parts
of it. It proved to be a complete mass of pumice-stone floating on the sea, some
inches in depth, with great numbers of trees and logs, that appeared to be burnt
and shivered as if by lightning. The boat had much difficulty in pulling through it,
and until we reached the entrance of Bima Bay, the sea was literally covered with
shoals of pumice and floating timber.

“ ‘ On the 19th arrived in Bima Bay, in coming to an anchor grounded on the
bank of Bima Town, shoaling suddenly from eight fathoms ; hove off again as the
tide was rising. The anchorage at Bima must have altered considerably, as where
w^e grounded the Ternate cruizer lay at anchor in six fathoms a few months before.
The shores of the bay had a most dreary appearance, being entirely covered with
ashes.’

“ From the account of the Resident of Bima, it appears that the eruption
proceeded from the Tomboro mountain, situated about forty miles to the westward

ACCOUNT OF THE ERUPTION FROM THE TOMBORO MOUNTAIN. 217

of Bima. On the night of the 11th, the explosions he represents to have been
most terrific, and compares them to the report of a heavy mortar close to his ear.
The darkness commenced about seven in the morning, and continued twelve hom-s
longer than it chd at Macasar. The fall of ashes was so heavy as to break the
Resident’s house in many places, and render it uninhabitable, as well as many other
houses in the town. The wind was still during the whole time, but the sea greatly
agitated, its waves rolled in upon the shore, and filled the lower parts of the houses
wfith water a foot deep. Every prow and boat was forced from the anchorage and
driven on shore, and several large prows are now lying a considerable distance above
high-water-mark.

‘ On the 22d, the Dispatch country ship arrived in the bay from Amboyna.
It appears that this vessel had mistaken a bay to the westward, called Sampo or
Sangin Bay, for Bima, and had gone into it ; the Rajah of this place informed the
officer that the whole of the country was entirely desolated, and the crops destroyed.
The town of Sangin is situated about four or five leagues to the S. E. of the Tom-
boro mountain ; the officer found great difficulty in landing in the bay, a consider-
able distance from the shore being completely filled up with pumice-stones, ashes,
and logs of timber ; the houses appeared beaten down and covered with ashes.

“ ‘ Understanding that messengers had been sent into the interior, I waited till
the evening of the 22d, and as they had not then returned, owing, as was sup-
posed, to having found the country impassable, I left the bay at eleven o’clock that
night, and the next day was off the Tomboro mountain ; in passing it at the distance
of six miles the summit was not visible, being enveloped in clouds of smoke and
ashes. The sides were smoking in several places, apparently from lava which had
flown down them not being cooled, several streams had reached the sea ; a very
considerable one to the N.N.W. of the mountain, the course of which was plainly
discernible, both from the black colour of the lava contrasted with the ashes on
each side of it, and the smoke arising from every part of it. The Tomboro Moun-
tain in a direct line from Macasar is about 217 nautical miles distance.’

It has been ascertained that these eruptions of the Tomboro Mountain were
heard through the whole chain of the Molucca Islands. The Honourable Com-
pany’s cruizer Teignmouth was lying at anchor at Ternate on the 5th April ;
between six and eight, P.M., several very distinct reports like heavy cannon were
heard in the S.W. quarter, which was supposed to be a ship in the offing, in conse-
quence of which the Resident sent a boat round the Island to ascertain if it
was so. The next morning, however, the boat returned without seeing any vessel in
the offing, and the conclusion then drawn was that it might be occasioned by
the bursting of some volcanic mountain in that quarter. Ternate Island 5° 0' N.
127° 30' E.

•218

ACCOUNT OF THE ERUPTION FROM THE TOMBORO MOUNTAIN.

“ The easterly monsoon, however, had at this time distinctly set in, and con-
sequently the sounds would not be heard so loudly and distinctly in the Moluccas,
as from the relative distance would otherwise have happened. They extended, in
the opposite direction, to Fort Marlbro’, and several parts of Sumatra, as appears
from the following extract from thence.

“ ^ It is an extraordinary fact, that precisely the same noise (taken by all who
heard it to be a cannonade) occun'ed at several stations along this coast at the same
time, ^'iz. the morning of the 1 1th April several gentlemen heard it in Marlbro’, the
people from the interior came domi with accounts of it, and those from the higher
Dusuns spoke of a kind of ash-dust which had covered the herbage and the leaves
of the trees. Reports to the same effect, (not mentioning any fall of ashes how-
ever,) were received fi'om Moco-moco, Laye, Salumah, Manna, Padang Guchee,
Croee, and Semanka. From some of these stations the hill-people came down
armed, to assist against attacks which they imagined might be made upon the head
factories.’

“ It has not appeared that any noise of this kind was heard at Padang, or much
further north than Moco-moco. I have since heard that the same noise was heard
at Trumon in about 2' 40' N. lat. and at Aver Bungi in about 0' 15' N. lat. at aU on
or about the 11th April last.

“ From Sumbawa to the port of Sumatra, where the sound was noticed, is
about 970 geographical miles in a direct line ; from Sumbawa to Ternate is a
distance of 720 miles; and the existence of the S. E. monsoon at the time may
account for the difference of distance to which the sound was heard in the westerly
and easterly directions ; the distance also, to which the cloud of ashes was carried,
so thickly as to produce utter darkness, is clearly pointed out to have been the
Island of Celebes, and the districts of Gresie on Java. The former is 217 nautical
miles distant from the seat of the volcano — the latter in a direct line more than 300
geographical miles distant.

“ I shall conclude this account with an extract of a letter from Lieutenant Owen
Phillips, ^\Titten from Bima on the 23d ultimo. It has been mentioned in a former
part, that on receiring intelligence of the extreme distress that had been occasioned
by this extraordinary event, I dispatched a supply of rice to their relief, and Lieu-
tenant Phillips was desired to proceed and adjust the delivery thereof, with instruc-
tions, at the same time, to ascertain, as nearly as possible, the local effects of the
volcano. His report is as follows :

‘ On my trip towards the western part of the Island, I passed through nearly
the whole of Dompo, and a considerable part of Bima. The extreme misery to which
the inhabitants have been reduced, is shocking to behold ; there were still on the
road side the remains of several corjises, and the marks of where many others had

ACCOUNT OF THE ERUPTION FROM THE TOMBORO MOUNTAIN.

249

been interred ; the \dllages almost entirely deserted, and the houses fallen down,
the sur\iving inhabitants ha\dng dispersed in search of food.

“ ‘ In Dompo, the sole subsistence of the inhabitants for some time past has
been the heads of the different species of palm, and the stalks of the papaya and
plantain.

“ ^ Since the eruption, a violent diarrhoea has prevailed in Bima, Dompo, and
Saugar, which has carried off a great number of people. It is supposed by the
natives to have been caused by drinking water which has been impregnated with the
ashes ; and horses have also died, in great numbers, from a similar complaint.

“ ‘ The Rajah of Saugar came to wait on me at Dompo on the 3d inst. The
sufferings of the people there appear, from his account, to be still greater than in
Dompo. The famine has been so severe, that even one of his own daughters died
from hunger. I presented him with three coyangs of rice in your name, for which
he appeared to be truly gi’atefnl.

“ ‘ As the Rajah was himself a spectator of the late eruption, the following
account which he gave me, is, perhaps, more to be depended upon than any other I
can possibly obtain :

“ ^ About seven, P.M. on the 10th of April, three distinct columns of flame
burst forth, near the top of Tomboro mountain, all of them apparently within the
verge of the crater; and after ascending separately to a very great height, their
tops united in the air in a troubled confused manner. In a short time the whole
mountain next Saugar appeared like a body of liquid fire extending itself in every
direction.

“ ^ The fire and columns of flame continued to rage with unabated fury, until
the darkness caused by the quantity of falling matter obscured it at about eight,
P.M. Stones at this time fell very thick at Saugar ; some of them as large as two
fists, but generally not larger than walnuts. Between nine and ten, P.M. ashes began
to fall, and soon after a violent whirlwind ensued, which blew down nearly every
house in the village of Saugar, carrying the tops and hght parts along with it. In
the part of Saugar adjoining Tomboro, its effects were much more violent, tearing up
by the roots the largest trees, and carrying them into the air, together with men,
houses, cattle, and whatever else came within its influence (this will account for the
immense number of floating trees seen at sea.) The sea rose nearly twelve feet
higher than it had ever been known to be before, and completely spoiled the only
small spots of rice-lands in Saugar, sweeping away houses and every thing within its
reach.

“ ‘ The whirlwind lasted about an hour. No explosions were heard till the
whirlwind had ceased, at about eleven, A.M. From midnight till the evening of the
1 1th, they continued without intermission ; after that, their violence moderated, and
they were only heard at intervals ; but the explosions did not cease entirely until the

K k

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LETTER TO MR. MARSDEN.

15th of July. The mountain still throws out immense volmnes of smoke, and the
natives are apprehensive of another eruption dm'ing the ensuing rainy season.

“ ‘ Of the whole of the villages of Tomboro, Jempo, containing about forty
inhabitants, is the only one remaining. In Precate, no vestige of a house is left.
Twenty-six of the people who were at Sambawa at the time are the whole of the
population who have escaped.

“ ‘ From the most particular inquiries I have been able to make, there were
certainly not fewer than 12,000 individuals in Tomboro and Precate at the time of
the eruption.

“ ^ The trees and herbage of every description along the whole of the north and
west sides of the Peninsula, have been completely destroyed, with the exception of a
high point of land near the spot where the village of Tomboro stood ; on it a few
trees still remain. In the night of the eruption, two men and two women, I am
informed, escaped to this point, and were saved. I have sent in search of them, but
have not yet been able to get hold of them ; no person has yet been along the eastern
side of the hill.

“ ' A messenger who returned yesterday from Sambawa, relates that the fall of
ashes has been heavier at Sambawa than on this side the Gulf, and that an
immense number of people have been starved: they are now parting with their
horses and buffaloes for a half or quarter rupee’s worth of rice or corn. The distress
lias, however, I trust, been alleviated by this time, as the brig, with sixty-three
coyangs of rice, from Java, arrived there the day he was leaving it.’”

“ Batavia, September 28, 1815.”

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Buitenzorg, Aug. 6, 1815.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ I have only time to thank you for your very kind letter by Captain Tra-
vers, and to retm’ii you my grateful acknowledgments for the warm and steady
support which you have given to my cause. Magna est veritas et 'prcevalehit.

“ The wonderful events in Europe still leave some hope that Java may remain
pennanently English. I have, therefore, addressed the Earl of Buckinghamshire
direct, both officially and in a private letter. The letters were written in haste, but
I hope are to the point, and not being very long they may probably be read. You
will observe with satisfaction that the cloud which overhung our finances has been
dispersed, and that the complete success of our land revenue arrangements, and the
fruits of that new order of things, which could not be established without labour,
expense, and risk, are beginning to shew themselves.

" A severe domestic affliction has banished for a time the hope I once enter-
tained of an early retirement — activity and the cares of public responsibihty are now

LETTER TO W. B. RAMSAY, ESQ.

251

almost necessary for my existence. I trust, however, that a few months more will
restore that serenity of mind which will admit of my looking on the past with calm-
ness. You will see that although I do not like to stand in the way of the arrange-
ment I have suggested for the government of this Island and its dependencies, I
am by no means indifferent or disinclined to act, and to continue to act in any
capacity in which my employment may not injure the public interests.

“ I have just returned from a three months’ tour through Java, and I have
visited Bali. It is impossible to enter upon the subject at the present moment of
confusion. I have much to say; so much that is altogether new, and perhaps unex-
pected, that I really know not where to begin, and it will require some arrangement
and consideration how to bring the extent of matter within the limits of a letter.

“ I entreat of you to advocate the cause of Java, if there is a possibility of its
remaining under the British protection.”

To W. B. Ramsay, Esq. from Mr. Raffles.

“ Buitenzorg, Aug. 5, 1815.

^ ^ ^ ^ ^

“ The wonderful and extraordinary change in the politics of Europe, by the
re-appearance of Buonaparte, has, with all its horrors, shed one consoling ray on
this sacred Isle ; and Java may be yet permanently English. In this hope I have
addressed Lord Buckinghamshire, both officially and privately. You will learn with
satisfaction that the measures introduced by me for establishing a better system of
internal administration have succeeded, even beyond my most sanguine expecta-
tions ; that the amount of the estimated land revenue has been more than realized ;
and that the detailed settlements and surveys have been nearly completed. What-
ever may have been said of former disappointments, facts now speak for themselves,
and facts you know are stubborn things.

I have no idea of returning to Europe while any thing is to be done here-
about. I am really too tired to write you fully ; my back aches from sheer hard
writing for the last two days.

“ Pay a little attention to my dear sister Marianne, and her child, when you
can. I am glad Flint has come out again.

“ I should wish to remain in the country until a decision on this reference was
known, until time had been given to my successor in office to appreciate and report
on the character of my administration, and until a sufficient lapse occurred in
Europe between the effects of the stigma passed on my conduct, and the change of

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252

LETTER TO THE EARL OF BUCKINGHAMSHIRE.

opinion which a subsequent better knowledge of the true state of things must
occasion.”

The following is an extract of the letter to the Earl of Buckinghamshire, to
which Mr. Raffles alludes : —

“ Buitenzorg, Java, August 5, 1815.

“ My Lord,

“ The appearance of Napoleon at the head of the French nation, and the
declaration of the Allied Sovereigns at Vienna, of wiiich intelhgence too authentic
to be doubted has just reached us, so completely deranges every plan connected
with the pacific arrangements about to have been concluded, that it is impossible to
hazard a conjectm'e when and on what basis the peace of the w orld may be even-
tually estabhshed. If there is to be neither peace nor tmce with him, and he con-
tinues successM in maintaining his sceptre, England must doubtless hold wfflat now
she has, and gain w’hat more she can. Holland, too w'eak even in the past time of
peace to equip an adequate force for the repossesion of her colonies, must at all
events forego every attempt of the kind dming the existing power of Buonaparte,
and should the fate of Europe remain undecided six months longer, the question
must arise — ‘ what is to be done with Java and the Dutch possessions in the Eastern
Seas V

“ For the last twelve months we have been in the constant expectation of the
Dutch fleet, and every measure of precaution preparatory to the delivering up of the
colonies has been taken ; and a faint hope is again revived that Java may still be
pennanently English. It can alone arise from the contemplation of the possible
issue of the desperate contest into wfflich England is again thrown. In the expecta-
tion that a plain statement of facts, and some suggestions from the spot, in as few
words as possible, may be useful to the authorities at home, under any circum-
stances, I venture, my Lord, on the hberty of addressing you.

“ The bankrupt state of the Dutch Company in fonner days, and the bad
appearance of our own finances in later times, may have induced an unfavourable
impression with regard to the real value of these possessions ; but the causes of both
are so obvious, that they cannot fail to have struck yom* Lordship’s observation.
Neither the one nor the other is to be attributed to the wnnt of resources in the
countiy. The Dutch empire ownd its fall principally to the connption of its ser-
vants, w'ho filled their own pockets with that treasure wdiich should have flowed
into the coffers of the state. The causes of distress and disappointment in our own
times were of a temporary nature, and those attributable to events wfflich cannot
w'ell recur.

“ If it was mortifying to my feelings to be told, after all the labour, all the

LETTER TO THE EARL OF BUCKINGHAMSHIRE.

25,‘i

anxiety, all the responsibility I had incurred in changing the whole internal manage-
ment of the country, ‘ that my calculations were flattering, but that they were not to
be depended upon it is now as consolatory and satisfactory to those wounded feel-
ings to know that these calculations have proved, on the unerring testimony of ex-
perience, to be just and correct. In support of this I do myself the honour to request
your Lordship’s perusal of the enclosed minute, with the several abstract statements
which accompany it. You will therein perceive not only that the amount of the
revenue actually collected under the new system of internal management equals the
estimate, but that the grand work of establishing the detailed system has been per-
fected ; that every acre of cultivated ground has been measured, assessed, and
brought to account ; that a body of information the most complete, the most valu-
able, perhaps, that any government can boast of, has been collected ; and that the
revenue has been considerably enhanced, whilst the most hberal consideration has
not only been paid to the rights, but to the feelings, the vanities, the vrishes of those,
whose interests might be affected by the change.

“ I shall stand excused from the narrow views of personal interest when I
declare, that I should have no inchnation to accept, were it offered, the charge of
such an administration as I shall venture to propose ; it will require a person of high
rank, either noble or mihtary ; and I have had too much experience already of the
injuries which accrue from the want of that high rank. These injuries, as far as they
might affect private comfort, or what may be termed the state of domestic mind, are
little heeded, for I feel myself superior to them ; but the pubhc interests suffer when
exalted rank does not accompany exalted station. I am far, however, from the want
of a nobler feeling of interest ; it fell to my prorince in some way first to point out
the object, then to direct the course of measures which led to its attainment ; it was
in consideration of this, and of some favourable impressions of personal ability on the
indulgent mind of the late Earl of Minto, that induced him to select me for my
present charge ; that charge I have administered with steadiness and uprightness :
and, after encountering all the storms of contending interests and unparalleled diffi-
culties, I have the pleasure to find my vessel tight and trim, and fit for any voyage.
She has long been at the mercy of the waves, and like an anxious pilot, I shall anti-
cipate with delight the hour when I may dehver her over to her duly appointed Com-
mander. In October, 1816, I shall have been Governor of these colonies five years,
the usual period for which such a post is held. My health is delicate, and having
completed twenty years’ service in anxiety, fatigue, and constant appfication, I would
indulge the hope of some relaxation. My inclination would lead me to revisit my
native land, but a want of the pecuniary means would dictate the advantage of accept-
ing the honourable retreat which has, with a \iew to such event, been kept open for
me at Bencoolen.

“ Before I proceed to notice the value and importance of these colonies, and
7

251

LETTER TO THE EARL OF BUCKINGHAMSHIRE.

the great interests involved in their eventual fate, allow me to draw your attention to
some circumstances with reference to the disadvantages under which they have
hitherto been placed — it is necessary I should do so, to account for any disappoint-
ment that may have been felt, in a partial failure of expectations at first held out,
and to remove the shade which such failure may have cast on the authority and cor-
rectness of my representations.

“ To meet wliat I conceived to have been a very unfair attack upon the cha-
racter of my administration, I felt myself called upon to take a general review of all
the leading measures of my government which appeared to have excited displeasure.
I am told that so little is the interest taken in Leadenhall-street, that the Directors
uill not even read dispatches from Java.

“ It is not possible for your Lordship to conceive the real injury to the public
serrtce, to the public character, and to the national interests, by the state of suspense,
the indecision, which has been connected uith every thing concerning Java affairs.
Circumstances have thrown Java udthout the pale of the Company’s exclusive juris-
diction, the late charter has reduced their power.

“ It uill be found that on the first establishment of the British dominion in these
seas, it was contemplated to place the Moluccas and the general control of the
Eastern Archipelago in the hands of the Java government. Acting under this im-
pression, our attention was directed to the re-estabhshment of the out-stations, the
general suppression of piracy, and the introduction of that system of wholesome
control which had of late years been wrested from the hand of our predecessors.
Military expeditions became necessary ; and expences for the benefit of trade and
the British interests in general, and altogether foreign from what would have been
demanded for the internal management of Java alone, were of necessity incurred.

“ The advantages of the Moluccas are easily stated : they consisted in one or
two annual cargoes of spices for the Eiuope market. The disadvantages and dis-
grace whicli attaches to the existing government of them is great. Nutmegs which
ought to be as cheap as betel-nut, and cloves no dearer than pepper, are by the pre-
sent system confined to the consumption of the rich alone. But this is not the main
evil : did the unfortunate people by whose industry these spices are produced, and on
whose soil they grow, benefit in any way by this high price, an excuse might be found ;
but to the disgrace of humanity, the original inhabitants of these miserable Islands
are nearly extinct : the wretched remains are in a state of the most abject poverty.
The gardens of Banda, where all the nutmegs are produced, are worked by slaves,
and the public duties carried on throughout by forced services. The inhabitants of
these remote Islands as yet know nothing of the principles of the British government,
and the British government knows still less of its unfortunate and suffering subjects.
If on commercial principles it may be deemed advisable that these spices shall be
collected into few' hands, let tlie gardens or their produce be farmed out ; let the

LETTER TO THE EARL OF BUCKINGHAMSHIRE.

255

East India Company, or any association of Europeans, enter into the speculation —
but let the British government preside — let the people derive some advantage from
tlieir industry and toil — and let them have an appeal against injustice — leave the
produce to fair and open competition, and allow the cidtivators to serve or supply
those who will pay them best. There is nothing intricate in this, or in the manage-
ment of the Moluccas on this principle ; and I believe, if the people were freed, and
the gardens let out to individuals, with free permission to sell the produce when and
where they pleased, every just end would be answered, and every pecuniary advan-
tage obtained.

“ The Island of Banca will produce upwards of 2000 tons of tin in the year —
let the mines be rented out for a period of years, or sold to the Chinese miners on
payment of a duty on the exportation, or of an annual quit-rent.

" The great Island of Borneo, as rich perhaps in the precious metals as Mexico
or Pern; possessing in one convenient spot a population of nearly 100,000 Chinese,
who work on the gold mines of their owm accord, and for their own benefit ; but who
would gladly submit to, and have invited British regulations ; and affording in com-
mon with all the Islands in the Malayan Archipelago, abundance of that peculiar
kind of produce, which in all ages, in all times, and which from the infancy of navi-
gation to the present day, has always been in request on the continents of Europe
and of Asia, opens a wide and interesting field.

These Islands, my Lord, are doubtless the real Taprobana of the ancients —
the sacred isles of the Hindus !

“ Who that has mixed with the East insular tribes, who that has become in the
least acquainted with their ways of thinking, that will not bear ample testimony that
their character is as yet unknown to Europe ? Even their piracies and deadly creeses
wLich have proved such fertile sources of abuse and calumny, have nothing in them
to affright; nay, there is something even to admire in them — their piracies are
but a proof of their spirit and their enterprize, and the regulation of good government
is alone wanting to direct this spirit and this enterprize in a course more consonant
with our notions of civihzation. And now, may I ask what was the state of Scot-
land two hundred years ago ? In the last prints from Europe I observed the parti-
culars of the trial of some mffortunate people of these Islands, who were subsequently
executed for attempting to cut off the ship Governor Raffles on her voyage to Eng-
land. No doubt a general horror was excited by the atrocity of their conduct ; but
if it is considered that these men were in all probabihty cajoled on board the ship
in the expectation of her going only a short voyage, and within their own latitudes,
some allowance may be made for their feehngs when they found themselves deceived,
and hurried into a cold, tempestuous, and bitter climate, of which, judging from their
own seas, they could have formed no previous conception. Suffering under the
acuteness of bodily pain and mental anguish, thinking on their families and their

256

LETTER TO THE EARL OF BUCKINGHAMSHIRE.

homes, which they were daily lea\dng further behind, perhaps never to %isit again,
and seeing no end to the increase of their miseries — may not some allowance be
made for them ? I am far from ^^ishing to insinuate discredit or censm-e on the
parties connected with this particular instance. I doubt not that every thing was
done that could be done by the oumers and captain ; but I know that, generally
speaking, such is the way that sailors in this country are procured for long voyages.
If even they were apprized of the length of their voyage, and promised payment ac-
cordingly, uill not their case, in some degi'ee, resemble that of the first adventurers
to the new' world ? The creeses is to the Malay what the practice of duelling is to
European nations. There are certain points in the composition of every man’s
notions which cannot be regulated by courts of law ; the property, the life, the cha-
racter of the European is protected by law ; but yet there are some points, and these
are the very points on which all society hinges, which are not protected. In sup-
port of these he contemns the law which stigmatizes him as a mm-derer, and the
very men who made the laws still say he is right. Neither the property, the life,
nor the character of the Malay is secured by law — he proudly defends them with his
own hand whenever they are endangered. The readiness with which an injury is
thus redressed has a wonderful effect in the prevention of injuries ; and except in
warlike entei-prize the Malay is seldom known to di'aw his criss, unless perhaps in
defence of w'hat he considers his hojiour. The certainty of resentment has produced
that urbanity and consideration for the feelings of each other, that they are habitually
well-bred, and if they are to be termed savages, certainly they are the most pohte of
all savages ; but in truth they are very far from being savages.

With regard to the establishment for the general administration, it will first
be necessaiy to decide on the principles which should guide the conduct of the
local authority. And here twn questions present themselves ; first, in wdiat manner
are the Dutch inhabitants and Dutch institutions to be considered ? and secondly,
what system of policy is to be obseiwed towards the native inhabitants and states of
the Archipelago ? The first question wdll, I fancy, be easily decided ; the second
not without some difficulty, as opinions may vary.

“ It is not necessary for me to inform your Lordship of the light in wiiich the
Dutch inhabitants and their institutions have hitherto been rtewed by the local
government ; it has been in strict accordance with the benevolent principles which
induced the Earl of Minto to depart from the instructions wffiich required him to
deliver up the colony to the natives ; but I am ready to add, that it has been the
cause of immense expense, and not the least of the difficulties we have had to
encounter.

“ The Dutch government certainly, for the last fifty years, derived no advan-
tage from this colony, and as rapidly as rice and corruption increased abroad, the
profits to the government at home declined, for one was the natural cause of the

LETTER TO THE EARL OF BUCKINGHAMSHIRE.

257

other. This state of affairs, added to the disorders of the revolution, ended in the
ruin of public prosperity in Holland, and the loss of private character in Java ;
and I am reluctantly obliged to say, after the experience I have had, that it is as
hopeless to attempt any improvement in the morals, habits, and principles of a great
proportion of the European colonists, as it is to purify their institutions. There is
a large portion of the Island in the neighboiu-hood of Batavia in possession of these
colonists as private property : from this the majority and the most respectable obtain
a handsome independence. The liberality of the British Government will, no
doubt, be extended in pensions to such as want, and the Dutch population in general
\\ill be entitled to all the advantages of British subjects. Thus far, I should think,
we are bound to go, and there are individuals among the mass entitled to still higher
consideration — to respect, to confidence ; but the main point is, how far a conside-
ration for these few, and very few they are, would justify us in continuing the seat of
government at Bata\ia. The nature of the administration, and the success of the
whole aiTangement, appears to me so peculiarly to turn upon this last point, that
it is deserving of the first and most particular attention.

“ The unhealthiness of Batavia would, of itself, be conclusive with many, with-
out the additional consideration of the clog which would be fastened upon our admi-
nistration by the Dutch institutions. It is as vain to attempt rendering the town
and sea-coast of Bata\ia salubrious, as it is to restore those institutions to any thing
like a sound and sane state.

“ The British Government will doubtless commence its operations without
being fettered and dishonom'ed by the petty speculations of commercial profit, and it
is alone on account of its convenient station for commerce, and from the store-
houses and public-buildings which it contains, that Batavia has any advantages what-
ever over other parts of the Island.

“ I would at once propose that the seat of the new government should be fixed
in the neighbourhood of Samarang. A Commissioner or Resident may be entrusted
with the affairs of Batavia, where the Dutch court of justice and the Dutch institu-
tions may he pro\isionally continued, and where a revenue equal to their expenses
will easily be derived. At Samarang there is already a Government-house on a
large scale ; it is in the neighbourhood of the native courts, and being about the
centre of the Island, great advantage will be obtained in quick communications east
and west. The Dutch inhabitants would, I am confident, in the end, benefit by
this arrangement, although perhaps some might, in the first instance, be interested
in the probable reduction of the value of their fixed property. If the British
Government was once firmly established in Batavia, the whole of the Dutch institu-
tions must be rapidly broken down and abolished, and the inhabitants themselves
would soon lose that influence and consideration which they have hitherto been
allowed to enjoy ; for my own part, I woidd make them a present of Bata\ia and

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258

LETTER TO THE EARL OF BUCKINGHAMSHIRE.

its en^^rons if they required it, to administer in their oum way under a political
Agent or Commissioner : they could not call this ilhberal, and the British Govern-
ment would lose no revenue by it, while it would be fi'ee to introduce and estabhsh
its own principles elsewhere, without apprehension of disquieting or anno\dng those
who, from having been educated in a different school, never can or will think in
the same manner as we do. Batavia might then be to Java what Chinsurah is to
Bengal.

“ The British Government being thus relieved from the necessity of attending
to long-established forms, may in its immediate establishments be extremely simple.
A principal secretary uith good assistants, a treasurer, an accountant and auchtor,
and a legal adriser, will be the leading men. There will be no necessity for the
establishment of any British court of justice, at any rate in the beginning, for the
Dutch uill be subject to their own laws, as modified by our regulations, and the
jurisdiction over the native inhabitants is already, and far better, provided for by the
prorincial courts of the Residents.

“ Concluding that the arrangements for the general administration and collec-
tion of the revenues will continue nearly on the same footing as at present, I enclose
an abstract of the existing establishments, from which your Lordship will perceive,
that besides the two native courts there are fourteen principal Residencies, two Col-
lectors of land-revenue, and three Collectors of customs required on Java. Besides
these officers, a Superintendent of the forests, who may also be Resident of the forest
districts, and a Superintendent of marine will be reqimed, and these are all the ap-
pointments which appear to me necessary to be adverted to or filled up by authority
from home. There are several gentlemen now on the Island who would do honour
to his Majesty’s serv ice, and whose talents and information would be essential in the
first establishment of the government : these I have named in a separate memo-
randum enclosed.

“ The second question, namely, M'hat system of policy is to be obseix'ed to-
wards the native inhabitants and states of the Archipelago, must be decided before
any plan for the administration of the dependencies and out-stations can be offered.
If the principle which I have attempted to lay down in my minute on the Eastern
Islands is adopted, and the British Go’S’ernment resolves to wash its hands of the
iniquities of the existing order of affairs in the jSIoluccas, the administration will be
simple : a Resident for the Moluccas, with three or four able assistants, a mihtary
Commandant for Celebes, a Resident at Banjarmasing, with subordinates at Pon-
tiana and Sambas, and a Resident at Banca, with subordinates at Lingen and Billi-
ton, will complete the nmnher required.

The inferior arrangements to be attended to are numerous, but these are,
perhaps, best left to settle themselves, under the superintendence of the local au-
thorities. The above are, I befieve, all the main pomts necessary to be considered

LETTER TO THE EARL OF BUCKINGHAMSHIRE.

259

at home, as far as the civil establishment is concerned. With respect to the military,
the particulars of the force now maintained on the Island, and its present depen-
dencies, with an opinion on what would be requisite on the change, are contained in
the memorandum regarding establishments in general.

“ This last-mentioned opinion is given with all deference to professional judg-
ment, but in the decided conviction that while the principles of the administration
are just, and established rather with a view to protect and exalt the native character
than to debase it, we need never for one instant doubt the attachment of our East
insular subjects and allies. There are no people more capable of appreciating a
benefit or of forming an attachment; they have no prejudices of moment, or which
stand in the way of civilization, and they will readily assimilate with Europeans in
as far as Europeans are inclined to assimilate with them; they will identify them-
selves as British subjects whenever they feel the benefits of British principles, and
the permanency of Britisli power.

“ I will say nothing of the Eastern Islands in general, but of Java and of its
inhabitants I can speak plainly and decisively ; they have felt the advantage of
British principles, they acknowledge the benefit, and feel grateful for our inter-
ference. I have just returned from a three months’ tour throughout the Island,
and I can safely say, that regret, apprehension, and dismay precede the expected
return of the Dutch ; that the native population, feeling and profiting by the arrange-
ments of the British Government, are decidedly attached to it ; that they will not,
for they cannot, understand the wisdom of that policy which, after the price of so
much blood and treasure, would transfer them to their former task-masters, and
deliver them up unconditionally to their vengeance.

“ Before the establishment of the British power in Java, the Dutch held but a
disputed sovereignty. The native princes of Souracarta and Mataram allowed them
no interference within their dominions, which then comprised the richest part of the
Island. The Sultans of Bantam and Cheribon were still the nominal heads of the
people ; while both those provinces were in a continued state of insurrection, the
tranquillity of the Island and our interests required a reduction in the power of
the native princes. The British arms were carried to the Craton of Djocjocarta, and
to defray the expenses incurred, and as a security for future attachment, they by
treaty transferred into our hands some of their richest provinces, and disbanded all
their military in return for our protection. They are now, consequently, completely
within the power of the European government ; but seeing no advantages taken or
contemplated by the British Government beyond what the treaties stipulated, they
are still respectable, and place such unreserved confidence in our good faith, that
they are without apprehension. It may be a question, on the transfer of the colony,
in what fight are these treaties to be considered ? And the reflection will naturally
occur, that if we transfer the princes and the provinces as they now stand, will they

L 1 2

260

LETTER TO THE EARL OF BUCKINGHAMSHIRE.

not, by being left bare and unprotected, and stripped of the means of defending
themselves, on being thro^^^l at the mercy of a power perhaps less just and con-
siderate than ourselves, have some grounds to complain of the injury we have done
to them ?

“ The rebellious pro\dnces have been brought into order, universal tranquillity
prevails, and confidence is every where established. The Sultans of Bantam and
Cheribon, witnessing and admiring the principles of our Government, have vohm-
tarily transferred the direct administration into our hands. Are we not, in some
measure, bound to the native population, to secure to them, by every means in our
power, the enjoyment of that liberty and independence we have allowed them to
taste, or is the cup to be dashed from the lip as soon as it is touched ?

“ When I assumed the delegated administration of Java, humanity dictated
consideration and respect for its European inhabitants, but policy required and jus-
tice demanded protection to the native population. This protection has been given,
and is felt in the cottage of the peasant; he acknowledges, and is proud of the
benefit, and in one word, the Javanese are decidedly Enghsh; give but the other
word, and Great Britain produces not more faithful adherents to the crown than
Java may afford.

“ In September 1815, Lord Minto w^ent home fully prepared to explain the
principles on wJiich he had estabhshed the provisional government of Java, and also
to support all my measures, wJiich to the last met his unreserv^ed approbation.

I have the honour to remain, &c.
“ T. S. R.”

It is e\ident from what has been stated, that during the whole period of his
administration, i\Ir. Raffles had constantly been occupied with the varied and exten-
sive duties of his situation, wdiich had required from him incessant labour and atten-
tion ; every thing, in fact, rested upon himself. He was unacquainted, or but slightly
acquainted, with the principles or characters of most of those whom he had to
employ ; he was compelled to instmct, direct, and confide in all ; and these, untried
and unknown, w^ere to be suiTounded by temptations and examples of peculation,
bribery, and corruption. It is to the honour of the individuals so employed and so
chosen, that, under all succeeding circumstances, so few were found to fail in their
duty, and so many proved themselves worthy of the confidence reposed in them.

Mr. Raffles was occupied constantly from four in the morning until eleven and
twelve at night ; and the weight of this heavy duty was much increased by his being
under the necessity of acting entirely upon his own responsibihty in all the great
measures of his government.

Such a state of anxious uncertainty would have made a less conscientious
person refrain from such constant and unremitting action ; but it was one of his

LETTER TO MR. MARSDEN.

2G1

principles in public as well as private life, to do good to the utmost of his power ;
and in the accomplishment of this object, no labour was too severe, no responsibility
too burdensome to be borne.

The deep interest which Mr. Raffles took in the happiness of the Javanese,
induced him to exert every faculty of his mind to instruct and improve them ; and
this was to him comparatively easy, even in the pressure of all the more direct and
ordinary business of his station ; he was gifted with a power of such rapid decision,
his discrimination was so clear, and his arrangements so immediate and perfect,
that he was able to effect more business, of every kind, than any single person of
those around him could have thought possible. It is stated by some of those who
were in the habit of observing him at this time, that they have seen him write up-
w^ards of twenty sheets of minutes, orders, &c. &c. without any correction or even
alteration being necessary. It has already been stated, that he required three clerks
to copy and keep up with what he wrote ; and that he frequently dictated to two
persons whilst engaged in writing letters himself.

The following letter to Mr. Marsden is on literary and scientific subjects :

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Java, September 18, 1815.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ In my last I promised you a long account of the discoveries we had
made on Java, and of our progress in the collection of materials for a Grammar and
Dictionary, as well as for an historical account of Java. I have been compelled to
read a discourse to the Batavian Society, which, however general and vague, will in
some measure reduce the extent of the particular communications I now sit down to
make, and I therefore enclose you a few copies, which have been struck off in haste.
I also take this opportunity of enclosing an authentic account of the violent and, I
believe, unparalleled convulsion of nature, which has recently occurred in these
regions, and I hope you will approve of my having taken measures for preserving a
proper record of the event ; it wall appear, nearly in its present shape, in the next
volume of our Transactions ; but as the press is going on but slowly, and the subject
may be interesting in Europe, you have my free permission to communicate the sub-
stance to the Royal Society, or even more extensively, if desired.

‘‘ I have not failed to notice what you observe on the paucity of information
respecting the Javanese language, and I trust our next number will not be liable to
the same objection. I have attempted to break the ice, but further, as yet, and until
I can communicate with those who are acquainted with the more ancient languages
of Western India, I dare not go. Of the ancient Kawi, I have ventured to pro-
nounce that it is almost pure Sanscrit ; but in doing so, I have been rather gmded
by the general opinion, and the probabilities, than by any knowledge of my own, or
reference to Sanscrit authority : I do not even possess the Dictionary of Dr. Wilkins.

262

LETTER TO MR. MARSDEN.

I enclose you a fac-simile of the inscriptions on the brass plates, together with the
alphabetic character and version in Roman letters : it is probable that Dr. Wilkins
may throw some light upon them. Fac-similes of the several alphabets to which I
have refeiTed in my Discourse are also enclosed : these I propose should, at some
future period, he engraved.

“ Of the present language, or rather languages, of Java, my collection amounts
to upwards of seven thousand words, and is daily increasing. Nothing is more
remarkable than the extent and delicacy of these languages ; for independent of
there being almost two distinct languages in constant use by one people, the w^ords
themselves, especially in the court, or polite tongue, are expressive of such nice
distinctions and shades, that it is almost impossible to ex-plain them in English
without much circumlocution. This evinces a degree of civilization beyond what
was to be expected ; and the people ■who could devote so much time and study to
the improvement and acciuacy of their language, must have had something of a
literary turn. * * * * ^ *

“ The Grammar may be formed on the principle of the Malayan, and the words
of a Dictionary arranged in alphabetical order, shewing the vernacular and pohte
dialects opposed to each other, ■with examples, on the plan of yoiu* incomparable
Dictionary, which, with the Grammar, is a model for whatever may be fiu-ther
attempted in this line.

“ I have visited nearly all the remains of sculpture to be found on the Island ;
they are far more extensive than at first I had any idea of, and drawings of the different
images, as well as gTound-plans, elevations, &c. of the different buildings, are in great
progress. Many of the Hindu deities have been found in small brass and copper
casts; of these I have a collection containing nearly every deity in the Hindu
mythology. We have also discovered some very ancient coins with dates, in the
Chando Sangkolo, and from the Discourse you will perceive that I have succeeded
in dec)T>hering nearly all the inscriptions, with the exception of that found at
Bramhana ; the stone has been removed to Solo, where a fac-simile has been taken
roughly from the stone, a copy of it, or indeed the original, if a favourable opportu-
nity offers, shall be sent to you. It is rather a curious circumstance wiiich the Javanese
historians relate regarding inscriptions at Brambana ; these they say were left by
Adi Soko, and recognized 500 years after by Sew^olo Cholo, at a period when none
of the inhabitants of the Island could read them. Shoidd this Adi Soko be the same
with the founder of the Budhist religion in China, &c. it is not improbable that as
soon as the new faith w^as established on the Continent, emissaries Avere sent into
the different Islands to extend its influence ; perhaps the Brambanan inscription
may relate to this event, and at all events the inscription has a particular interest.

“ I have ventured to offer some notions on the plan of a history of Java and the
Eastern Islands, rather with the view of inviting observation and discussion, than as
7

LETTER TO MR. MARSDEN.

263

binding myself to any preconceived opinion. It was necessary to say something on
the subject, and at aU events I can answer for its general correctness as far as
Javanese data can be depended upon.

“ You will not fail to notice a hint thrown out regarding the establishment of
Menangkabu, during what I have termed the first Eastern Empire of Java, and at
the period when the states of Wahar and Koripan were in all their glory.

“ It is related that about the Javanese year 800, the Prince of Angrawan, on
Java, had a son, who, when an infant, was carried off by a celebrated Bramin, by
name Bromono Sacondo ; the Bramin substituting his own son in his place. Bro-
mono Sacondo originally came from Sabrang, under which general name all the
opposite Islands are included, and when he had succeeded in the object of his visit,
he fled again to Sabrang, carrying with him the young Prince. Under his tuition
the Prince attained matm'ity, and assuming the title of Klono Tanjung Pura, car-
ried his arms with success throughout the Malayan Islands, finally establishing him-
self at Goa, on Celebes. He did not, however, remain there long, but hke many of
his Malayan descendants, again shifted his quarters to Sumatra, where his authority
was said to be acknowledged in the country inland and to the northward of Palem-
bang, probably Menangkabu ; from thence he waged war against the celebrated
Panje, and the Javanese romances are full of his adventures and achievements ; they
are the subject of constant dramatic exhibition, and in these he is termed the Rajah
of Musa Kanchono, the Golden Island. He was continually defeated hy Panje,
but as constantly saved by the advice and assistance of the Bramin, who always
appears to carry him off just he is about to fall. These are the adventm'es alluded
to in the Malayan compositions, which refer to the beautiful Princess of Dahar, &c.,
and I strongly suspect that the Sun da Empire, or what may be called the Western
Empire of Java, which was estabhshed about the year 1000, was founded in con-
nection with this authority on Sumatra ; the investigation into the extension of the
sovereignty of Bantam over the southern provinces of Sumatra, would, on this
accomit, be very interesting — this is an object which I have not forgotten, and at
present I will only mention that the celebrated Kris of Bantam, and which is in my
possession, is understood to have been obtained from Menangkabu ; it has, on the
blade, the impression of a Bramin, or figure with a long flowing dress hke that of
India.

“ This Klono is sometimes called Si Malayu, and Klono and Malayu Suon,
synonymous terms for a wanderer.

“ The above anecdote has no connection whatever with the subsequent colo-
nization of Palembang by Ario Damar, in the time of Majapahit ; there was a lapse
of above 500 years between the two events.

“ I have taken measures for collecting vocabularies of the Papua, or woolly-
haired race. I was at first inchned to think them distinct from the Afiican, but I

2Gi

LETTER TO MR. MARSDEN.

now apprehend there is little difference beyond what may be easily reconciled by the
effects of long separation and change of chmate. We find them in considerable
numbers on Siimbawa, and if they have not all been destroyed by the volcano, I
expect to obtain extensive information from this quarter.

“ I have procured from Bali copies of all the written compositions of the coun-
try, and of many of those common on Java, in the hope that they may be purer
than those found at this day on J ava ; but it is deser^^ng of remark, that although
the Javanese are all Mahomedans, and that every man of the least respectability
studies the Arabic, it has as yet made no inroad whatever into either the wTitten or
spoken language of the country.

“ As the time draws nigh when the fate of this colony must be decided, and
when it is probable I may either proceed to Bencoolen, or close my administration
in these seas by visiting some of the out-settlements, I shoidd feel very much
indebted by your directing my attention, either by a list of queries or otherwise, to
such points as may appear to you of most importance. My object, as you know, is
rather to collect the raw materials, than to establish any system of my own ; and
notwithstanchng I have in some instances assumed something of an h\q)othesis, I am
by no means wedded to it or bound to support it. I have no idea of publishing
until I go to Europe, and even then I would rather see the materials worked up by
an abler hand, than inciu' the risk and responsibility of undertaking the task my-
self. I am afraid it will hardly he possible to do justice to Java in one volume, and
it would require the powers of the steam engine to compress into so small a compass
the vast variety of material which has been collected.

“ My plan in such a work woidd be, after giring a sketch of the natm'al his-
tory and geography of Java, to enter on an abstracted statistical account of its
present population and produce ; then to give the native history down to the date of
the establishment of the British Government, introducing between each grand divi-
sion a supplementary chapter on the other Islands, and the inferences to be drawn
during each period ; an account of the European establishments would necessarily
follow ; and here the ground on which I should rest would principally be the collec-
tion which I have made of the treaties entered into by the Dutch wth the different
Eastern States, and deductions regarding the progress made in civihzation ; a few
chapters would then be required on the language — the literature — the agiiculture —
the commerce — the character of the people, &c. ^rith a general concluding view of
the whole subject embraced. Considering the intimate connection which appears
at all times to have existed between Java and the Eastern Islands, it will not be
possible to enter into the history of the one without continual reference to the other ;
but while the narrative is exclusively relating to Java, and the commentary only
adverts occasionally to the other Islands, it will not I hope be thought that I extend
my views too far. The colonies planted by Java, though themselves deserving a

STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF JAVA.

265

separate history, cannot be thrown off until some historical record of the mother
country gives her the credit of having established them.

“ I should be most happy to receive your candid and unreserved opinion on
this plan. An accirrate map, principally from actual survey, would of course accom-
pany the work, and a supplementary volume might contain engravings of the re-
mains of antiquity, and Hindu worship, with the inscriptions, alphabets, &c.

“ I have lately made a very considerable addition to my Malayan, as well as
Javanese library; and I have set, not only the Regents, but the Susuhunan himself,
at work in compiling historical accounts of their respective divisions of the country;
these will be of use in checking the general account which I had previously collected ;
and at all events, it has given a fashion to literary pursuits which cannot fail of
being highly advantageous to all parties in the long run. A taste for letters is now
the sure passport to preferment ; and an old MS. or Indian relic, is found to have
more influence now-a-days than all the golden profusion of former times. The
Dutch colonists accuse us of folly ; and the only answer I can make to them is, that
I am ambitious of the title of Bitara in after days. Objects have a different appear-
ance when received by the rising sun, to what they may present under one that
is setting.

I feel that I have not yet redeemed my pledge, and yet hope I have said
enough to prove that we are not altogether idle.

“ Believe me always, my dear Sir,

Most sincerely yours,

“ T. S. Raffles.”

To William Brown Ramsay, Esq.

“ Buitenzorg, October 18, 1815.

* * * * *

You will be anxious to know my determination as to proceeding to England ;
my character — my future happiness— require my presence in England. The im-
pression on my mind is, that I shall quit this country at the close of 1816 ; but this
depends upon circumstances not within my control. I may go earlier — I may go
later. Your ad^dce will, I think, be for the best, and I am inclined to concur in it :
for here I am a lonely man, like one that has long since been dead ;’ and should
any thing keep me away for one year, from fidends who I am sure would be glad to
receive me with open anns ! I want leisure to recover from the effects of that
weight of responsibility which has almost weighed me down ; yet I am high and
proud in my own integrity. I thank you for the warmth and attachment which
breathe through every line of your letter now before me ; it has roused the finest

M m

266

REVIEW OF THE GOVERNMENT OF JAVA.

feelings in my breast ; and in the test of friendship, where is the heart that would
not be glad ?”

Before lea^^ng Java, ^Ir. Raffles addressed the following letter to the Court
of Directors :

“ Batavia, March 11, 1816.

“ At the close of an arduous and extensive administration, which will be ad-
mitted to have commenced at a moment of peculiar financial difflculty, and to have
been attended with embaiTassments unusual to a new government, in consequence
of the bankruptcy of the preceding government, and of a necessity having neverthe-
less existed of respecting, in some degree, the forced and imperious measures to
which that government resorted, in order to carry on their ordinary details ; I am
anxious to place in yom- possession a rtew of the present financial state of this
colony. This rertew I shall foimd, not on estimates, but on actual records ; and I
confidently trust it wll prove to the satisfaction of your Honourable Court, that my
ideas on the value and importance of this colony have not been raised too high, but
that time only was wanting, and a perseverance in principles of liberal and extended
policy, to render it equal to all the extent that has either been contemplated or
reported.

“ I shall not detain your Honourable Court by any rertew of the past financial
arrangements adopted at different periods of my administration. The opinions
which have been passed upon them by the Supreme Government in India, and the
explanations which we considered ourselves enabled to offer, are already before your
Honourable Court; and my letter of the 5th of August, 1815, wll have explained
the foundation of our present revenue and resources, and prepared you to expect
that the general result would be more favourable, since the system of administration
which it has been my object to introduce into this Island, in accordance with the
principles laid down by the late Earl of Minto, began to have effect.

“ I now request to lay before you further documents, illustrative of the pro-
gressive improvement that has taken place.

^ ^ if! ^ ^

“ By these it will be perceived, that the revenues of the Island of Java itself
have gradually augmented during the three years therein mentioned, the revenues
of 1813-14 ha\ing exceeded the former year in the sum of 42,273,729 rupees,
and those of 1814-15 shewing a further excess of 1,130,871 rupees. On the other
hand, it will appear that the expenses of the year 1813-14 were less than the pre-
ceding year, in the sum of 1,173,873 rupees, and those of the year 1814-15 exceeded
only in the sum of 539,058 rupees, which gives a clear balance in favour of the com-
parative receipts and disbursements of the Java government, at the expiration of the

IMPROVEMENT OF THE REVENUES OF JAVA.

267

years 1814-15. This fact will speak more forcibly than any comments I could offer
upon it. In this dociunent your Honourable Court will further be able to trace the
rapid increase of the revenue of this colony, in comparison with what it was under the
preceding Dutch government ; and as it is sufficiently obvious, from former reports
and documents, that the increase of revenue has resulted, in a very principal degree,
from the introduction of land-rental, which now amounts to nearly one-half of the
whole revenues of the Island, it is a fan* conclusion to draw, that the improvement
thus effected is rendered permanent ; and that a very short time only has been
required to repay, in a pecimiary point of view, those temporary and partial sacri-
fices which, in the introduction of a radical change, that had equally in view the
amehoration of the condition of the people and the interests of the government,
could not be avoided.

“ Another enclosure gives fm-ther proof of the improving state of the public
treasuries in this Island, on the one hand, and of a diminution of the public debt on
the other, by a decrease in the amount of government securities in circulation.
Yom* Honourable Court \rill observe, that as soon as the arrears of the troops had
been paid up to the date which is usually done at the Presidencies in India, we
appropriated the funds derivable from the improved state of oiu' treasuries, towards
the discharge of these securities ; and by a gradual progress of this procediu'e, the
public debt, arising from this cause, is now completely at command.

Thus it will be found, that at the expiration of the years 1814-15 the amount
of government securities which had been in circulation was 288,126,166 rupees.
On the 1st of January last it amounted, as appears by the accountant’s report, to
196,819,615 rupees, and at the present date it is reduced to 122,734,224 rupees,
while by the opposite columns of assets in the balance of government treasuries, it is
erident that the amount of cash in hand considerably surpasses the extent of the
outstanding debts.

“ It would occupy too much time to enter fully into all the inferences that
might be di*awn fi'om these documents; and on the present occasion my object is
rather to place facts before you, than to draw inferences from them : but your
Honourable Court will permit me to observe, that as this improvement has arisen
fi'om ordinary causes, and is solely attributable to the establishment of that system,
\rithout which it always appeared to me that the government of Java could not be
administered but under heavy loss to the mother-country, there is every reason and
ground to expect, that a perseverance in this system will continue, and even encrease
the benefit that has resulted from its introduction. The difficulty in short is re-
moved ; and the pohtical tranquillity that has continued throughout the Island is a
guarantee, that the change is equally advantageous in whatever point of \iew^ it be
considered.

“ Thus far my remarks have been confined to Java only, but the inclosures will

Mm2

•268

REVENUE AND GOVERNMENT OF JAVA.

also shew, that the expence of the dependencies has, of late, become much lessened,
or in other words, that the surplus profits derived on the sale of the produce of
Banca make good the expences of maintaining that chain of possessions which is
undoubtedly necessary to secure the tranquillity of the coasting-trade of those seas.

“ The possession of Banca is now complete, and its resources brought forward.
The revenue derivable from them will continue undiminished, as far as can be
foreseen, since the tin has a ready and certain sale, and there is no necessity for any
considerable increase of establishment, unless the opening of new mines gives a cor-
responding increase of revenue. The settlement of Banjemiassing also continues on
the footing already brought to the notice of the Governor-General in August last ;
and Macasar, though at all times burdensome, and maintained, not for its intrinsic
value, but from fonner usage, and the necessity of holding a check on the native
establishment, as well as for the suppression of piracy and for the protection of the
spice monopoly, cannot in any way incur an expence equivalent to the surplus revenue
accruing in Java, under the present system of internal administration.

“ On the whole, therefore, I feel considerable confidence in the report which I
am now enabled to present to your Honourable Court. The outlay on the first esta-
blishment of this government was great, and unavoidably so ; it was, in fact, a com-
plete purchase of every necessary article, even to the furniture of the public offices,
and it is in this manner that the accounts with the prize agents became so exten-
sive ; but on the other hand the particulars and the returns of that outlay will, in a
great degi'ee, be shewn at the transfer of the colony, in the amount of stock which
then will either be taken over by the succeeding government, or be disposable to be
converted into money. By the account enclosed you will perceive there remains a
surplus of 37,84,10,416 mpees to the credit of the government of Java. The quan-
tity of coffee also now in store, and which has long been waiting the necessary
tonnage to be conveyed to Europe, is 60,000 peculs, which at the present market-
price at Bataria is equal to 13,20,000 rupees.”

CHAPTER IX.

Mr, Raffles hears he is to be relieved in the Government — Residency of Bencoolen secured to him — Forced
to return to England by ill health — Arrival of Mr, Fendall — Reception of him— General regret at Mr.
Raffles' departure — Presentation of plate — Endeavours by a last memorial to secure justice to the native
princes and people — The objects of their treaties with the English — Objects neglected by the English
Government — Island restored without conditions to the Dutch — ■Embarkation — State of mind on quitting
Java — Extract from Captain Travers' Journal during the voyage — St. Helena — Interview with Buona-
parte— Arrival at Falmouth — Mines in Cornwall — Journey to London.

Mr. Raffles was at Ciceroa when he heard that he was to be reheved from the charge
of the government. Though the mode in which the intelhgence was conveyed was
most imexpected, it did not affect his equanimity and composure.

Lord Minto had secured to him the Residency of Bencoolen, as a provision in
case Java had been transferred to the Crown, when of course a Governor and
Council would have been sent out fi-om England. This appointment was now
offered to him, but his health was so impaired, his strength so exhausted, that his
medical advisers considered it absolutely necessary for the preservation of his life,
that he should proceed to Europe without delay.

As soon as it was ascertained that Mr. Fendall was appointed to succeed to the
government, and was actually on his way to Java, Mr. Raffles determined to leave
Ciceroa, and return to Buitenzorg, in order to be ready at the shortest notice to
proceed to Batavia for the purpose of recemng his successor. He felt himself ag-
giieved, but he well knew his being so was in no way attributable to Mr. Fendall;
and he wished to pay the respect and attention which he thought due to the station
that Mr. Fendall was about to fill. Mr. Raffles was alarmingly reduced at this time
by the joint action of illness, and of the violent remedies which had been applied;
but his spirits rose superior to his bodily strength, and he could not be persuaded to
allow any personal consideration to interfere with a public arrangement. He ex-
acted httle himself, but he was most scrupulous in his attentions to others. Accord-
ingly, the moment the report reached Buitenzorg, that Mr. Fendall had arrived in
Batavia Roads, Mr. Raffles was ready to proceed, and although he had been confined

270

ARRIVAL OF I\IR. FENDALL.

to the liouse for several days before, he left Biiitenzorg at 3 o’clock in the morning,
and arrived at Ryswick in time to make the necessary an'angements for recei^dng
the new Governor ^^^th suitable honors.

Mr. Raffles introduced Mr. Fendall to all those who had been usehd whilst em-
ployed under his government, \\ith some private recommendatory^ tribute of praise,
or some public acknowledgment of their merits. The scene was an interesting one ;
from the total absence of all selfish consideration which marked Mr. Raffles’ con-
duct ; he was entirely absorbed in the desire of promoting the welfare of others, and
if possible, securing to them any advantages which they might have derived from his
presence. The exertion, however, as may be supposed, was too great for him in his
debilitated state, and at the close of the day, he was obhged to retire. Haring pre-
viously made every arrangement, he quitted the Government-house in the evening
for Mr. Cransen’s, where he remained mitil his embarkation. When it became
generally knowm that Mr. Raffles was obliged to proceed to England as the only hope
of preserring his life, the European and native inhabitants united in expressing
their deep regret at his departure, and in acknowledging in the warmest terms their
gratitude for the benefits which he had conferred upon them during his administra-
tion. A magnificent serrice of plate was given to him by them on liis arrival in
England; and his own immediate staff, besides uniting in this noble gift, presented
him with a separate and exclusive piece of plate, as a testimony of their affection
and gratitude for the kindness which he had shewn to them, and the interest that
he had taken in their welfare.

The delay preparatory to embarkation gave Mr. Fendall an opportunity of
looking into the public proceedings, and of forming an opinion on the principal acts
of the government. He frankly avowed his approbation of them all ; and without
one alteration continued Mr. Raffles’ personal staff in their former situations, and
expressed his determination to attend to all Mr. Raffles’ vishes.

Mr. Raffles did not depart from Java without making an effort to induce those
who succeeded him to secure justice to the people whom he was learing. He gave
a memorial to Mr. Fendall, of which the following is an extract : —

“ 1st. Either the existing treaties between the British Government and the
native coiuts of Solo and Djocjocarta should be guaranteed, or their princes should
be placed as nearly as practicable on the same footing as they stood towards the
European authority previously to those treaties being entered into. Under the
Dutch government there was no limitation regarding the number of troops that
might he maintained by these princes ; and uith the exception of some monopolies,
they enjoyed the direct receipt of all the revenues of their states.

“ By the treaties entered into uith the British Government they have con-
sented to disband these troops, and to make over a portion of their revenues, on

ENDExWOURS TO SECURE JUSTICE TO THE NATIVES.

271

condition of our affording them protection, and allowing to each an annual stipend
for their support.

On reference to the evidence brought forward in the late investigation at Solo,
it is apprehended that the Dutch Government may not continue to pay their stipend
as hitherto ; and that, taking advantage of the present defenceless state of these
powers, they may bear heavy upon them. The question therefore arises, in how
far the British Government might not be subjected to reproach, were they uncondi-
tionally to hand these princes over, thus reduced, to the mercy of their former rulers.
On withdrawing om’ protection, are these treaties to be considered to have ceased,
or is the succeeding government to be assisted by us in occupying the present
commanding influence possessed by the European authority in these provinces?
It appears to me that either the Dutch should consent to guarantee the existing
treaties in all their conditions, should the native courts assent thereto, or that the
native princes should be allowed to place themselves in the same position as they
stood at the close of the Dutch and French administration in 1811. The point,
however, should be decided upon before the Dutch are allowed to supplant us,
otherwise these princes will not have the means of regaining this position.

“ In the last case, a further question will arise regarding the provinces ceded
to the British Government by these treaties, and from which provinces the princes
derived their principal strength and resources. It is true that some of these pro-
vinces had been nominally ceded by the court of Djocjocarta to the former govern-
ment, but they had never been actually transferred ; and in the Kedu, for instance,
the Susuhunan still retained, unshaken, his right to at least one-half of the population
and revenues. In endeavouring to replace the native princes in the situation in
which they stood under the Dutch, are these provinces, or is any, and what portion
of them, to be given back ?

The court of Solo has sufficiently evinced its conviction of the justice of
some arrangement on our part ; and as the British Government is the guardian and
trustee for the young Sultan, they are bound [to defend his just rights from inva-
sion. This is a question in which the national character is so deeply concerned,
that I conceive it deserves the most early, and at the same time, the most serious
consideration.”

The rest of the memorial relates to measures of finance. Unfortunately Mr.
Raffles’ appeal in behalf of those for whose welfare he had so anxiously laboured,
was not attended to ; and the Island was transferred to the Dutch without one sti-
pulation in favour of the natives, who had in justice a right to expect that some
pro\isions would have been made for their interests. The events which followed
the re-occupation of the Island by the Dutch afford a melancholy proof of the sad
effects of this neglect.

Mr. Raffles engaged his passage in the Ganges, a fine vessel in Batavia Roads,

272

EMBARKATION.

at that time preparing for England. Lieutenant-Colonel, then Captain Garnham,
Captain Travers (two of his Aid-de-camps) and Sir Thomas Sevestre, his medical
attendant, with all the disinterestedness of devoted zeal and friendship, determined
to accompany him. The natives and Europeans, Dutch as well as English, erinced
a strong feeling of interest and regret. The inhabitants had experienced, from
his administration, benefits which were fresh in their memory; the welfare of all
had been watched with a parental solicitude ; and perhaps no conquered country had
ever been so quickly restored to tranquillity, or so strictly preserved in quietness and
good order as Java, during the period of British rule. There were also many
amongst the respectable Dutch inhabitants who attributed, and perhaps -with justice,
to Mr. Raffles, the hue of conduct adopted by Lord Minto on the first capture of the
Island.

If, in addition to this, it is remembered how warmly he devoted himself to the
improvement of the people, the information which he collected on every point con-
nected with the Island, the total ignorance that previously prevailed, the assistance
which he rendered to literature, the zeal with which he promoted all objects of
science, of which a more detailed account, by Dr. Horsfield, \rill be found in the
appendix, the charts and maps which were executed under his superintendance for the
general benefit of the inhabitants, it will be no matter of surprise that he established
a name and character which will not be soon forgotten in the Island of Java.

On the morning of ]\Ir. Raffles’ embarkation, the Roads of Batavia were filled
with boats, crowded with people of various nations, all anxious to pay the last tribute
of respect within their power to one for whom they entertained the most lively affec-
tion. On reaching the vessel, he found the decks filled uith offerings of eveiy de-
scription— fruits, flowers, poultry, whatever they thought would promote his com-
fort on the voyage. It is impossible to describe the scene which took place when the
order was given to weigh the anchor ; the people felt that they had lost the greatest
friend whom Java ever possessed ; and perhaps they anticipated, as too near, their re-
delivery to the Dutch power, and the consequently too probable revival of the scenes
of misgovernment, from which, under the administration of Mr. Raffles, they had
been relieved for five years, and ought to have been reheved for ever.

Tlie following extract of a letter to INIr. Edmonstone at this time will shew the
temper of mind in which INIr. R.affles relinquished his authority.

To N. B. Edmonstone, Esq. (then one of the members of the Supreme Council in

Bengal, and now one of the Court of Directors of the Honourable East India

Company.)

On hoard the Ganges, off Bantam, March 26, 1816.

“ My Dear Sir,

I cannot quit Java without returning you my warmest acknowledgments

LETTER TO N. B. EDMONSTONE, ESQ.

273

for the consideration which you have always evinced for me, and in particular for
the kindness and protection ^vith which I am confident you have endeavoured to
shield my public as well as my private character, in discussions in which both have
been most violently and wantonly attacked.

* * * * *

“ Of the public measures of my administration, it is, perhaps, improper for me
to speak; and probably it may be as well that they are left to speak for themselves.
All I ask, and all I urge, is, that the results of my administration be not partially
considered; these cannot be fairly understood, nor duly appreciated until the close
of the British Government, and, as the Dutch authorities are now on the way out, a
delay in the decision will not occasion inconvenience.

“ The Court of Directors appear to me to have formed a very hasty judgment
on questions regarding which it was impossible for them at the time to possess full
information. The apprehension that, by the introduction of the land-revenue
system, I have alienated the affections of the people, is absurd, and hardly deserves
refutation. In the whole arrangements I have carried the Regents along with me ;
and I leave it to others to inform you of the feeling which has existed among the
native population on the occasion of my quitting the government

“ I sincerely trust, however, that on this question, as well as on that which
relates to the conduct of the Java government at Palembang, the explanations af-
forded by us will have induced the Supreme Government in their subsequent com-
munications with Europe, to relax the severity of their censure, and in some degree
remove the unfavourable impression which the earlier despatch has made.

“ The statement of quick stock some time since forwarded to Bengal, and
closed up to the end of the official year 1814-15, will have placed you in possession
of the state of our finances; and when the accounts of the present year 1815-16 are
closed, I am justified in assuring you that you will observe a still more favourable
result; for our finances have been rapidly improving, and time was only wanting to
prove by the unerring testimony of figures, that the revenues and resources of these
colonies were never over-rated by me. Should the Dutch Commissioners be dis-
posed to accede to the very reasonable demands which it becomes our duty to make
upon them, previous to the transfer, I still hope that the close of the British
administration will be as satisfactory as its commencement was honourable and
gratifying.

* The Dutch have annulled the leases of lands in the territories of the native Princes to Europeans
and Chinese, and declared them to be illegal, with the view of obtaining for Government the monopoly of
the produce of the whole Island; they have also laid heavy restrictions upon merchants and travellers wish-
ing to visit the native provinces, which were open of access to all during Sir Stamford’s government. To
the first of these measures in particular is attributed, by those who have the best means of judging, the
present distracted and ruinous state of the Island.

N n

274

EXTRACT FROM CAPTAIN TRAVERS’ JOURNAL.

I leave the character of my administration in general to be appreciated by
my successor; and I look forward with confidence to a period when it will be proved
that I have not been found wanting in the discharge of the high, arduous, and
responsible trust committed to my care.

* * * * * ^ ^

“ My pubhc letter will inform you of the necessity which drives me to the
Cape, and eventually to Europe; and unfortunate as this unexpected circmnstance
must be considered, I must hope that the necessity of proceeding to Europe, and of
consequently gi\dng up a lucrative employment, occasioned as it is by an illness
brought on by great exertions, by anxiety, and a sense of injustice, will not weaken
any claims which I may possess on the consideration and justice of the higher
authorities.

" Into the hands of Mr. Fendall I have resigned my charge without reluct-
ance. * * ^ ^ ^

An extract from Captain Travers’ Journal will give an account of the voyage : —

“ Our voyage commenced under the most favom'able circumstances ; the weather
was mild, the wnd fair. On the third day after leaving Bata\ia Roads, being en-
trusted with the address to Mr. Raffles from his own immediate staff, to present
to him after our getting out to sea, I waited upon him in his cabin with it ; and the
scene wiiich ensued was the most distressing I had ever witnessed. After perasing
it, he became so completely overcome as to be unable to utter a word : but the
moment he began to recover a little, he took up his pen ; and wfflilst the feehng and
impression was fresh, he ^vrote the beautiful and affectionately-expressed reply,
which was afterwards printed by his friends, and is attached to the addresses and
replies presented on the occasion of his leaving Java.

‘‘ The presentation of this address was altogether unexpected on Mr. Raffles’
part ; and as it was meant to convey to him the sentiments of cordial and heartfelt
esteem and affection of those who had the best opportunity of judging of the spot-
less integrity and amiable qualities which shed a lustre over his private life, as well
as the purity and uprightness of his pubhc conduct, it was but natural to suppose
that such a testimonial must have been most gratifying at such a moment, and he
certainly prized it very highly.

“ As w^e proceeded on our voyage the change of climate and the pure sea air
seemed to be of great sen ice to Mr. Raffles, w'hose general state of health began
visibly to improve. He employed his time on board ship chiefly in assorting his
papers, for the first part ; and until his health began to get better, he read for
amusement, and paid strict attention to medical advice, and no doubt derived much
benefit from so doing.

“ As we approached St. Helena, Mr. Raffles expressed much anxiety to touch

EXTRACT FROM CAPTAIN TRAVERS’ JOURNAL.

275

there, in the hope of seeing Buonaparte ; and Captain Falconer, ever ready to meet
the wishes of one for whom he seemed to entertain the highest respect and esteem,
determined on going there for the avowed purpose of taking in a fresh supply of
water, and we accordingly made the Island at three o’clock, A.M., on the 18th
May, 1816; and meeting with no opposition, notwithstanding our having heard of
vessels being stationed to windward, as well as leeward, of the Island, to speak all
vessels as they approached, we stood in, and actually came close to one of the
batteries before we were discovered; but immediately on being seen we were
brought to, and soon after a boat came off from the Admiral’s ship to take charge
of the Ganges, inquire into om wants, and communicate by signal with the flag-
ship.

“ At this moment all our hopes of seeing Buonaparte, or indeed of being per-
mitted to land, were destroyed, by the naval officers who came on board informing
us that we would not be allowed to land ; and as our vessel could be quickly watered
from the flag-ship, no communication with the shore would be allowed.

“ The disappointment occasioned by this intelligence I never can forget. After
so long a voyage, to come within the reach of shore, and not to be allowed to land,
appeared to us, at the moment, to be one of the most disappointing and vexatious
occurrences in our lives.

Mr. Raffles, who shared with us all our disappointment, but with more com-
mand of himself, endeavoured to reconcile us to our fate ; and in place of looking
from the deck at a spot which we could not reach, and the sight of which would
only tend to excite our chagrin and annoyance, suggested that we should retire to
our cabins, and commit to paper our feelings at the moment, which would amuse
us during our detention. To this we all assented ; but I believe the only person of
the party, who was sufficiently collected to write any thing appropriate was Mr.
Raffles himself ; all the rest entertained a hope that permission would be granted to
land, when the Admiral knew who was on board, and I had written to the Secre-
tary by the Lieutenant who had come from the flag-ship.

“ In this we were not mistaken, as, in a very short time after the Lieutenant
left us, a signal was made from the flag-ship to anchor in a particular place, and
this was quickly followed by Colonel Mansel, of the 53d, and Captain Le Blanc
coming on board, with permission from the Admiral to land.

“ When the boat was close to the Ganges, I went into Mr. Raffles’ cabin to
inform him of the circumstance, and was just in time to save the following verses
from destruction, which he had written as quickly as it was possible to write, and
had not read it over, or corrected a word ; — on my telhng him that we should cer-
tainly be allowed to land, he was just going to destroy the paper, when I entreated
him to allow me to read it, with which he complied, and I immediately copied it

N n 2

276

INTERVIEW WITH BUONAPARTE.

verbatim, as it was written, and returned the original ; but know not whether Mr.
Raffles ever looked at it again, nor did I ever see it afterwards.

* » irf * * *

“ On our landing we were most kindly received by the Admiral, Sir George
Cockburn, who requested us to call at the to\Mi-major’s and peruse the garrison
orders, to which he directed our particular attention. After which we paid our
respects to the Governor, Sir Hudson Lowe, who imited us to dinner, and promised
to send horses for us. We then solicited permission to visit Buonaparte, which was
granted, on condition that during our interview we were not to address him as Em-
peror, but simply as General, and in the event of our being received by Buonaparte
with his hat on, we were not to continue in conversation uncovered ; to all which we
willingly assented, and after passing a very pleasant evening at the Government-
house, we commenced our journey to \isit Buonaparte immediately after breakfast in
the morning. Our first object was to see Marshal Bertrand, whom we found in a
miserably poor habitation, together with his charming Countess. The Marshal
received us nith the easy air of a well-bred gentleman, and the Countess ^vith gi'eat
affability and good humour, contrasting her present abode \Hth that which she lately
occupied in France.

“ The Marshal seemed to feel anxious that we should not be disappointed in
the object of our Hsit, but expressed some fears, in consequence of his royal master
having signified his intention not to receive any visitors for some days ; he, however,
kindly offered us letters to Count Las Casas, entreating him to use every exertion to
obtain an interview for us. With this letter we proceeded to Longwood, and were
most kindly and politely received by Count Las Casas, with whom we enjoyed some
very agreeable conversation.

“ On our informing him that we were to leave the Island in the evening, he
seemed anxious that his royal master should see us, and he left us for a short time,
and on returning informed us that the Emperor would dress in an horn*, and although
he could not say for a certainty, yet he hoped, and thought, he would see us. With
this we took our leave and went to Dead Wood, about a mile distant, where the
53rd regiment were stationed. Whilst we w^ere taking refreshment with Colonel
Mansel, Mr. Raffles received a note from Count Las Casas, sa}ing that the Emperor
would see us, and we accordingly returned to Longwood ; where, before being intro-
duced, we found this once great man in earnest conversation with Countess Bertrand,
who was walking v\ith him in the garden ; General Gourgaud preceded. Marshal
Bertrand, Count Las Casas, Captain Poniatowusky, and a page followed, all un-
covered. On our arrival being announced, we were quickly informed that the Em-
peror would receive us in the garden ; and Count Las Casas added, that although it
had been the Emperor’s intention not to see any person for some days, yet on being

EXTRACT FROM CAPTAIN TRAVERS’ JOURNAL.

277

told that it was Mr. Raffles, late Governor of Java, who wished the interview, he im-
mediately consented to see us.

" On our approaching, Napoleon turned quickly round to receive us, and taking
off his hat, put it under his arm. His reception was not only not dignified or grace-
ful, but absolutely vulgar and authoritative. He put a series of questions to Mr.
Raffles in such quick succession, as to render it impossible to reply to one before
another was put. His first request was to have Mr. Raffles’ name pronounced dis-
tinctly. He then asked him in what country he was born? how long he had been
in India? whether he had accompanied the expedition against the Island of Java ?
who commanded? and on being told Sir Samuel Achmuty, he seemed to recollect
his name, and made some observations to Las Casas respecting him. He was par-
ticular in asking the extent of force, and the regiments employed, and then enquired
if Mr. Raffles delivered up the Island to the Dutch, or was relieved by another
Governor. He appeared to be acquainted with the value and importance of the
Island, but put some strange questions to Mr. Raffles, such as how the King of Java
conducted himself. On Mr. Raffles explaining, he seemed most attentive, and then
asked whether the spice plantations at Amboyna were doing well, and whether the
Spice Islands were to be also restored to the Dutch. He then asked the name of
the ship in which we were going home, with what cargo laden, and which was best.
Bourbon or Java coffee; all these questions were put with great rapidity, and before
replied to he turned round to Captain Garnham and myself, asked our names, and
what ser\dce we had seen ; whether we were ever wounded, or were ever taken pri-
soners ; how long we had been in India, and several other similar questions. He
then again addressed himself to Mr. Raffles, and seemed interested with his remarks
on Java. He conversed with Sir Thomas Sevestre, and put similar questions to him
with those he had put to Garnham and myself. On his making a slight inclination
of the head, we prepared to take our leave, and on our making our bow we parted,
Napoleon continuing his walk, and we returning to the house. During the whole
time of our interview, as Napoleon remained uncovered, common pohteness obhged
us to keep our hats in our hands ; and at no time was it found necessary to give him
any title, either of General or Emperor.

“ Las Casas returned with us to the house, where a cold collation was prepared.
He was most pohte and attentive, and seemed much pleased with Mr. Raffles, with
whom he conversed most freely. Of Napoleon he spoke in terms of the highest
possible praise, and seemed to lament most bitterly his present situation.

After our interview with Bonaparte, we made all possible haste to get on
board the ship; and as we descended from Plantation-house were much surprised to
see the Ganges was under weigh ; but, on reaching the beach, we found that the
Admiral, Sir George Cockburn, on ordering the vessel to get under weigh, had kindly
sent his own barge to attend Mr. Raffles, and take his party to the ship, which we

278

SCENES ON THE VOYAGE.

did not reach till dusk. We immediately proceeded on our voyage, delighted at our
visit to St. Helena, which afforded a fine subject for conversation for many days
afterwards.

“ Our weather was delightful, although the winds were light and baffling, and
so much retarded our progress that we did not make the Island of Ascension for six
days after lea\dng St. Helena, which is considered a long passage.

“ We did not, as is customary, send a boat on shore for turtle, as the wnd
springing up favourable we did not wish to lose a moment, and so proceeded on
our voyage, and soon began to experience the benefit of a fine brisk trade-wind,
which swept us along most pleasantly, at the same time at a most rapid rate.

“ With the retmm of health Mr. Raffles’ spirits greatly improved. He used
often to amuse us with translations of different papers connected with the ancient
history of Java, and would often read aloud for us in the evening. In conversation he
was fond of alluding to, and explaining, the several acts of his administration in
Java, which he thought would ultimately tend much to the improvement of the
Island, and the amelioration in the condition of the Javanese, whom he always
seemed to feel a gi'eat interest for. In these conversations he never spoke with
severity or harshness of those whom he knew to be the cause of his removal from a
government, which established for the British name a character and credit in the
Eastern Seas which wiU ever be respected and revered. He seldom touched upon
the annoying circumstance of liis supercession, except to express a hope that justice,
however late, would not be altogether denied to him ; and he felt conrinced that on
being heard at home aU possible amends would be made him by the Court of
Directors.

“ In this most agreeable way we continued our voyage without interruption or
annoyance of any kind till the 17th of June, when a most extraordinary circumstance
occuiTed. The Auspicious, a country ship, laden like ourselves with coffee, and
l)ound from Batavia to London, wfflich had been keeping company with us from the
day of sailing, was close along-side the Ganges within speaking distance, in the
evening, when the breeze increasing the Auspicious went a little ahead. The night
w^as fine and bright, and we all remained on deck longer than usual, enjoying it, and
admiring the brisk rate at which both vessels w^ere going, each having royals, and as
much sail as they could carry. About three o’clock we were alarmed at hearing a
shot from the Auspicious, and on looking tow'ards her it would be impossible to
describe our dismay and surprise at finding that she had lost her three topmasts,
fore, main, and mizen, and seemed a perfect wreck. As morning dawmed, and
w'e could discern more distinctly, nothing coidd look more miserable than she did ;
how strikingly different from wfflat she w'as the preceding evening, when with
swelling sail she seemed to cut the waves, wfflilst now a perfect WTeck she lay com-
pletely at their mercy.

LETTER TO W. B. RAMSAY, ESQ.

279

“To account for this sudden squall injuring the Auspicious so very much, and
not reaching the Ganges, only a few hundred yards distant, was more than any one
on board either vessel could do. The sailors called it a white squall, desperate for
the moment but of short duration. During the night, on board the Ganges, we had
not experienced the shghtest increase of breeze, nor was there the appearance of a
squall observed by any one on board ; and all remarked that we had not passed a
smoother or more tranquil night during our voyage. We remained with the Auspi-
cious for a day or two, to render all assistance in our power ; and it is astonishing how
soon she repaired her injuries and became fit to join company again. We made all
sail on the third day after the accident, and then proceeded with fair weather and
favourable winds.

“ The 6th of July was Mr. Raffles’ birth-day, when he had completed his thirty-
fifth year ; and the weather being mild and favourable. Captain Falconer invited our
compagnon de voyage, Captain Nesh, to dine on board the Ganges, and do honour
to the day ; when we passed a most agreeable and happy one, dehghted to see the
health of him whose birth-day we were thus celebrating, holding forth such fair
prospects of our being able to celebrate many such anniversaries. We drank toasts
in bumpers, and made speeches without number, and concluded the day as we had
commenced it, with rejoicings ; not a httle increased, perhaps, by the prospect
before us of so soon touching the blessed shores of old England once again, from
whence w^e had been so long absent.”

The following is an extract of a letter to his friend Mr. W. B. Ramsay, written
on the voyage : —

“ To be plain, I must tell you, my dear friend, that after suffering severely
from an illness brought on in consequence of great anxiety and personal fatigue, I
embarked on the 25th March last from Batavia, and am now looking out for the
Enghsh coast. My party consists of three gentlemen and my family, among whom
I have to reckon your friend Travers, who, if not too lazy to write, ought to tell you
a great deal more about the matter ; for myself, although I am considerably reco-
vered, I yet remain wretchedly thin and sallow, with a jaundiced eye and shapeless
leg. Yet, I thank God, my spirit is high and untamed, and the meeting of friends
\vill, I hope, soon restore me to my usual health.

“ I retm*n to you, however, a poor solitary wretch ; and the rocks of Albion,
which under other circumstances would have met my eye ■with joy and gladness, will
not now present themselves without reflections which I cannot dwell upon.

“ If the Alcyon has arrived, you will have been apprized of the result of Lord
Moira’s proceedings. His Lordship deemed it advisable to postpone any decision on
Gillespie’s charges ; the Supreme Government, however, have declared my character
unaffected by these charges, and further stated that they considered it but an act of

280

LETTER TO W. B. RAMSAY, ESQ.

justice to leave my reserve appointment to Bencoolen mishaken, this being the test
by which the Court judged of my having explained my conduct satisfactorily. But
the manner in which my removal from Java was effected, and the whole course of
proceedings adopted towards me by the Governor-General has been such, that it
was impossible for me to rest satisfied \rith tliis tardy and incomplete judgment. I
therefore resolved to appeal to the authorities in England, and in the mean time
quietly to go to Bencoolen ; but the shock was too severe, my health had been
undermined, and this injustice threw me on my back. It was the opinion of the
faculty that remaining longer in India was dangerous, and I took the resolution of
proceeding to the Cape, and eventually to England.

“ My successor anived on the 11th, and in thirteen days after I quitted
Bataria, in the Ganges, leaving my appointment to Bencoolen untouched. It
would appear to have been the opinion of Mr. Edmonstone, that the orders of the
Court left a latitude for the Supreme Government to exert themselves in my favour ;
but this opinion was over-iaded by the influence of Lord Moira. A struggle, how-
ever, was made, and I am left to hope that even in the proceedings of the Governor-
General in Comicil I have fomid something like justice, and acknowledgement for my
ser\ices recorded.

“ It is my intention to appeal most forcibly to the Court against the whole
course of measures. I feel confident I shall obtain justice from them ; this is all I
shall ask for. I have a cause that will carry conviction. I am prepared for every
member being prepossessed against me, but I have dociunents uith me that will
prove they have been imposed upon. I am prepared to prove that so far from
haring been a burden to the finances of Great Britain, that in the uind-up there is
every chance of a sm-plus ; that in the affair of Palembang I acted according to
the principle laid down by the Governor-General in Council, and received the full
and unreserv'ed approval of the Governor-General in Council ; but this was while
Lord Minto was at the head of affairs. That in my land-revenue arrangements the
rights of no one had been subverted, and the just rights of all have been placed on
a footing more advantageous than was ever before felt by them. I come prepared to
meet every one of my enemies, but with a determination to turn them into friends.

“ You will have to pay many a sixpence for this letter, yet I hope you will
not grudge it, considering that it comes fr'om one, who although he brings back with
him from India but a sorry carcase, and wants the blazonments of power, returns
with a heart and soul as purely and devotedly attached as it w'as on the day of
parting; neither time, nor distance, nor the coldness of silence itself, which by
the bye I have sometimes experienced, has quenched that flame in my breast which
was once lighted by the torch of true and generous friendship ; and it is with these
feelings I still subscribe myself your devoted and affectionate friend.

T. S. R.”

EXTRACT FROM CAPTAIN TRAVERS’ JOURNAL.

281

Continuation of Extracts from Cajitain Travers' Journal.

“ On the 11th of July, we made the Scilly Isles, the announcement of which
soon brought all hands on deck. We quickly approached Falmouth, when several
boats came off to take us on shore, all most exorbitant in their demands, and whilst
I was arranging some reasonable bargain, Mr. Raffles agreed to go with the first
man who made the vessel, giving him his own terms, as a consideration for the exer-
tions he made in reaching our assistance first. We quickly prepared for the boat,
and were ready about noon, when we took om' leave of Captain Falconer, but not
without some expressions of what we felt, and ever would gratefully acknowledge for
his unremitting kindness and attention, his great hospitality, and liberal conduct,
during the long time we were on board his ship. His anxiety to study the comforts,
anticipate the wants, and in every possible way meet the vrishes of Mr. Raffles, had
at an early period of the voyage attracted our admiration, and his subsequent
steady adherence thereto, added to his agreeable manners and accommodating dis-
position, had rendered him a favourite with all on board. Not a want was experi-
enced by any during the voyage, and I believe no vessel ever yet made the trip
from India to England under more happy or agreeable circumstances than the good
ship Ganges.

On leaving the vessel. Captain Falconer, ever anxious to evince his high re-
spect for Mr. Raffles, fired the salute due to his rank as a Governor, which was im-
mediately repeated by one from the Auspicious, when both ships, although with
native crews, gave us three hearty cheers, and I am very sure accompanied them
with sincere good wishes, as we could distinctly hear in passing the vessels the terms
of praise in which they were speaking of Mr. Raffles.

“ Our party in the boat consisted of Mr. Raffles, and his faithful servant Lewis,
a native of Malacca, who had lived wdth him many years ; Captain Garnham and
myself, aides-de-camp; Sir Thomas Sevestre, who accompanied him as his medical
attendant, a Mr. Graham, a passenger from Batavia, a gentleman well known to us
all, of high respectability, who, during the time of Java being in our possession, had
made a very large fortune by trading as a merchant in Batavia, and RMen-Rana-
Dipura, a Javanese Chief.

“ The day was beautiful, the sun shining bright, the sea smooth, being but
little agitated by the gentle breezes. The land, as we approached, had to us the
most delightful appearance, the fields looking so green, and the country so luxu-
riant, so that our trip from the ship, though long, was not tedious, but, on the con-
trary, most agreeable. We reached shore about four o’clock, when we were im-
mediately examined by the custom-house officers ; first, as to the state of our health,
and next, whether there was any infection on board the ship, or at the port we had

o 0

282

EXTRACT FROM CAPTAIN TRAVERS’ JOURNAL.

sailed from. These questions were easily answered, but methought the officer
seemed rather doubtful as to the positive assurances our mouths were giving, in
direct opposition to the strong e\ddence of our cheeks, which, ^vith the excei>tion of
Captain Garnham’s, were of the most pale and emaciated caste : however, we got
through the examination, and were permitted to land, and afterwards had a hearty
laugh on communicating to each other our fears and apprehensions at the exami-
nation, wliich we were in no way prepared to meet or expect. We had not, how-
ever, yet done with examination, for we had no sooner landed than our baggage
was taken to the Custom-house : but this took httle time, as we had only a small
trunk each, and nothing seizable about us, Mr. Raffles ha\ing strongly recommended
us, and indeed given us the example himself, of putting every article, even of the
smallest value, into the ship’s manifest.

“ After these several delays we proceeded to the inn, where we ordered the
best dinner procurable at the place, to be got ready as quickly as possible, and
passed a most joyous, agreeable evening.

“ Having seen all we wished of Falmouth before dinner, we determined on
going early to Truro next morning, and reached there to breakfast at nine, Mr.
Raffles being anxious to avail himself of the opportunity whilst in Cornwall of
reviewing some of the mines, and enquiring into the nature of the ores, for the pur-
pose of comparing them with the products of those which, mider his directions,
when in the government of Java, had been brought into full power and force at
Banca.

“ Immediately after breakfast IMr. Raffles had an inter\dew with a gentleman
at Truro, who was well acquainted with mining business. He seemed a sensible,
inteUigent, well-informed gentleman, and afforded Mr. Raffles much useful and satis-
factory information. After some delay at Truro, employed as I have mentioned, we
proceeded to Welbesy, distant from Truro about five miles, close to Chesswater
where we were informed one of the best copper-mines was to be seen, and here we
were much pleased with all we saw. The gentleman to whom we had been intro-
duced at Truro accompanied Mr. Raffles, with the Hew of rendering every assistance
in his power, and was very kind and useful.

“ The appearance and working of this mine astonished us, and the wonderful
power of the steam-engine was no less a novelty. IMr. Raffles, Captain Garnham,
and Sir Thomas Sevestre went down, which I was afiaid to do, not being very
strong at the time ; but nothing could dissuade Mr. Raffles’fi'om descending, although,
in his then dehcate state of health, we were most anxious to prevent him from
doing so ; but his reply was that he never would forgive himself if he were to lose
such an opportmiity, and accordingly he went dorni and made himself quite master
of the whole routine, and did not seem to suffer in the least.

“ From what he had seen at Falmouth, Truro, and Welbesy, of the different

EXTRACT FROM CAPTAIN TRAVERS’ JOURNAL.

283

specimens of the ores, he appeared quite confirmed in his original opinion of the
superiority of the Japan ore.

“ We experienced the greatest possible civility and attention during the time
we were inspecting this mine, and Mr. Raffles was gi’eatly pleased with the anxiety
and wllingness evinced to afford him inforaiation on every point connected with
mining in all its branches.”

Mr. Raffles reached London on the 16th of July, 1816, and the next morning
he announced his arrival at the East India House. He looked with the greatest
confidence to the Court of Directors for ample justice, when they were in possession
of the facts of his case. The serenity of his temper, the buoyancy of his spirit, and
the joyous feehng of returning health, absorbed the recollection of past misery and
disappointment, in bright anticipations of future reward and happiness.

o o 2

CHAPTER X.

Mr. Raffles appeals to the Court of Directors — Their opinion — Writes his History of Java — Princess
Charlotte — Visits the Continent — Meditates the establishment of a Society on the principle of the
Jardin des Plantes — Is appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Bencoolen and its dependencies — Em-
barks for India — Death of Princess Charlotte — Arrival in Sumatra — Description of the Settlement —
Dispute with the Dutch Government — Earthquakes — State of Bencoolen — His opinion of the effects of
former government — Emaneipates the slaves — Cultivation of p>vpper declared free — Murder of Mr.
Parr — Instructions from the Court of Directors to Sir Stamford to watch the jjroceedings of the
Dutch — Lord Hastings’ opinion of the conduct of the Netherlands' Commissioners — Sir Stamford’s view
of the state of affairs — Recommends a line of stations for the protection of trade, and the command of
the Straits of Sunda — Appeals in favour of the native population — Prince of Wales’s Island the only
spot between the Maurit ius and China where the Br itish flag could be raised — His habits of intercourse
with the natives.

As soon as Mr. Raffles reached London, he addressed the Court of Directors. He
liad laboui'ed for ten years with unwearied zeal to promote their best interests, and
he therefore claimed a revision of his services.

A short summary of the principal events connected with his government, will
explain the circumstances under which he made his appeal. After the captm'e of
.lava, a system of government was drawn out by Lord Minto, upon which he was at
liberty to enlarge as he saw fit.

Java itself afforded no pecuniary means. It was absolutely necessary to main-
tain a considerable force, as military operations had not ceased ; it was equally ne-
cessary to relieve the public credit from the pressure of the debts of the former
government. Drafts on Bengal became the only resource, and until the new system
should be in full operation, and yield (which it afterwards did) the advantages con-
templated at its introduction, that was the only channel of relief left open. These
drafts were to a considerable extent, and anived in Calcutta at a period of all others
the most inconvenient to the Bengal treasury ; whilst the demands fi'om India on the
home treasuiy of the Court of Directors became a source of embarrassment and led
to the formation of a most unfavourable opinion of the newly acquired possession,
which, unable to bear its own expenses, became for a short time a weight on the

APPEALS TO THE COURT OF DIRECTORS.

285

British Govemment. These circumstances added to the doubtful tenure of the
Island, and the impression created by charges which were preferred against him,
totally ^vithout foundation, led to his recall.

It is not intended here to animadvert upon the judgment which the Court of
Directors passed upon that occasion. It was the duty of Mr. Raffles to bow with
submission to their authority, although such decision deeply involved his personal
interests, and even placed his succession to Bencoolen contingent with his refutation
of those charges.

To have remained in India, even if his health would have permitted it, subject
to the prejudices and misrepresentations which had arisen against him was impos-
sible. He owed it no less to the memory of his friend and patron, (whose death he
had then most deeply to deplore) than to his own honour and character, to seek at
the hands of the Court of Directors that justice which he felt he deserved. With
reference to the policy of the public measures he adopted, they were in accordance
with the policy of Lord Minto, and were calculated for a permanent state of things.
The results of this policy were extensive revenue and judicial arrangements, affecting
both European and native inhabitants ; the reform of courts of justice, and establish-
ment of a magistracy; the institution of trial by jury, and of laws for the abolition
of slavery ; the passing a code of regulations for the Dutch courts, the prosecution of
statistical sm'veys under a committee, by which a knowledge was obtained of the
value and importance of the Island, till then unknown, even to the Dutch, who had
been there for three centuries. The revival of the Batavian Society, and researches
and collections in Natural History now deposited at the India House.

The importance attached by the Netherlands Government to these measures,
as well as the improved state of the colony itself, clearly shewed that time alone was
required to develop the advantages which were contemplated at their introduction
into Java. The highest revenue that had ever been raised by the Dutch in Java, did
not exceed four millions of rupees, in any one year. Before Mr. Raffles left it, the
receipts into the government treasury were not less than thirty millions, and on the
restitution of the Island to the Dutch, not a pensioner was thrown as a burden on
the Company, not a complaint was preferred by a single Dutch or native inhabitant
against the British Government.

In his appeal to the Court, he took a general \iew of his ser\dces from the
period of his first acquaintance with Lord Minto. His arrangements for the capture
of Java; the unreserved approval of all the measures of his government during the
administration of that nobleman, which approbation embraced all those measures,
for which he was afterwards deprived of his government ; the totally opposite view
that was taken by Lord Moira of all that had been done ; the hardship of never ob-
taining from the Bengal Government any reply or notice of his answers to the

286

OPINION OF THE COURT OF DIRECTORS.

charges of General Gillespie, until an order for his removal from the government of
Java, on distinct grounds, was sent to him.

The removal he felt to he unjust, because it was grounded on measures, all of
which had been approved by Lord Minto, and he therefore felt assured that the
Court of Directors would take into consideration the unexampled time during which
he was kept in suspense, the painful anxiety to which that suspense natm*ally gave
rise, to the injury of his health, as well as to the disadvantage of his administration ;
the serious nature of the original charges, and the loose and unsatisfactory manner
in which the decision had been communicated ; and if any doubt still existed affect-
ing his character, he begged that an immediate investigation might take place ; but
if, on the contrary, the Court should think the case was one of peculiar hardship,
then he prayed that the Court would consider the manifest injury done to his cha-
racter by the particular circumstance of Lord Hastings not haHng allowed him to
proceed to Calcutta, or come to any decision until an order for his recal on distinct
grounds had been received ; and after thus considering, grant him some pubhc
acknowledgment of his services.

In reply to this Memorial, the Court of Directors dechned giHng any opinion
on the measures of his government ; but, as has been before stated, (page 204,)
expressed their conviction, that they sprung from motives perfectly coiTect and
laudable.

Mr. Raffles’ health was so much impaired by his residence in India, that his
friends strongly urged the necessity of his rehnquishing all thoughts of returning
to that country, but to this adHce it was unfortunately not in his power to attend ;
previously to leaving England, however, he was anxious to record the infonnation
which he had collected regarding Java. The Island had been transferred by the
English Government in total ignorance of its value to the Dutch. The presence of
Mr. Raffles in England created an interest in the subject as far as his personal iifflu-
ence extended. To diffuse this interest more generally, and to make the coimtry
sensible of the loss sustained by the relinquishment of so flourishing a colony to a
foreign and a rival power, he determined to Avrite his History of Java, which he com-
pleted with his usual quickness. A few sheets were rapidly written off every morning
for the printer, and corrected at night on his return from his dinner engagements.
It was commenced in the month of October, 1816, and published in May, 1817*,
It was at this time that Mr. Raffles was presented to His Majesty, then Prince
Regent, and received the honour of Knighthood.

During this period Sir Stamford enjoyed the pleasures of society with a zest which
may well be imagined, when the vigour of his mind and the variety of his tastes are

* Early in this year Mr. Raffles married Sophia, daughter of T. W. Hull, Esq. of the county of Down,
Ireland.

VISITS THE CONTINENT.

287

considered. He left England, indeed, at an age when he had no opportunity of
judging of the attractions of its best society ; but whilst he was occupied in his public
duties in the East, he seized eagerly every opportunity to gratify his thirst of know-
ledge, and to improve the talents with which God had blessed him ; he, therefore, in
every station surrounded himself with all of every class from whom he could derive
information ; and he returned to England with talents ripened, and with a taste
formed for all the intellectual enjoyments of life. During the fifteen months which
he thus passed he had the happiness to obtain the friendship of many, whose sym-
pathy in after scenes of anxiety and sorrow with which it pleased God to visit him,
proved a source of comfort and consolation. He had also the high gratification of
being one of those whom Their Royal Highnesses Princess Charlotte and Prince
Leopold honoured with proofs of regard. He was a frequent guest at Claremont.
His last dinner before he set out on his last expedition was there, and the Ring which,
on that day, the Princess gave to him, was the gift which, of all such gifts, he prized
most.

In the month of June Sir Stamford Raffles visited the Continent for the pur-
pose of obtaining an interview with the King of Holland, and making some repre-
sentations to his Majesty in behalf of the native and some of the Dutch inhabitants of
Java. — The following letters give an account of this toim.

To her Grace the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Brussels, July \4ith, 1817.

You will have had cause to call me a very bad correspondent ; I have neither
kept my word nor kept my journal ; and as it is now too late to attempt bringing
up ari’ears, I must hasten back to London, and make the best apology I can, and
trust to my personal influence for forgiveness.

“ I send you, within, a ‘ Forget me Not,’ or, as the Swiss call it, ‘ Rose ne
m'ouhliez pas,’ from the Alps.

“ Your Grace will expect that I should say something of the countries I have
passed through, and yet what can you expect from one who knows so little of the
Em'opean world, and is scarce in one place before he flies to another. Of France
you have so many accounts that it would be presumptuous in me to offer an opinion ;
of Switzerland and the Alps your Grace knows every thing ; and to attempt to extol
the banks of the Rhme, or the fertility of Belgium, would be like giving you an
account of the banks of the Thames and the fields of England. I was certainly
surprised and dehghted with the appearance of agriculture in France, not that the
fiolds were as highly cultivated as in England, nor that any thing hke an advanced
state of agriculture was to be seen. I was pleased to observe two things, which I

288

VISITS THE CONTINENT.

know are highly condemned by agriculturists, the smallness of the properties, and
the cultivation of the fruit-trees in the grain and hay-fields. Agriculturists maintain
that capital is essential to improvement ; that when the properties are so small there
can be no capital ; this I grant to be good diction where the soil is poor and requires
much improvement, but when it is rich, and wants httle or no improvement,
capital is unnecessary. For the greatness of a country it may be an object that
the gi'eatest possible quantity of produce should be brought to market ; and those
who are for raising a nation maintain that this can only be effected by large farms
and the outlay of capital. The philanthropist, however, and even the philosopher,
will hesitate before he sacrifices every thing to the gi'eatness of the nation ; unless
its happiness goes hand in hand - with its greatness he will think the latter but of
little value. Now when I see every man cultivating his own field, I cannot but
think him happier far than when he is cultivating the field of another ; even if he
labours more, that labour is still lighter which is his pride and pleasure, than that
which is his burden and sorrow. In France there seems to be so much good land
that it can be hardly managed amiss, and in the provinces through which I passed
it struck me that the crops were full as good as those I have seen in England.
Throw the people out of these little properties and they lose their independence of
character, their pride, and when only accustomed to daily wages are soon fitted for
the army, the manufactory, or the poor-house. But you will say how is it that in
France, where the government is so despotic, that the people are happier than in
England ? Many causes may have contributed to the present state of agricultiue in
France ; the revolution abohshed the feudal rights and serAice, with ten thousand
vexations under which it had pre\iously laboured ; and the land in general fell into
the hands of the actual cultivators, and the people who were seen to cultivate it
with so much pleasure. It did not suit Buonaparte’s policy to giind the peasant ;
from the low'er class he wanted men and took them, but this only left the more for
those who remained ; it was from the rich that he took money, and the demands of
his government gave employment to all ; all the energies of France were exerted at
his command ; but however dearly it cost his subjects to maintain his authority, the
bm'den seems to have fallen so lightly on the agi'iculturist that he even benefited
by it.

I Hke to see fruit-trees gro\ring among the corn, because it not only affords
a refreshing and beautiful scenery, but because it reminds me of those patriarchal
times, those days of simphcity, when the son and the grandson, and even the great
grandson, honoured the trees that their forefathers planted.

Upon the whole, I cannot but think that, notwithstanding agriculture as a
science may be almost unknown in France, and that France as a nation has been
greatly impoverished both in men and money, there is a foundation in the present

INTRODUCED TO THE KING OF THE NETHERLANDS.

289

state of her land and peasantry to support a much greater nation than France ever
yet was ; all now depends upon the wisdom of their government and the fortune of
her pohtics. So much for the agiiculture of France.

* * * * *

“ S\vitzerland seems to have felt the weight of French influence, and is certainly
very different to what it is represented to have been some twenty years ago ; but
the valley of Chamouni, the Alps are the same ; that troubled sea which seems to
have been in a moment stayed and fettered by an icy hand, still shines in all its
majesty; nor has all the vice nor all the blood which has stained the lower world,
cast one spot to sully the heavenly purity of Mont Blanc.

The Rhine, with its hundred castles which hne the heights along its banks,
still flows in its ancient course to delight the traveller, enrich the land, and spur the
industry of man.

Of this place, and its politics, I have seen but little.”

* * « *

Sir Stamford Rafiles reached London from Holland on the 26th of July, and on
the following day he wrote his friend

Mr. Marsden,

“ Berners Street, July 27th, 1817.

My Dear Sir,

“ I have the pleasure to enclose you a letter from Mr. Langles, which re-
lates, I believe, principally to a copy of Marco Polo in the Royal Library, that he
conceives may be useful for you to refer to.

“ We arrived yesterday evening, after a very pleasant tour of seven weeks,
ha\ing crossed France from Dieppe through Rouen, Paris, and Dijon, to Geneva;
passed through the valley of Chamouni, along the foot of the Alps, and returned by
Lausanne and Berne to Basle and down the Rhine to Cologne, whence we traversed
the Low Countries to Brussels and Ostend. We had fine weather throughout, and
met wdth neither delay or difficulty to render the journey unpleasant. At Paris and
Brussels we remained from eight to ten days, which enabled us to see all the lions ;
to have seen more would have taken months, and these I could not spare.

“ I met with very great attention in the Netherlands, and had the honovu* to
dine with the King last Monday; they were very communicative regarding their
eastern colonies; but I regret to say that, notwithstanding the King himself, and
his leading minister, seem to mean well, they have too great a hankering after profit,
and immediate profit, for any hberal system to thrive under them. They seem to be
miserably poor, and the new government in Java have commenced by the issue of a

p p

•290

ESTABLISHES THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

paper cun-ency from every bm-eau throughout the Island; formerly, you will re-
collect, that paper money was confined to Batavia, it is now made general, and will,
I fear, soon cause all the remaining silver to disappear. The King complained of
the coffee culture having been neglected, and expressed anxiety that he should soon
have consignments ; and while he admitted aU the advantages hkely to arise from
cultivation, and assured me that the system introduced under my administration
should be continued, maintained that it was essential to confine the trade, and to
make such regulations as would secm-e it and its profits exclusively to the mother-
country. I had an opportunity of expressing my sentiments to him very fi-eely, and
as he took them in good part, I am in hopes they may have had some weight.

We shall remain in town about three weeks, and I hope to embark in
September.

“ Tout’s, &c. &c.

T. S. R.”

The period was now approaching when it became necessary to make the requi-
site arrangements for retmming to India. Sir Stamford was incessantly occupied in
scientific and literary enquiries, and formed his plans for stiU fui'ther contributing to
the valuable and interesting collections he had sent home from the Eastern Islands.
At this time he meditated the establishment of a Society on the principle of the
Jardiii cles Plantes at Paris, which finally, on his last return fi-om the East, he suc-
ceeded in fonning, in 1826, under the title of the Zoological Society of London. He
was also deeply engaged in the duties and pleasm'es of private fi-iendship. He
\isited Liverpool, Manchester, the Lakes of Westmoreland, Edinburgh, Glasgow,
Dubhn, and Wales ; travelhng with his usual speed, sixteen hours in the day.

In October, 1817, Sir Stamford, with his family, embarked for Bencoolen at
Portsmouth, on board “ The Lady Raffles.” The Court of Dhectors “ in consideration
of the zeal and talents displayed during the period he filled the office of Lieutenant-
Governor of Java, conferi'ed upon him the title of Lieutenant-Governor of Ben-
coolen, as SijjecuUar mark of the favourable sentiments which the Court entertained of his
merits and services.”

The following are extracts of letters written to the Duchess of Somerset.

“ October Uth, 1817.

“ Oh ! that this leave-taking was at an end ; my heart is sad, and yet what
avails it to repine ? I must go, and the sooner I am off the better ; my house is
filled with those w’ho all are determined to say good-bye, and make me more
miserable when it requires all my fortitude to keep my spirits calm and uniform.”

EMBARKS FOR INDIA.

291

“ Falmouth, October 20th.

“ We had a fair wind down the channel, but had hardly got to the Land’s End
when a heavy gale came on from the westward with a tremendous sea ; this we
stemmed for three days, but at last finding we were losing gromid, and every one
being tired out, some with severe sickness, others with severe duty, we were com-
pelled to seek shelter in this friendly port. Lady Raffles has suffered severely from
the motion of the ship, and for the last four days refused every kind of nourishment,
even u glass of cold water, so that I cannot help thinking it fortunate we have an
opportunity of recruiting her. Often, very often, I might say always, do we regret
it is Falmouth and not Plymouth, we might then have hoped once more to have said
good-bye \ * * * * ^

“ I am going into the country to descend a tin mine, and I hope to be quite
learned in the mineralogy of Cornwall.”

Falmouth, November Qth, 1817.

“ Last night I was gratified by the receipt of your kind letters : this morning
we are gi'eeted with a fair wind, and summoned to embark within half an hour. God

gi*ant we may be fairly off — as we must go — the sooner the better.”

*******

“ November 7th.

We sailed yesterday, and by the pilot I sent a few hurried lines — to say fare-
well— but alas ! the wind soon after changed, and we are again driven into port. We
were obliged to run in quickly, otherwise we should have been driven back to Ply-
mouth. I cannot say I should have regretted this, but it would have been a very bad
way of commencing a voyage.

How long we may remain here seems uncertain : the wind now blows what
the sailors call ^ great guns,’ and perhaps it will expend its fury, and change about to
a more favourable quarter.

We are now detained on board on account of the violence of the wind, but
we hope to have a boat off in the evening.”

“ Falmouth, November 0th.

“ We landed this morning, and if the wind continues equally unfavourable to-
morrow, we have it in contemplation to set off post for Plymouth.

*****

“ What a melancholy and unexpected event has occurred, it has shocked me
beyond measm'e — I dare not dwell upon it

* The reader has already supplied the event, — the death of Her Royal Highness Princess Charlotte.
The kindness which Sir Stamford received from this noble-minded Princess, and from His Royal Highness

p p 2

•292

ARRIVES AT BENCOOLEN.

“ Off Falmouth, November \ 9th.

“ Once more we are off, and as we must go, God gi’ant it may be for good !
We left PljTUouth after smiset yesterday, travelled all night, and are now many
miles from Falmouth on our watery way.

“ And now then I must say good-bye in earnest, for the wind is decidedly fair,
and promises to continue so.”

“ //i sea, December l5f, 1817.

“ The die is now cast, and we are at last fairly off. We have just weathered
the Bay of Biscay, and hope, in the com-se of next week, to reach Madeira. We
are at present harassed by contrary winds, but the weather is fine, and we are
already sensible of a warmer chmate. Lady Raffles has suffered very much, and
has not yet left her couch.

“ The concerns of om* little community are of too monotonous a natm*e to
deserve detail, and as yet the heavens and the ocean have been our only prospect
from without. You will be glad, however, to hear that all the indi\iduals of the
ark are well and thriving. The cows, dogs, cats, birds, the latter smging around me,
and my nursery of plants thriving beyond all expectation ; the thermometer is at
76°. What a w^aste of waters now lies between us, and yet the distance daily \videns,
and will widen still until half the world divides us.”

It is by many considered impossible to occupy the mind and time steadily and
usefully, under all the discomforts and disadvantages of a sea voyage ; but Sir
Stamford never relaxed his occupations — he regularly devoted his mornings to study
— and only allowed a small portion of the day to be occupied in the idle exercise of
walking on the deck. He spent most of his time in the retirement of his cabin —
read and WTote on serious subjects till the evening, when he read aloud some books
of poetry or light work ; and thus, though never well at sea, he had the satisfaction
of feeling that the time, if not agreeably, w^as not unprofitably spent.

The passage was long and tedious — five months without any object to vary the
scene, relieve the eye, or divert the mind from the contemplation of wdiat has been
compared to one great monotonous idea. “ The Lady Raffles” reached Bencoolen,
without touching at any port, on the 22d of IMarch, 1818.

Sir Stamford found the settlement in a state of great confusion ; the Govern-
ment-houses were deserted ; there was no accommodation for any of the party, and

Prince Leopold, was returned by him with the most devoted attachment. Those who remember the uni-
versal feeling of grief, when the whole nation was humbled under this calamity, with which it pleased God
for an all-wise purjjgse to afflict them, will not wonder that Sir Stamford mourned her early and unexpected
death with far more than a subject’s sorrow.

ARRIVAL AT BENCOOLEN.

29R

he was obliged to put his family into a habitation which was so impaired by the
shocks of earthquakes, that the inhabitants would not trust themselves in it. His
letters to his friends describe his feelings on his first arrival.

To William Marsden, Esq.

“ Bencoolen, April7, 1818.

“ My Dear Sir,

I have only time to advise you of our safe arrival here.

" We had a very tedious passage of more than four months, exclusive of our
detention at Falmouth. Lady Raffles presented me with a beautiful little girl, when
to the southward of the Cape ; fortunately we had moderate and fine weather, and
both mother and child did wonderfully well ; neither of them suffered from the pri-
vations attending a protracted voyage. At the suggestion of the Radin *, my
daughter has received the name of Tunjong Segara, (the Lily of the Sea,) in addi-
tion to those of Charlotte Sophia.

“ This is, without exception, the most wretched place I ever beheld. I cannot
convey to you an adequate idea of the state of ruin and dilapidation which surrounds
me. What with natm*al impediments, bad government, and the awful visitations of
Pro\ddence which we have recently experienced, in repeated earthquakes, we have
scarcely a dwelling in which to lay our heads, or wherewithal to satisfy the cravings
of nature. The roads are impassable ; the highways in the town overrun with rank
grass ; the Government-house a den of ravenous dogs and polecats. The natives
say that Bencoolen is now a tana mati (dead land.) In truth, I could never have
conceived any thing half so bad. We will try and make it better ; and if I am well
supported from home, the west coast may yet be turned to account. You must,
however, be prepared for the abolition of slavery ; the emancipation of the country
people from the forced cultivation of pepper ; the discontinuance of the gaming and
cock-fighting fanns ; and a thousand other practices equally disgraceful and repug-
nant to the British character and government. A complete and thorough reform is
indispensable, and reductions must be made throughout.

“ As soon as I have effected some essential changes here, I mean to go to
Croee by land, afterwards to Padang ; from the latter place I shall go by sea to
Tappanooly, and thence most probably to Acheen, where there wll be much to do.
I must not omit to tell you that it is my intention to visit Menangkabu fi-om Pedang.
Mr. Holloway seems haK afraid, but, nolens volenSy as he is Resident, he must accom-
pany me.

“ I am already at issue with the Dutch Government about their boundaries in
the Lampoon country. They insist on packing us up close to Billimbing, on the

Raden-Raaa-Dipura, a Javanese Chief, who had accompanied Sir Stamford lo England.

294

EARTHQUAKES AT BENCOOLEN.

west coast. I demand an anchorage in Simangka Bay, and lay claim to Simangka
itself. If we obtain this, we shall have a convenient place for om* China ships to
water ; and should we go no further nithin the Archipelago, be able to set up oiu*
shop next door to the Dutch. It woidd not, I think, be many years before my
station in the Straits of Sunda would rival Batavia as a commercial entrepot. If I
have time, you shall have copies of my dispatches, and I hope to have your support
wdth Mr. Canning on this point. You vdW at once see the immense importance of
what I am standing out for, both for this coast and our interest generally.

‘‘ Another point which occupies my attention is, the command of the northern
ports, from Acheen do^\^l to Tappanooly. I wish to form a small factory of tumpat
tuan at Pulo Dera, and to fix Mr. Holloway there. My object in the reference,
however, is to procure direct orders, and in this I shall hope for your assistance.

“ We are beginning to make ourselves comfortable — happy we always are. Our
kindest regards to Mrs. Marsden.”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Fort Marlborough, April 8th, 1818.

What an age has passed ! what a distance are we apart ! fifteen thousand
miles on the opposite sides of the world h? * *

In my last I gave you a diy detail of om* voyage. IMy arrival was not hailed
by the most auspicious of omens, for the day preHous to it, a violent earthquake had
nearly destroyed every building in the place, and the first communication which I
received from the shore was, that both Government-houses were rendered useless
and uninhabitable. These earthquakes are said to occiu every five or six years, and
they have now lasted from the 18th of the last month up to the present period, the
shocks occuiTing within short intervals twice or thrice a day. The most riolent shock
happened on the 18th, before our amval ; it occm*red dming the night, and by the
accounts given, it must have been truly awful. Every building has suffered more or
less ; some are quite ruins, others hardly deserving repair : the house which I now
occupy is rent from top to bottom, there is not a room without a crack of some feet
long and several inches wide ; the cornices broken and every thing unhinged ; fi'om
some houses many cart-loads of nibbish have been cleared away, and still they are
inhabited, notwithstanding they rock to and fro with every breeze.

“ This you will say is but a bad beginning for my Eastern Empire, but as we
are not inchned to make difficulties, or murmur against Prortdence, we shall, I have
no doubt, contrive to make ourselves very happy. The earthquake might have been
worse, for in the accounts of a shock felt on this coast in 1797, it is stated that the
vibratory shocks continued for three minutes, and recurred at intervals dming the
space of three hom’S, till the shock completely ceased. At Padang the houses of the

TRADE OF BENCOOLEN.

295

inhabitants were almost entirely destroyed, and the public works much damaged. A
vessel lying at anchor was thrown by the sudden rise of the tide upwards of
three miles on shore. The number of lives lost there amounted to above three
hundred ; of these some were crushed under the ruins of falling houses, some were
literally entombed alive by the earth closing upon them, and others were drowned by
the sudden irruption of the waters of the ocean ; but after all, this is nothing to our
Java volcanoes ; there is nothing here half so grand and magnificent, and from what
I have seen of Sumatra, I would not give one Java for a thousand such Islands.

“ I have been here so short a time, and have had so little opportunity of looking
about, that I have not much to say of the further East.

“ I am now preparing for a tour overland to the Southern Residencies, as far as
the straits of Sunda, and on my return shall go northward as far as Acheen, and
inland to Pageruyung or Menangkabu, the capital of the Malays.” * *

To William Marsden, Esq.

“ Bencoolen, April 28, 1818.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ There have been no less than nineteen Americans at the northern ports
this season, and they have taken away upwards of sixty thousand pekuls of pepper
at nine dollars ; there are five or six at the different ports even now. It is quite
ridiculous for us to be confined to this spot in order to secure the monopoly of five
hundi’ed tons, while ten times that amount may be procured next door, without
any establishment at all.

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

“ Our best regards to Mrs. Marsden.

“ Your’s very faithfully,

« T. S. R.”

Although Bencoolen was one of the first establishments formed by the Com-
pany in the East, it had benefited less than any other part of the country under
their controul. This may be accounted for from the different circumstances and
condition of the place, compared with the Company’s possessions on the continent
of India. There they found a cultivated country, and a redundant population. At
Bencoolen an establishment was formed, (solely for the purpose of procuring pepper)
in a country deficient in population, and in a new and almost unappropriated soil
which could only be rendered productive by the introduction of capital and foreign
industry. The expenses of the establishment were <£100,000 per annum, the returns
for this were only a few tons of pepper.

The Company, on first forming settlements on the coast of Sumatra, bound
down the native Chiefs to compel their subjects, each, to cultivate a certain number

296

PERNICIOUS SYSTEM AT BENCOOLEN.

of pepper vines, the produce to be delivered exclusively to the Company’s agents, at
a price far below the value of the labour employed in the cultivation.

For a certain time, while the influence of the Chiefs continued, the stipulated
quantity of pepper was cultivated and dehvered to the Company, the Chiefs ha\dng
an allowance granted to them on the quantity of pepper delivered ; but it could not
be long before the oppression was felt ; the cultivators held back their labours, and
tlie Chiefs, destitute of a sufficient influence to enforce it, left to the agents of the
Company the task of (having the people to their w'ork. While an efficient esta-
blishment was kept up, the stipulated number of \anes was still cultivated, and the
usual consignments made to Europe.

In the year 1801, the Court of Directors sent orders to reduce the esta-
blishment to a Resident, four Assistants, and four Writers ; and to with(h'aw from
what were termed the out-residencies (these extended from Padang to Croe, at the
southern extremity of the Island, and a civil servant was at the head of each
establishment.)

On carrying these orders into execution, instead of leaving the people to the
fi’ee emplo)Tnent of their labour, the command of their service was secured for a
time, on a system of contracts ; by which, in return for a certain quantity of pepper
to be delivered to the Company at a given rate, the out-residencies were literally
given over in farm to those gentlemen who made the most advantageous offers.
That system had terminated, but its effects were still experienced. That the Resi-
dent might have an interest in forcing the people to cultivate pepper, he was allowed
one dollar per cwt. on the quantity he dehvered to Government.

Besides this there was in the neighbourhood of Bencoolen what were termed
free gardens. An advance of 79,000 dollars, (<£19,750 at par) had been made to
induce the natives to cultivate pepper ; in the course of sixteen years, 24,000 dol-
lars, (£5,999 at par) were repaid, leaving 44,000 dollars, (£11,000 at par) still
unpaid. Many of those to whom the money was advanced had either emigrated or
died. But by the Malay law the chilch’en in the first instance, and after their death,
the village to which they belonged, are liable for the debt. Thus not only the
original contractors were rendered slave-debtors, as they were termed, but their
offspring, and eventually the people in general, were reduced to the same hapless
state.

There were also at this time (1818) in Bencoolen upwards of two hundred
African slaves, most of them born in the settlement, who were the children of slaves,
originally purchased by the East India Company; they were considered imhspens-
able for the duties of the place, and it was asserted that they were happier than free
men. They were employed in loading and unloading the Company’s ships, and other
hard work. No care ha\ang been taken of their morals, many of them were dissolute
and depraved, and the chilth'en in a state of nature, vice, and Avretchedness.

PERNICIOUS SYSTEM AT BENCOOLEN.

297

As the chief revenue of the government was derived from the gaming and
cock-fighting farms, there was but little check to the natural \ices of the
people.

Of the desolating effects of such a state of things, it is scarcely possible to convey
an idea. Public gaming and cock-fighting were not only practised under the eye of
the chief authority, but publicly patronized by government ; and as might be expected
there was no security for person or property to be found. Murders were daily com-
mitted, and robberies perpetrated, which were never traced, and profligacy and im-
morality obtmded themselves in every direction.

In remarking upon the sad state of the settlement, in a letter to the Comt of
Directors, Sir Stamford added : ‘‘ It has been but too common, and I regret to say
the authorities which sanction the opinion are most respectable, that the Malayan
character is too despicable to be entrusted with personal freedom, and that the de-
gree of restraint, exercised over them, on this coast, is not only wholesome, but
necessary. That indolence and rice prevail among the Malays on this coast, and
to a considerable extent I am not prepared to deny, but I apprehend they are rather
to be attributed to the effects of the system hitherto prescribed than to any original
defect of character.

“ My own experience of twelve years, in different parts of the Archipelago, en-
ables me to assert that there is no radical defect in the character of the common
people, however bad their Mahomedan government may be. They are alive to the
same incentives, have the same feehngs, and, if once allowed, would as rapidly ad-
vance in cirilization as their fellow men; once reheved from the oppression and dis-
abilities under which they labour, and placed under an honourable protection, there
would be no want of energy or enterprise; the temptations to rice by which they
are surrounded, once removed, they would be amiable and trustworthy. Of some
of the oppressions and disabilities under which they labour I have already spoken ;
of the temptations to rice by which they are surrounded, I need only observe, that
the principal local revenues of government both at Bencoolen, and at the different
Residencies, are in the gaming and cock-fighting farms. Of the first, I shall not
at present speak, as it is connected with the revenues of Bengal, but of the latter,
which are entirely local, it is incumbent on me as chief magistrate to point out, that
the continuance of the farms is destructive of every principle of good government, of
social order, and the morals of the people.

“ The forced services and forced deliveries at inadequate rates must be
abolished. The labourer must be allowed to cultivate pepper or not at pleasure,
and such radical changes made throughout, as will enable the people to distinguish
the political influence of the British Government from the commercial speculations
of the Company and their agents. I am aware that the task is difficult, if not in-
vidious ; but imder the confidence placed in me, and having at heart the honour and

Q q

298

PROPOSED REFORMS.

character of the nation, and of the East India Company, I shall not hesitate to
undertake it.

My first pubhc act must be the emancipation of the unfortunate Caffre
slaves: when I have done this, and abolished the gaming and cock-fighting farms,
I may with some conscience call upon the Chiefs to assist me in the general work of
' refonn, amelioration and improvement.

But there is another class of people that call for immediate consideration ; since
1797, a number of persons have been transported to this place from Bengal, for
various crimes of which they had been found guilty.

“ The object of the punishment as far as it affects the parties must be the re-
claiming them from their bad habits, but I much question whether the practice
hitherto pursued has been productive of that effect. This I apprehend to be in a
great measm'e, in consequence of sufficient discrimination and encoirragement not
haring been she^vn in favom* of those most inclined to amendment, and perhaps to
the want of a discretionary power in the chief authority to remit a portion of the
punishment and disgi'ace which is at present the common lot of all. It frequently
happens that men of notoriously bad conduct are liberated at the expiration of a
limited period of transportation, whilst others w^hose general conduct is perhaps un-
exceptionable are doomed to seiwitude till the end of their lives.

As coercive measures are not likely to be attended mth success, I conceive
that more advantage would arise from affording inducements to good conduct by
holding out the prospect of again becoming useful members of society, and of forcing
themselves from the disabilities under which they labour. There are at present
above five hundred of these unfortunate people. However just the original sentence
may have been, the crimes and characters of the different individuals of so nume-
rous a body, must necessarily be very unequal, and it is desirable that some discri-
mination should be exerted in favour of those who show the disposition to redeem
their character. I would suggest the propriety of the chief authority being vested
with a discretionaiy power of freeing such men as conduct themselves well, from the
obligations of service, and permitting them to settle in the place, and resmne the
privileges of citizenship. The prospect of recovering their characters, of freeing
themselves fi-om their present disabihties, and the privileges of employing their
industry for their owm advantage, would become an object of ambition, and supply
a stimulus to exertion and good conduct which is at present wanting.

“ It rarely happens that any of those transported have any desire to leave the
country; they form connections in the place, and find so many inducements to
remain, that to be sent away is considered by most a severe punishment.

“ While a convict remains unmarried and kept to daily laljour, very little con-
fidence can be placed in him ; and his services are rendered with so much tardiness
and dissatisfaction that they are of httle or no value ; but he no sooner marries and

STATE OF BENCOOLEN.

299

forms a small settlement than he becomes a kind of colonist, and if allowed to follow
his inclinations, he seldom feels inclined to return to his native country.

“ I propose to divide them into three classes.

“ The first class to be allowed to give evidence in court, and permitted to settle
on lands secured to them and their children ; but no one to be admitted to this class
until he has been resident at Bencoolen three years.

“ The second class to be employed in ordinary labour.

“ The third class, or men of abandoned and profligate character, to be kept to
the harder kinds of labour, and confined at night.

“ In cases of particidar good conduct, a prospect may be held out of emanci-
pating deserving convicts from further obligation of services, on condition of their
supporting themselves and not quitting the settlement.

“ Upon the abstract question of the advantage of this arrangement, I believe
there will be little difference of opinion. The advantage of holding out an adequate
motive of exertion is sufficiently obvious, and here it would have the double ten-
dency of diminishing the bad characters, and of increasing that of useful and indus-
trious settlers, thereby facihtating the general police of the country, and diminishing
the expenses of the Company.”

These intentions were acted upon afterwards, and the good effects of the regu-
lations were soon apparent ; a large body of people, who had been hving in the
lowest state of degradation, soon became useful labourers, and happy members of
society. So grateful were they for the change, that when they were sent round to
Penang, on the transfer of Bencoolen to the Dutch in 1825, they entreated to be
placed on the same footing as they had been at Marlborough, and not reduced to
the state of the convicts at Prince of Wales’ Island, who were kept as a government
gang, to be employed wherever their services might be thought most desirable.

It is a matter of individual regret to the Editor, and perhaps of reproach to
others, that the plans of Sir Stamford Raffles, equally wise and benevolent, were
discontinued as soon as these people were transferred to that settlement ; and the
system of retaining them in bodies, ready to be employed in all government work,
a temptation always to those who are governors, was resumed.

Sir Stamford gave the following account of the state in which he found the
establishment on his arrival at Bencoolen, in a letter to William Marsden, Esq.

“ Fort Marlborough, Jpril 27, 1818.

“ In consequence of the reduction of the number of civil servants which took
place in 1818, and the non-appointment of writers by the Court for several years,
the local authorities at Bencoolen would appear to have availed themselves of the
services of different gentlemen resident on the spot, and to have appointed many of
them to offices of trust ; subsequently as the number of civil servants became still

Q q 2

300

EMANCIPATION OF SLAVES AT BENCOOLEN.

less from the death or departure of the Company’s ci^^lians, nearly all the offices
of tmst fell into the hands of these gentlemen. Some years since, however, the
Court of Directors ha\'ing, on the repeated applications of the late Resident for
additional assistance, resolved to appoint eight regularly covenanted writers to this
estahhshment, those young gentlemen who came out from England naturally looked
fonvard to holding offices of tmst, and to advancement in the service, on the same
principle as at the Presidencies of India.

“ At the date of my arrival only two of them could be considered as holding
offices of any trust, and the salary of one of them only amounted to 150 dollars
a month. Some had either quitted the place in disgust, or returned to England,
and the remainder were posted as assistants under the other description of servants,
with an allowance of 150 dollars per month, a salary which in this place is most
certainly not equal to the subsistence of a gentleman.

“ If a cine for the erils that have been depicted is to be found, it is not to be
sought in the simple prorisional reduction of establishment. An inadequate salary
given to the Overseer by Government, creates the greater motive to draw his advan-
tage from the people subjected to him. A subsistence, and even a hberal one, he
expects, and will obtain, if not by open, certainly by clandestine means. The evil
is in the system of management, and a thorough change is indispensable.”

Sir Stamford assembled the whole of the Company’s slaves before an assembly
of the native Chiefs, and explained the riews of the British Government with regard
to the abolition generally ; a certificate of freedom was given to each, a measure
which made a considerable impression, and promised to be foUow^ed by the most
favourable results *.

The next step was to ascertain the sentiments of the native Chiefs, and, if prac-
ticable, to enter into such agreements \rith them, as might leave it in the power of
Government to effect any change that might be deemed most adrisable in the mode
of management.

Finding them reasonable on the subject, he entered into a provisional treaty
uith them, whereby,

1 st. All former treaties were annulled.

2dly. Authority was given to the Company to administer the comitry according
to equity, justice, and good policy ; and.

* The children of these poor people were at the same time assembled at the Government-House ; and
as a considerable degree of prejudice existed against them, the Editor at the moment selected one of them,
a little bright-eyed girl about eight years old, whom she put under the charge of her European nurse. She
proved a most docile, affectionate little attendant ; and the Editor, on leaving Sumatra, had the pleasure of
giving her a dower on her marriage.

MURDER OF MR. PARR.

301

3dly. The cultivation of pepper was declared free, the people being at liberty
to cultivate that article or not at pleasure.

The Chiefs represented the disgrace attached to the native character by the re-
gulations which prohibited the inhabitants from wearing their crees and other weapons
in the town of Marlborough, according to the custom of the country, and the usages
of nearly a century, in consequence of the unfortunate murder of Mr. Pan*.

The rescinding of this regulation, the dismissal of the body-guard in attendance
on the chief authority, and the general reduction of the military sentinels, by shew-
ing the confidence placed in the inhabitants, seemed to raise them in their own
estimation, and, in some degree, to reheve them fi*om the state of hstlessness into
which they had sunk. And when the gaming and cock-fighting farms were discon-
tinued, and an idea gone abroad that every one might reap the fruits of his own in-
dustry, there was reason to hope the Malayan character might appear in a different
light to that in which it had for many years been \dewed.

The murder of Mr. Parr, a fomier Resident, had created a strong feeling of
distrust among the Em-opean inhabitants, and was one cause of the general appear-
ance of desolation that prevailed. The house he inhabited was immediately after
the unfortunate event deserted, and allowed to fall into ruin, though its beauty and
situation were both conspicuous. The fiaiit and ornamental trees were all cut down,
and no one would venture beyond the precincts of the settlement.

The circumstances which led to this singular event were gradual. In 1801,
the original establishment of Fort Marlborough was reduced, and it became a depen-
dency on Bengal. The private-trade of Bencoolen, anterior to this period, was car-
ried on by the Governor and Council, and the servants of the Company, to an
extent which made the port respectable, and contributed to the improvement of
the settlement. This trade consisted in the importation of articles from Western
India, a small portion of which were sold on the spot ; but the principal part were
for export to the Java market. The restrictive policy of the Dutch Government,
and the corruption of thefr serv'ants, had given rise to an extensive contraband trade,
of which a large portion, particularly in opium and piece-goods, was can’ied on
through the medium of Bencoolen. But from the period of the arrival of Mr. Parr,
when a more strictly economical and purer system of administration was enforced,
and the support of the Company’s capital, and the influence of the chief authority was
withdrawn, this commerce smik into an insignificance from which it never emerged.
Connected with the forced cultivation of pepper, Mr. Parr endeavoured to force the
cultivation of coffee, which w^as considered as one of the causes that led to his un-
fortunate death. The true causes of this melancholy event perhaps lay deeper than
in the enforcement of a single order. On the arrival of Mr. Parr, great reductions
took place in all the public estabhshments, by which numbers of people were sud-
denly thrown out of employ, and many reduced to starvation. Trained in the strict

302

MURDER OF MR. PARR.

practical forms of Bengal, and accustomed to unlimited obedience from a submissive
and subjugated people, Mr. Parr unintentionally gave great disgust by carrying the
same arbitrary ideas and principles among a people who require an opposite mode
of treatment. He made great alterations in the native courts, without the concur-
rence or adrice of the Chiefs, and occasionally assumed an arbitrary and independent
authority in it, which made them fear for their ancient institutions and customs.

It is mmecessary to go into much detail on the causes w’hich led to the unfor-
tunate assassination ; it was not occasioned by a single act, but by a long series of
offensive measures, which at length roused the people to rebellion. In carrying into
effect his plans of economy, he certainly proceeded with too much haste, and wth-
out due consideration ; insults offered on various occasions to some of the principal
Chiefs, produced a deep sensation in men of violent and rindictive tempers, and the
attempt to coerce the cultivation of coffee appears to have brought the discontent to
a crisis. The circumstances under which the murder was peiq)etrated are strongly
illustrative of the peculiar character of the people. They appear to have fully dis-
cussed among themselves the measures of Government, and finding reasons to be
dissatisfied, to have deliberately resolved on vengeance ; and to satisfy that vengeance,
the head of Mr. Parr was required. Meetings were held, oaths administered, and
every inhabitant of the to\vn was apprized of the danger. The country was in a
state of revolt ; but Mr. Parr was bhnd to the danger with which he was threatened.
The Govemment-house was suiTounded, the guard ovei*powered, Mr. Parr mur-
dered, and his head carried off. It may give some idea of the state of lawless inde-
pendence to which the people must have been accustomed, w'hen they could thus plan
revenge on the Governor of a British settlement without intending further mischief,
and expect that such an act could be considered by the English in the same light
that they themselves \iew^ed it. In further illustration how inapplicable the ordi-
nary ndes of cirihzed society must be to such a people, it may be added, that when
rew^ards were subsequently offered for the apprehension, dead or alive, of the assas-
sins, it w'as considered by them merely as an offer to pay the hangoon, or compen-
sation for murder, and considering this payment fully to authorise the act, expressed
no surprise, except that the Company should so readily pay the bangoon for the
heads of the conspirators, and not exact the same in return for Mr. Parr’s head.

The measures that followed were of a doubtful cast. As soon as it w^as dis-
covered that the designs of the people w^ere confined to the assassination, and not
directed against the settlement generally, search was made for the perpetrators of
the act. It was thought unsafe to touch the Chiefs. Several of the people were
blown fi'om the mouths of guns. As the danger diminished, the spirit of indignation
and revenge seems to have increased. An order was given to burn and destroy
every rillage within a certain distance, and the work of devastation was carried on as
if it were intended to place the future secm'ity of the settlement in surrounding it

TRADE OF THE EASTERN SEAS.

303

with a desert. The fi'uit-trees, venerable by their age, that surround a Malay vil-
lage, are the protecting deities of the place, and are regarded with reverence and
respect ; their destruction is looked upon as little less than sacrilege ; yet the axe
was laid to their roots, and whatever could afford shelter or protection was levelled
with the ground, and the whole population of the suspected villages turned loose
upon the countiy *.

Some of the villages were partially rebuilt; but never rose to their former
flourishing condition. The people of Dusun Besar, estimated the damage they then
sustained at more than 3000 dollars in houses burnt and fruit-trees cut down, and
that they lost about three-fourths of their buffaloes, which were either shot, stolen,
or dispersed on the occasion. At that time they had 1000 head, in 1820 they had
only 300. No wonder the people were poor — the country a wilderness.

It is necessary to remind the reader, that dming Sir Stamford’s administration
in Java, the Enghsh powder was paramount in the Eastern Seas. Holland had ceased
to be a nation. But Avith the rehnquishment of Java the English relinquished every
possession in those seas, except Penang and Bencoolen.

Previous to Sir Stamford’s leaving England, very strong apprehensions were
entertained by those interested in the trade of the Eastern Archipelago, that the Dutch
would succeed in re-establishing the supremacy w^hich they possessed in that quarter
of the globe ; and as their jealousy of the English was well known, they would
natm*ally take every means of debaning their rivals from participating in a trade
from which they had derived such considerable benefit. It was conceived that Sir
Stamford might be enabled, from time to time, to afford information on the subject
to the authorities at home, and the following particular instructions on the subject
were given him from the Court of Directors : —

“ It is highly desirable that the Court of Directors should receive early and

• The following details of this sad and singular catastrophe were related by an old inliabitant of Ben-
coolen. The Chiefs having issued their decree, took every means in their power to prevent the destruction
of the Europeans. Warnings were sent to them, and a general impression prevailed that some crisis was
approaching. At last the day arrived, and notice was given to keep at home. Mr. Parr unfortunately
refused to listen to any suggestions of danger, and could not even be prevailed upon to have his usual sen-
tries doubled ; the only means of defence within his reach was a hog-spear, taken to his room by Mrs. Parr.
A little before midnight a loud shriek was heard, and “ The Malays are come !” was echoed through the
house. They had, indeed, assembled and concealed themselves around the house, and it is said watched
until Mr. Parr retired to rest. The guard was soon cut down, and three men entered Mr. Parr’s room,
and dragged him from his bed, for he was at the time much reduced from illness. Mrs. Parr struggled to
defend and shield her husband by throwing herself upon him. The men entreated her to keep away lest
they should unintentionally injure her ; and finding that they had wounded her in the hands, they took her
and threw her under the bed. They then executed their dreadful orders, cut off the head of Mr. Parr,
and retreated without doing further injury.

Mrs. Parr afterwards perishe.d off the Cape, with her children, on her voyage to England.

30 i SYSTEM OF THE DUTCH IN THE EASTERN SEAS.

constant information of the proceedings of the Dutch and other European nations, as
well as of the Americans in the Eastern Archipelago. The Court, therefore, desire
that you will direct your attention to the object of regularly obtaining such informa-
tion, and that you will transmit the same to them by every convenient opportunity,
accompanied by such observations as may occur to you, whether of a political or
commercial nature. You will furnish the Supreme Government with copies of these
commmiications. In the event of any such communications appearing to you to be
of a natm-e to require secrecy, you will address your letter to the Secret Com-
mittee.”

On arriving at Bencoolen Sir Stamford found that the Dutch had sent over a
Commissioner, with the \-iew of re-estabhshing their authority in the Lampung
country, on the southern part of Sumatra.

The object of the Dutch by the re-occupation of this territory being to exclude
English vessels from a right to anchorage and refreshments in any part of the Straits
of Sumatra, except at their pleasure. Sir Stamford felt it his duty to resist what he
considered an undue pretension on their part, pending a reference to the authorities
in Europe, adopting such preparatory measures, in the mean time, by sm-ve)dng the
coasts and harbours as might facilitate any aiTangement eventually decided upon.

That the occasion really required interference there could be no doubt. Lord
Hastings stated as his opinion, “that the proceedings of the Netherlands authorities,
since the arrival of the Commissioners-General to receive charge of the Dutch
colonies, had been actuated by a spirit of ambition, by riews of boundless
aggrandizement and rapacity, and by a desire to obtain the power of monopolizing
the commerce of the Eastern Archipelago, and of excluding the English from those
advantages which they had long enjoyed, and which they only \rished to share in
common with other nations of the earth ; and that this spirit of aggi’andizement, and
their manifest endeavom’s to establish an absolute supremacy to om' exclusion, made
it necessary for us to adopt precautions with the rfew to arrest the injury and de-
gradation which could not fail to ensue, from a listless submission to the unbounded
pretensions displayed on the part of the Netherlands authorities.”

The Dutch, at one period, assumed the absolute sovereignty of the whole of
the Archipelago, which they enforced by a rigid system of exclusion of all other
European powers, until the commencement of the last century. From that period,
and more particularly during the sixty years prerfous to 1818, as their power
declined, and this system became weakened by its injustice, conmptions, and enormi-
ties, the influence of the English found its way into the Archipelago, and in 1795
the Dutch authority only extended to the states of Java, Madura, Malacca, Padang,
Banjier, on Borneo ; Macasar, on Celebes ; Bema, on Sumbawa, and the Moluccas.
All the rest of their establishments had been abandoned or cut off by the natives, and
the rest of the Archipelago had resumed its independence.

SIR STAMFORD’S VIEWS ON THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE DUTCH.

305

From 1795 until the peace of Amiens, Malacca, Padang, and the Moluccas,
remained in the hands of the English ; of these the Moluccas alone were resumed
by the Dutch before the breaking out of the war again.

The system pursued by the Dutch in these establishments was to consider them
as so many central points whence their influence might extend on all sides, so as to
connect with each other through the Archipelago. Thus Malacca extended its in-
fluence north towards Prince of Wales’ Island and Acheen, and south to Lingin and
Rhio, including the opposite coast of Sumatra from north to south. Long, however,
before the reduction of Malacca by the English, this influence had ceased, and nearly
all the native Chiefs in its neighbourhood had resmned their independence, and by
constant intercourse and alhance with the British establishment at Prince of Wales’
Island, had again risen into some importance. The most southern, however, of the
Dutch out-stations connected with Malacca, which was at Rhio, was cut off by the
natives about this time ; and on the English taking possession of Malacca they did
not form any establishment at Rhio, but publicly declared, and invariably considered
the native Chief, although on terms of friendly alliance, altogether independent of
Em’opean authority, and so he has ever since been held.

On Borneo, the native states of Borneo Proper, Sambas, Pontiana, Cooti,
Passir, &c., had long previously been altogether independent of European authority ;
and these ports, with Rhio, were the principal marts, some of them for the last fifty
years, and some longer, for the opium and piece-goods brought by country ships
from the continent of India, and the iron, woollens, printed cottons, &c., sent to
Prince of Wales’ Island and Bencoolen.

Sir Stamford’s view's on these points are developed in the following letters :

“ Air'll 14, 1818.

“ Prepared as I was for the jealousy and assumption of the Dutch Commis-
sioners in the East, I have found myself surprised by the unreserved avowal they
have made of their principles, their steady determination to lower the British cha-
racter in the eyes of the natives, and the measures they have already adopted towards
the annihilation of our commerce, and of our intercourse with the native-traders
throughout the Malayan Archipelago. Not satisfied with shutting the Eastern ports
against our shipping, and prohibiting the natives from commercial intercourse with
the English, they have dispatched commissioners to every spot in the Archipelago
where it is probable we might attempt to form settlements, or where the independ-
ence of the native Chiefs afford any thing like a free port to our shipping. Thus
not only the Lampong country has been resumed, but also Pontiana and the minor
ports of Borneo, and even Bali, where European flag was never before hoisted, are

R r

306

NECESSITY OF A BRITISH AGENT IN THE EASTERN SEAS.

now considered by them subject to their authority, and measures taken for their
subjugation. A commissioner also long since sailed from Batavia for Palembang, to
organize, as it is said, all that part of Sumatra ; and every native prow and vessel is
now required to hoist a Dutch flag, and to take out a Dutch pass from Bata\da for
one of the ports thus placed under their influence ; so that whatever trade may still
be carried on by the English with the native ports of the Archipelago, must already
be in violation of the Dutch regulations, and at the risk of seizure by their cmizers,
who have not hesitated repeatedly to fire into English ships.

“ The Commanders of the country ships look to me to protect their interests,
and even to support the dignity of the British flag ; and it is to be hoped some imme-
diate notice will be taken by oiu' Government of these proceedings.

“ The native Chiefs of the independent ports have looked in vain for the protec-
tion of the English ; they feel themselves deserted by us, know not how to act, and
from necessity are gradually falling under the influence of om' rivals.

“ The Dutch possess the only passes through which ships must sail into this
Ai'chipelago, the Straits of Smida and of Malacca ; and the British have not now an
inch of ground to stand upon between the Cape of Good Hope and China ; nor a
single friendly port at which they can water or obtain refreshment.

The question is not now, whether we are to give back to the Dutch the
possessions they actually possessed in 1803, according to the late convention ; but
whether the British Government and British merchants will be contented to be
excluded from the trade altogether, in the same manner as they were before the last
century ; nothing less will satisfy the Dutch authorities who are now at Bataria ;
they make no secret of it, and openly avow the exclusion- of the English, except
from Bataria, as the first principles of their pohcy.

“ It is absolutely necessary, therefore, that the conditions of the convention
should be clearly understood, and that the authorities at Batavia should be in-
structed by their government in Europe how far they are authorized to act. It
is clear that it could never have been the intention of the British Government to
give back to the Dutch more than they had taken from them, nor more than they
had kept, as it were, in trust for them, and consequently that the right now as-
sumed by the Dutch to extend their influence over the ports in which we did not
maintain any European establishments, and this before they resume their acknow-
ledged possessions, is supererogatory and unjustifiable, and may be disputed by us ;
that as the new establishments they are thus forming in the Archipelago can have
no other view than the extension of a pohtical influence for the purpose of com-
mercial restriction, we have a right to prevent any which interfere ^rith the free
and undisputed trade we enjoyed before the breaking out of the war, and that at
all events we are bound to declare publicly to the native Chiefs of these independent
ports, that it is not with our concurrence, or the sanction of our authority, that the

NECESSITY OF A BRITISH AGENT IN THE EASTERN SEAS.

307

Dutch are now so acting towards them ; that our desire is to prevent all restrictions
on trade, and that while we do not interfere with the internal management of
the Dutch possessions, or with the ports where they have establishments, more than
they are inchned to allow us, we are ready to maintain the free navigation of the
Archipelago, and our right to an unrestricted intercourse, trade, and alliance with
the native independent ports.

“ It is on this point that every thing hinges : if we have no right to interfere,
the sooner we abandon our Eastern possessions the better ; if we have such a
right, it must be immediately declared and acted upon, or the evil will have advanced
too far to be removed.

The Chiefs of the Island of Bali have always maintained their independence
of European authority, and consequently have never, at any period of their history^
been subjected to the Dutch. It was through their ports that for several years our
opium and piece-goods found their way into Java, in spite of the Dutch restrictive
regulations. If the Dutch succeed in reducing them, this important neutral port
will be lost to us.

“ It is indispensable that some regular and accredited authority on the part of
the British Government should exist in the Archipelago, to declare and maintain the
British rights, whatever they are, to receive appeals, and to exercise such whole-
some control as may be conducive to the preservation of the British honoiu- and
character.

At present the authority of the Government of Prince of Wales’ Island
extends no further south than Malacca, and the Dutch would willingly confine
that of Bencoolen to the ahnost inaccessible and rocky shores of the west coast of
Sumatra.

To effect the objects contemplated, some convenient station within the
Archipelago is necessary; both Bencoolen and Prince of Wales’ Island are too far
removed, and unless I succeed in obtaining a position in the straits of Sunda, we
have no alternative but to fix it in the most advantageous situation we can find
within the Archipelago ; this would be somewhere in the neighbourhood of Bintang.
An establishment of this kind once fonned would soon maintain a successful rivalry
with the Dutch, who would be obliged either to adopt a liberal system of free trade,
or compelled to see the trade collected under the British flag ; in either case our
object would be answered. Our establishment within the Archipelago would be
expressly for the objects stated, and have no reference to the undisputed possessions
of the Dutch, in which we desire no interference. All that they can in justice, nay
in liberality, demand, under the recent convention, let them have ; and yet there
\vill be a great and important commerce left to us, independently of the advantages
it will afford to the secirrity of our China trade.

“ It will be my duty to ascertain how far our proposed position in the Straits of

R r 2

NECESSITY OF A BRITISH AGENT IN THE EASTERN SEAS.

]

;(08

Sunda will answer the pm*j:)Ose, and if this should be found inadequate, to select some
other more advantageous situation.

“ At the present period, when the most rigid economy is demanded in every de-
partment of the British service, I should perhaps hesitate to propose this measure of
extending our positions, were I not satisfied that it was absolutely necessary. Our
object is not territory nor temtorial influence; it may be confined to a simple com-
mercial station, at which a controlling authority and two or three assistants would
perform all the duties, with a military guard just sufficient to protect the flag, and
the property of individuals from predatory attack.

“ The line of stations which I contemplate, should the view I have taken be
adopted, would commence from Acheen, and, with the single break of Padang, extend
down the west coast of Sumatra to the Straits of Sunda, influencing the whole coast.
Another station at Rhio or its vicinity would thus form the connecting link between
the establishments on the west coast and Prince of Wales’ Island, and check the
Dutch influence from extending uninterruptedly in a chain from Batavia to Banca,
and Malacca, as certainly it will soon do without such an establishment on our part.

Hereafter a station at Sambas to command the rich mines and produce of the
interior of Borneo may be adrisable, and certainly profitable ; and more particularly
if the Dutch obtain a footing at Pontiana, as they are indeed said to have done
already, it will then be indispensible ; otherwise the independence of those ports may
perhaps answer all the pui'poses of a free trade.

“ In establishing these stations it will be advisable to proceed with gi’eat caution,
and gi'adually ; the footing, how ever, once obtained in the Straits of Sunda, I appre-
hend all the rest will follow^ without difficulty.

“ In the defence of our positions, as w'ell as for the maintenance of our respec-
tability and influence, I am of opinion we should look more to a naval than a mili-
tary force. One or tw^o of the Company’s cmizers regularly relieved, and the
occasional risit of his Majesty’s ships w^ould answ^er every purpose, and be far more
consistent with our commercial and political character, as w^ell as afford more real
security than battalions of soldiers.

“ A decision should be formed by the authorities in Europe on the appeal made
by the Sultan of Palembang before the British authorities left Java.

“ The late Sultan*, anxious to get rid of the European authority altogether,
allowed the Dutch officers to he murdered and their factory to be destroyed. The
circumstances attending this catastrophe called for a British force from Batavia.
The late Sultan fled and w^as dethroned, and the present Sultan elevated in his place.
On this occasion the present Sultan ceded to me, for the East India Company, the
Islands of Banca and Billiton for ever, on which no European flag had ever been

See page 121.

NECESSITY OF A BRITISH AGENT IN THE EASTERN SEAS.

309

hoisted, and neither of which had ever in any way previously fallen under the influ-
ence or sway of the Dutch. The Dutch connexion with Palembang was simply by
a contract, that the Sultan would deliver to them a certain quantity of tin and
pepper annually ; but they had no political influence or authority whatever, and
certainly no control over Banca.

“ Our object in obtaining the Island of Banca was to place the tin mines under
the influence of Great Britain for the protection of the Cornish mines ; and as the
English had been at considerable expense in the expedition, which could not other-
wise be repaid, there w^as no difficulty in obtaining it ; but a further equivalent was
required by the Sultan, who stipulated that he should be maintained in his dignity
and independence by the British Government, without the interference of any Euro-
pean authority in the domestic concerns of Palembang.

“ The Dutch, not satisfied with the possession of Banca, as ceded to us and
by us again ceded to them, insist upon re-establishing their factory also at Palem-
bang ; thus the Sultan loses the only equivalents of value to him ; namely, our sup-
port and the independence of his port, for though the Dutch had by right no
political infiuence at Palembang, they always contrived, as they will still do, if they
re-establish themselves there, under the plea of protecting their monopoly of tin
and pepper, to subject the port entirely to their restrictive regulations.

“ The only right by which the British nation could cede Banca to the Dutch
was by virtue of this cession from the Sultan of Palembang ; it was one of the con-
ditions of his elevation ; but in return for so great a sacrifice, he was assured that
he would be maintained in his independence, and have our protection. The Dutch,
therefore, in receiving Banca, as a special cession, cannot be allowed to disturb the
title by which we felt authorized to cede it. That title was obtained from the pre-
sent Sultan of Palembang, but on an express condition which surely we are bound
to see fulfilled.

“ Palembang must consequently be considered as a free port, and we are bound,
in honour and in justice, to maintain it as such, as long as the Sultan is unwilling
to admit the Dutch, which he never will do but by constraint or our desertion of
his cause.

“ This point should be cleared up without delay, and definite instructions sent
from Europe on the subject.

“ As in some measure connected with this subject is the claim they have made
to the Island of Billiton, which is still British to all intents and purposes ; this Island,
which may eventually prove of importance to oiu interests, was ceded to us by the
Sultan of Palembang at the same time as Banca ; but it is quite distinct from that
Island, never was dependant upon it, and has always been kept foreign and sepa-
rately from it. It is admirably situated, and its retention by the English is an object
of too much importance to be lost sight of.

.310

NECESSITY OF A BRITISH AGENT IN THE EASTERN SEAS.

“ I regi'et to say, that the colonial authorities seem to be actuated by a very
different spirit from that which animates the authorities in Holland. In the present
policy of Batavia, there appears to be much of the bad principle of the old colonial
regime, far different, I am confident, from what are the udshes and feelings of the
enlightened authorities who preside over the destinies of the mother-country.

“ At the same time that I have thus felt it my duty to express my sentiments
on the measures and character of the Dutch colonial Government in these seas, I
have with difficulty refrained from the expression of that honest indignation which
every Briton must feel on such an occasion.

“ Before I conclude I must refer to the interests of the extensive and interest-
ing native population wffiich are involved in the questions I have agitated. But a
few years ago they looked upon the British nation as all-powerful, magnanimous, and
benevolent. It is morally impossible that they can so look upon them just now ;
every day, every hour, weakens the influence and character of the British name. It
has gone abroad that the Dutch Commissioners have some idea of obtaining Ben-
coolen in exchange for Malacca, and to make the equator the boundary between the
Dutch and the Enghsh possessions ; but wffierever the idea originated, or whatever
expectations on this subject may be entertained by the Dutch, they are thought by
the natives so commanding, that they may have whatever they ask for ; their object
in obtaining Bencoolen is of course to regain, if possible, the spice monopoly. Pa-
dang and Malacca are both stations of importance to us ; but they will not compen-
sate for our exclusion from the Archipelago, and never tmai to account, unless the
produce of the west coast has an outlet in the Straits of Sunda, and some more
southerly port is fixed upon than Malacca itself. Under this arrangement, therefore,
the establishments suggested by me would be equally valuable.

Again, it must not be forgotten, that however desirous we may be to main-
tain the Dutch in the possessions of Java and its dependencies ; and however de-
termined we may be to avoid all intercouse with their native subjects which might
weaken their influence, it is impossible not to foresee, that unless the Dutch adopt a
very different policy to what they are now pursuing, Java must eventually either
become independant of European authority, or, on some future occasion of hostili-
ties, again fall under the dominion of the English. The seeds of independence have
been too generally sown, and the principles of the British administration too deeply
rooted, to be eradicated by a despotic order. In such an event, calculating upon the
bare possibility of its occurrence, fifty or a hundred years hence, we shall equally
feel the advantage of the measures I have now suggested. We shall not make any
extensive outlay; our object is merely to keep a footing sufficient for general com-
mercial purposes during peace, but which may, if necessary, be found equally con-
venient for political purposes during w’ar.”

Bird Island ^

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I’titthit/krii /if .f./iorslnmih. l/vtlroi/ropher to the Jif huiio t'otnponv .httfost JlWi . oerorthnij to de/ of J'iirho/nt/>t

POPULARITY OF SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES IN THE EASTERN SEAS. 311

5, 1818.

“ When I look around, and feel that by the last treaty with Holland, we are
left with only one spot upon which we can raise the British flag, as a mart for com-
merce between the Mauritius and China, and that spot Prince of Wales’ Island, to
which port but a veiy small portion of the trade of the Ai’chipelago can be brought ;
when in the instance of Palembang, I find the Dutch choose to re-instate the man
on the throne who has been guilty of treacherously murdering, in cool blood, the
Dutch factory at that station, rather than permit the Sultan whom the English raised,
in consequence of the atrocity of his predecessor, to continue on the throne ; when
I likewise discover that they lay claim to all the territory in the Lampong comitry,
and oppose our forming any settlement in Samangka Bay, for the purpose of afford-
ing succour or refi'eshment to om* ships passing through the Straits of Sunda ; and
that they even object to the continuance of the post station between Java and
Sumatra, by which alone communication can be kept up wth the Eastern Islands
and Europe ; I feel it to be my duty to submit to the Governor-General a statement
of the injury which must necessarily arise to us from tacitly submitting to such a
course, not only as affecting our interests in Siunatra and its neighbourhood, but
also throughout the whole of the Eastern Archipelago and China. My knowledge
of the previous principles which actuated the Dutch in Java, and of the vast benefit
to be derived to British enterj^rise in so extensive a field, leads me to hope that I

shall meet with approbation for the line of conduct I pursue.”

^ «

From this sketch of the state of affairs, it will be infen-ed that Sir Stamford
found sufficient occupation for his active mind. He devoted his whole time, on his
first arrival, to the examination of the Records of the settlement, the state of the
country and people in its immediate neighbourhood, and endeavoured to collect the
European inhabitants and the native Chiefs around him, that he might become per-
sonally acquainted with their habits and manners. The same system of excluding
the natives from the society of Europeans had been pursued in this settlement as
in most other parts of India. Sir Stamford at once broke down this barrier, and
opened his house to the higher class of natives on all occasions. During the whole
period of his residence in Sumatra he had some of them present during the hours
of social intercourse.

The result of this change it is needless to dwell upon. The Chiefs and people
considered him as their best friend and adviser, yielded to his opinion upon all oc-
casions, and harmony and good-will prevailed throughout the settlement.

With regard to the Dutch, so active had they been in their endeavours to regain
their Empire in the East, and to depress the native power, that the re-appearance of

312

POPULARITY OF SIR STAMFORD IN THE EASTERN SEAS.

Sir Stamford in the Archipelago was hailed with joy and hope on the one side as a
deliverance, and with fear and jealousy on the other, as an invasion.

The effect of his return to a scene of action in which he had home so conspi-
cuous a part, might have been foreseen. It was impossible to expect tame submis-
sion from those who were oppressed, when there appeared a hope of rehef, or to
suppose that Sir Stamford could with indifference look on, and take no part in the
stmggle. A different character might have acted differently ; but in sending him
into such a field of action, the experience of his government in Java was sufficient
e\idence of what w^as to be expected from the Governor of Bencoolen.

CHAPTER XL

Sir Stamford Raffles determines to penetrate into the interior of the country — First excursion to the Hill of Mists
— Account of journey to Passumah — Discovery of gigantic florver — Vegetation of Malayan forests —
Reason for visiting Pasumah — Ceremony of a funeral — Traces of ancient Hindu mythology — Descrip-
tion of the people — Small-pox — Fatigue of the journey — Descends in rafts — Return to Masna — Proceeds
to Can oor — Success of first attempt to cross the Island of Sumatra — Extract from Mr, Presgrave’s
Journal — Description of the sacred mountain — Disappointment in not reaching the crater — Return to
Manna — Mountain' s temperature — Large lake — Sufferings of the people for rvant of salt, prohibited by
the Dutch Government — People of Pasumah Lebar — Descendants of the Javanese — Villages — Language
— Religion.

Sir Stamford considered it to be his duty, as it was his inclination, to obtain some
general knowledge of the Island, as well as of that particular portion of it, over
which he was appointed to preside. The East India Company, indeed, had confined
their rule to a naiTOW strip of sea-coast, but it was desirable that some intercourse
should take place with the people of the country beyond, since a mutual exchange of
good offices would, it was natural to suppose, prove beneficial to both parties,

A general impression prevailed, that it was impossible to penetrate the range of
hills which run from north to south throughout this great Island. All those who
were appfied to declined making the attempt ; and Sir Stamford was obliged to come
to the determination, that he would go himself, and visit the interior and more fertile
parts.

His first excursion was a short distance immediately inland from Bencoolen.
The second dowm the coast by the sea-beach, for about eighty miles, to Manna, and
from thence, some days’ journey into the interior ; and after returning to Manna,
still further dowm the coast, to Cawoor ; from this last place back to Bencoolen.

He gave an account of these exclusions to his friends in letters, wTitten at the
time, from which the following are a selection.

s s

314

FIRST EXCURSION TO THE HILL OF MISTS.

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ On hoard the Ladij Raffles, off Sumatra, July Wth, 1818.

“ That yom* Grace may not think me unmindful of my promise, I must now
send you some account of our proceedings since I troubled you with my letters by
the Northumberland.

“ I will not, however, trouble your Grace with any details of the immediate
changes w'hich have been effected at Bencoolen, nor with what are in contemplation ;
the place is too insignificant for general interest, and my subjects too uncultivated for
pleasing description. A "wider field is open in the Archipelago generally, and in my
proceedings with the Dutch your Grace might find more amusement ; but even on
these I shall be silent at present, and proceed to what more immediately relates to
me personally.

At the time I wrote by the Northumberland, w'e had just taken up our abode
in a crazy dweUing, called the Government-house, full of cracks and fissiues ; of the
country I had seen nothing, and of the general character and condition of the people
I then knew httle. My first inemrsion into the interior was immediately east of Ben-
coolen ; here I found the country in a wretched state, and very thinly peopled. I
ascended the first range of hills, and having taken up a position on the Hill of IMists
(Bukit Kabut), which commands a most extensive \iew of the suiTounding country,
and on which no European had before set foot, I determined to make it om- country
residence, and accordingly gave orders for clearing the forest, &c. In this I have
already made considerable progress, a comfortable cottage is erected, and, as far as
we can yet judge, the thermometer is at least six degrees lower than at Bencoolen.
The only inconvenience will arise from the tigers and elephants, which abound in the
ricinity; one of the rillagers told me that his father and grandfather w^re canied off
by tigers, and there is scarcely a family that has not lost some of its members by them.
In many parts the people would seem to have resigned the empire to these animals,
taking but few precautions against them, and regarding them as sacred ; they believe
in transmigration and call them their nene or gi'andfather. On the banks of one of
the rivers of this coast upwards of a hundred people w' ere canned off by tigers during
the last year. When a tiger enters a village, the foolish people frequently prepare
rice and fruits, and placing them at the entrance as an offering to the animal, con-
ceive that, by giring him this hospitable reception, he will be pleased with their atten-
tion, and pass on without doing them harm. They do the same on the approach of
the small-pox, and thus endeavour to lay the evil spirit by kind and liospitable treat-
ment. I am doing all I can to resume the empire of man, and, haring made open
war against the whole race of wild and ferocious animals, I hope w^e shall he able to
reside on the Hill of Mists without danger from their attacks.

ACCOUNT OF JOURNEY TO PASSUMAH.

315

" Our next excursion was on a tour through the southern Residencies, in which
Lady Raffles accompanied me. We were absent about three weeks, and visited the
districts of Salumah, Manna, and Cawoor, which your Grace will see noticed in the
map. Our road lay principally along the sea-beach, and mostly on the sands. From
Manna, however, we penetrated into the interior, and visited the Passumah country ;
and, as our journey was very interesting, I shall give you a more particular ac-
count of it : —

We left Manna on the morning of the 19th of May, and proceeded on horse-
back as far as the village of Tanjung Agung, on the Manna river, where we halted
during the middle of the day; the distance about twenty miles. In the afternoon
we walked through the woods to a place called Merambung, about ten miles further
up. The road, a mere pathway, very steep in many parts, and not passable on
horseback. We remarked at Merambung that the houses were larger and much
better constructed than on the coast, and that, in the middle of the village, there
was an erection resembling a pigeon-house. This was termed a Lang'gar, or
place appropriated to penance, in which the party remained during the time. As
this is inconsistent with Mahomedanism, we concluded it to be a remnant of the
more ancient faith of the country, a conclusion we found fully confirmed from what
we subsequently observed further in the interior. The villagers were very hospit-
able, and my reception by the Chief was truly patriarchal.

On the next morning (the 20th), at half-past five, we commenced our jour-
ney towards Passumah on foot. The party, consisting of myself. Lady Raffles, Dr.
Aimold, and Mr. Presgrave, the Resident of Manna, with six native officers, and
about fifty coolies (porters) carrying our food and baggage. Our journey lay near
the banks of the river during the whole day, but frequently over high cliffs, and
almost entirely through thick forest. On approaching Lebu Tappu, where a village
had once stood, we first fell in with the tracts of elephants ; they were very nume-
rous, and it was evident they had only preceded us a short time. We here passed
over much ground which at one period must have been in cultivation, but which
had long been in a state of nature. After breakfasting at Lebu Tappu, under the
shade of the largest tree we could find, we proceeded on to a place called Pulo
Lebar, where it was arranged we were to sleep. This also had been the site of a
village, but no trace of human dwelhng or cultivation was to be found : we reached
it at half-past four in the afternoon, having walked for upwards of eight hours. We
immediately set to work and erected two or three sheds to sleep in, collecting the
materials fi'om the vegetation around us. The river here was broad, but very rocky :
the scenery highly romantic and beautiful. During the night we were awakened by
the approach of a party of elephants, who seemed anxious to inquire om‘ business
within their domains ; fortunately they kept at some distance, and allowed us to

s s 2

316

DESCRIPTION OF A GIGANTIC FLOWER.

remain unmolested. The natives fancy that there are two kinds of elephants ; the
gaja berliampong, those which always go in herds, and which are seldom mis-
chievous, and the gaja salunggal, or single elephants, which are much larger and
ferocious, going about either singly or only two or three in company. It is probable
the latter kind are only the full-grown males.

“ I must not omit to tell you, that in passing through the forest we were, much
to our inconvenience, greatly annoyed by leeches; they got into om' boots and
shoes, which became filled with blood ; at night, too, they fell off the leaves that
sheltered us from the weather, and on awaking in the morning we found ourselves
bleeding profusely — these were a species of intruders we were not prepared for.

“ The most important discovery throughout our journey was made at this place;
this was a gigantic flower, of which I can hardly attempt to give any thing like a
just description. It is perhaps the largest and most magnificent flower in the world,
and is so distinct from every other flower, that I know not to what I can compare it
— its dimensions wall astonish you — ^it measured across fi'om the extremity of the
petals rather more than a yard, the nectarium was nine inches wade, and as deep ;
estimated to contain a gallon and a half of water, and the weight of the whole
flower fifteen pounds.

‘ The Sumatran name of this extraordinary production is Petimun Sikinlili,
or De’val’s-Siri (betle) box. It is a native of the forests, particularly those of Pas-
sumah Ulu Manna.

‘ This gigantic flower is parasite on the lower stems and roots of the Cissus
Angustifolia of Box. It appears at first in the form of a small round knob, wiiich
gradually increases in size. The flower-bud is invested by numerous membranaceous
sheaths, wdiich surround it in successive layers and expand as the bud enlarges,
until at length they form a cup round its base. These sheaths or bracts are large,
round, concave, of a firm membranaceous consistence, and of a browm colour. The
bud before expansion is depressive, round, with five obtuse angles, nearly a foot in
diameter, and of a deep dusky red. The flower, when fully expanded, is, in point
of size, the wonder of the vegetable kingdom ; the breadth across, from the top of
the one petal to the top of the other, is three feet. The cup may be estimated
capable of containing tw^elve pints, and the w^eight of the whole is fi'om twelve to
fifteen pomids. The inside of the cup is of an intense purple, and more or less
densely yellow', wdth soft flexible spines of the same colour: towards the mouth, it
is marked with numerous depressed spots of the purest w^hite, contrasting strongly
with the purple of the surrounding substance, which is considerably elevated on the
lower side. The petals are of a brick-red, with numerous pustular spots of a lighter
colour. The whole substance of the flow’er is not less than half an inch thick, and
of a firm fleshy consistence. It soon after expansion begins to give out a smell of

/.lull ■' f'i .1/// ■ ^

9..

317

VEGETATION OF MALAYAN FORESTS.
t

decaying animal matter. The fruit never bursts, but the whole plant gi-adually rots
away, and the seeds mix with the putrid mass

“ If I am successful in obtaining a draftsman, yoiu* Grace shall have a perfect
representation of it. I have made a very rough sketch of it myself, but it is not in
that state that I could venture to present it. It seems to be a flower unknown to
most of the natives, as well as to naturalists ; its colours red, yellow, and purple,
and most brilliant. The chemical composition being fungous, it would not keep ;
and not ha\ing sufficient spirits, we could not preserve it entire. A part of it, with
two buds almost as big as a child’s head, will be sent home.

“ There is nothing more striking in the Malayan forests than the grandeur of
the vegetation : the magnitude of the flowers, creepers, and trees, contrasts strikingly
nith the stunted and, I had almost said, pigmy vegetation of England. Compared
with oiu' forest-trees, yom largest oak is a mere dwarf. Here we have creepers and
vines entwining larger trees, and hanging suspended for more than a hmidred feet, in
girth not less than a man’s body, and many much thicker ; the trees seldom under
a hundred, and generally approaching a hundred and sixty to two hundred feet in
height. One tree that we measured was, iu circumference, nine yards ! and this
is nothing to one I measm'ed in Java. I must, however, proceed to relate our
jom’iiey.

“ From Pulo Lebar we started at half-past five, and halted at eight to breakfast.
At eleven we reached the Sindangare river, where we took some refreshment, and
in the evening, about half-past five, reached Barong Rasam. The day’s journey
being most fatiguing, and not less than thirty miles, entirely through a thick forest,
and over stupendous mountains, one of which, called the Sindangan Mountain, could
not have been less than between four and five thousand feet high. Neither on this
nor on the preceding day was there a vestige of population or cultivation ; nature
was throughout allowed to reigu undisturbed ; and from the traces of elephants in
every direction, they alone of the animal kingdom seemed to have explored the
recesses of the forest.

“ \Ve got on, however, very well ; and though we were all occasionally much
fatigued, we did not complain. Lady Raffles was a perfect heroine. The only mis-
fortune at this stage was a heavy fall of rain during the night, which penetrated our
leafy dwelling in every direction, and soaked every one of the party to the skin. AVe
were now two days’ march beyond the reach of supplies ; many of our Coolies had
dropped off; some were fairly exhausted, and we began to wish om' journey at an
end. We, however, contrived to make a good dinner on the remaining fowl, and
having plenty of rice and claret, did not complain of our fare.

* Through the kindness of Mr. Lambert, the Vice-President, the Editor has obtained permission from
the Linnaean Society to have impressions of this singular production, which was engraved for their Trans-
actions.

318

REASON FOR VISITING PASSUMAH.

On the next morning we started in better spirits, having been met by one of
the Chiefs of Passumah, who came to welcome our approach, and to assure us, if we
walked fast, we should reach a ^^llage in the afternoon. For the first part of the day
our road was still over stupendous mountains, sometimes in the beds of rivers for
miles, and at all times difficult ; but, about noon, we came into a country that had
once been cleared, and again fell in with the Manna River, which we crossed on a
raft pre\iously prepared for the purpose, many of the Chiefs and people of Passu-
mah hanng assembled to meet us. We had still, however, a very steep ascent to
encounter ; but no sooner had we attained the summit, and bent our steps down-
ward, than our \iew opened upon one of the finest countries I ever beheld, amply
compensating us for all the dreariness of the forest, and for all the fatigues we had
undergone ; perhaps the prospect was heightened by the contrast ; but the country
I now beheld reminded me so much of scenes in Java, and was in every respect so
different to that on the coast, that I could not help expressing myself in raptures.
As we descended, the scene improved ; we found ourselves in an immense amphi-
theatre, sm-rounded by mountains ten and twelve thousand feet high ; the soil on
which we stood rich beyond description, and vegetation luxuriant and brilliant in
every direction. The people, too, seemed a new race, far superior to those on the
coast — tall, stout, and ingenuous. They received us most hospitably, and conducted
us to the rillage of Nigri-Cayu, where we slept.

“ I should not omit to inform you, that the immediate occasion of my visiting
Passumah was to reconcile contending interests which had long distracted the
country. For the last ten years these people had been at war with us, or rather we
had been at war with them, for we appeared to have been the aggressors throughout
I w^as assured that my person would be endangered, that the Passumahs w^ere a savage
ungovernable race, and that no terms could ever be made with them, and I w^as not a
little gratified to find every thing the reverse of what had been represented to me. I
found them reasonable and industrious, an agiicultural race more sinned against than
sinning.

“ In the ricinity of Nigri-Cayu w^ere several hot springs, and we soon succeeded
in making very comfortable warm baths.

“ On the next day we proceeded to Tanjung Alem (the point of the w^orld,)
another village in the Passumah country, which w^e reached in about six hours’ walk,
through one of the finest countries in the world, haring before us nearly the whole
way the volcanic mountain called Gunung Dempu, from which the smoke issued
in large volumes.

“ At Tanjung Alem we remained two nights. We found the villages in this part
of the country most respectable, many of them haring more than five hundred inha-
bitants ; the houses large, and on a different plan to those on the coast, each rillage,
which may rather be considered as a small town, has a fosse or ditch round it with

CEREMONY OF A FUNERAL.

319

high palisades. We passed the site of two or three towns which were represented
to have been destoyed by the petty hostilities between the Chiefs.

‘‘ During our stay at Tanjung Alem, the Chiefs entered into a treaty, by which
tliey placed themselves under the protection of the British Government, and thus all
cause of dispute and misunderstanding was at once set at rest. I must also note ano-
tlier occmTence of moment : an old woman of rank died, and we witnessed all the
ceremonies ; they commenced by all the females of the village repairing to the house
of the deceased, and setting up a squall something like the Irish howl for an hour or
two. After this the body was removed to the Bah, or hall of audience, where we
were to dine ; we, however, preferred dining in another place, but in the evening it
was expected that we should be present at the ceremony, which consisted of dancing
and singing, in the presence of the whole village assembled in the hall where the
body lay. On the next morning the head of the village killed a goat and sprinkled
the blood about the house of the deceased, and all the maidens within hail attended
at the Bali, contending with each other who should exclaim loudest : ‘ oh mother !
come back, mother, come back ! ’ This continued till they concluded the body would
keep no longer, when it was hurried off, and quietly carried out of the village to a
gi'ave, in which it was interred without further ceremony.

The people, though professedly Mahomedans, seem more attached to their
ancient worship and superstitions than I expected. I clearly traced an ancient my-
thology, and obtained the names of at least twenty gods, several of whom are Hindus.
In each of the villages we found a Lang’gar, similar to that noticed at Merambung,
but generally better constructed.

“ The utmost good-humour and affection seemed to exist among the people of
the Hllage ; they were as one family, the men walking about holding each other by
the hand, and playing tricks with each other hke children ; they were as fine a raee
as I ever beheld ; in general about six feet high, and proportionably stout, clear
and clean skins, and an open ingenuous countenance. They seemed to have
abundance of every thing ; rice, the staple food of the country, being five times as
cheap as at Bencoolen, and every other article of produce in proportion. The
women and children were decorated with a profusion of silver ornaments, and par-
ticularly wth strings of dollars and other coins hanging two or three deep round the
neck. It was not uncommon to see a child with a hundred dollars round her neck.
Every one seemed anxious for medicine, and they cheerfully agreed to be vaccinated.
The small-pox had latterly committed great ravages, and the population of whole
villages had fled into the woods to avoid the contagion.

“ We now thought of returning to the coast, and on the 24th set off for
Manna by a different route to that by which we had arrived. Our first day’s
journey was to Camumuan, which we reached a little before six in the evening, after

3-20

RETURN TO BENCOOLEN.

the hardest day’s walk I ever experienced. We calculated that we had walked more
than thirty miles, and over the worst of roads. Hitherto we had been fortunate in
our weather ; but before we reached this place, a heavy rain came on, and soaked us
completely. The baggage only came up in part, and we were content to sleep in
our wet clothes, under the best shade we could find. No wood would burn ; there
was no moon ; it was already dark, and we had no shelter erected. By persever-
ance, however, I made a tolerable place for Lady Raffles, and, after selecting the
smoothest stone I could find in the bed of a river for a pillow, we managed to pass
a tolerably comfortable night. This is what is here called the Ulu Pino Road ;
and we were encouraged to undertake long marches in the hope of only sleeping in
the woods one night, and in this we fortunately succeeded.”

This was, perhaps, the worst day’s journey that the party experienced. The
route was very imperfectly known, and a hea^^ rain rendered the forest dreary, and
the walking more than usually irksome. Sir Stamford and Dr. Arnold took the only
guide, and hastened forward in the hope of reaching the river, and preparing a fire.
It was soon discovered that the remainder of the party had lost their way ; the peo-
ple dispersed to endeavour to trace the steps of those who were gone before, all
anxiously listening to catch the sound of water, that most delightful of all sounds to
the weary traveller, in a strange country and a hot climate. At last Mr. Presgrave
and the Editor were left entirely to themselves, and whilst debating what to do, and
pursuing their walk in no little anxiety, the duskiness of the night, the pouring rain,
and their wet clothes not adding to their comfort, Mr. Presgrave met with an acci-
dent which had nearly proved serious, and caused some alarm. He sunk into a
large pit, (which was covered over and concealed with leaves,) and disappeared
entirely, and with him sunk the hope of concluding the day’s journey, and his com-
panion’s spirit. He fortunately succeeded in extricating himself, and after continu-
ing their walk some time longer, the rippling of water was plainly distinguished, and
the busy voices of those assembled on the banks of the river soon obliterated the
slight troubles they had been under. A happy night succeeded, and after a few hours’
rest, the journey was pursued.

“ The next day we reached Merambung, where we got upon a raft, and were
wafted down to the vicinity of Manna in about seven hours. The passage down the
river was extremely romantic and gi'and ; it is one of the most rapid rivers on the
coast : we descended a rapid almost every hundred yards.

“ After proceeding from Manna to Cawoor, we returned by the coast to Bencoo-
len, where we ari'ived on the 3d of June, to the no small astonishment of the colonists,
who were not inclined to believe it possible we could have thought of such a journey.

“ My attention was now directed to crossing the country to Palembang. The
Sultan haring applied for the protection of the British Government, I dispatched a

MODE OF DESCENDING THE RIVERS ON RAFTS.

.321

party to ascertain the practicability of the communication. Before I left Bencoolen
I had accounts of their safe arrival. They reached the navigable part of the Palem-
bang river in twelve days’ march fi*om Bencoolen ; the party were about four hun-
dred strong. This is the first time the Island of Sumatra has ever been crossed by
an European, much less by troops.

I am now on my way to Padang to see whether I cannot reach Menangkabu
before the Dutch arrive, who claim the place under the convention.

“ Your Grace shall have the particulars of the tour to Menangkabu, the an-
cient capital of the Malay Empire, in a separate letter; and I will conclude this
hasty journal with assurances of the respect, esteem, and affection with which I have
the honour to remain, &c.

“ T. S. Raffles.”

The pleasure of this journey was great to Sir Stamford, as it opened to him a
field of future usefulness. He saw that it was not only the barren coast which he had
to improve, but a country rich in all the bounties of nature, and a people ready and
willing to profit by his influence and advice. One old Chief, on taking leave, actually
fell on his neck and wept ; and soon after walked the whole way from Tanjungalum,
the most distant place \dsited, to see him again at Bencoolen. Such simple un-
civilised people are soon won by kindness ; they are like children, easy to lead, hard
to drive. It was Sir Stamford’s extreme simplicity of mind and manners that rendered
him so peculiarly attractive to them, as they are always ready to be kind and atten-
tive, provided they meet with encouragement and sympathy, thus affording a proof that
the heart is the best teacher of true politeness. The Editor on reaching Merambung,
laid down under the shade of a tree, being much fatigued with walking : the rest of
the party dispersed in various directions to make the necessary arrangements, and
seek for shelter ; when a Malay girl approached with great grace of manners, and on
being asked if she wanted any thing, replied, “ No, but seeing you were quite alone,
I thought you might like to have a little bichara (talk) and so I am come to offer
you some siri, (betel) and sit beside you.” And no courtier could have discussed
trifling general subjects in a better manner, or have better refrained from asking
questions which were interesting to herself only ; her object was to entertain a
stranger, which she did with the greatest degree of refinement and politeness.

The rafts alluded to in descending the Manna river, were formed by a few
bamboos fastened together with cords. The Editor had wandered with some of the
people out of the direct course through the forest, and hearing a noise of voices
approached the spot, where it happened the rafts were making. On enquiry, the
task which ought to have been finished was only just commencing. As these rafts
were to have been at a spot much lower down the river, in readiness to carry the
party back to Manna, the Editor, knowing Sir Stamford’s anxiety to proceed, waited

T t

RETURN TO MANNA.

322

till one was completed ; but the raft was too slight, the rapids too dangerous at this
part of the river, for more than three people to venture : accordingly, a pole was
fastened to the centre by which she was to hold, and stand firm. A guide at each
extremity then took their station, each provided with a long pole ; and the raft glided
down the river, which was overhung with high rocks projecting in various places.
One man, on nearing the sharp turns that continually occurred, and against which
the rushing of the river propelled the raft, prepared his pole, and just on coming in
contact struck it on the rock with such force as to turn off the raft, which darted
down the fall until it would have come in contact with the rock on the opposite side,
when it was again struck off, and proceeded on to the next rapid. The dashing of the
raft through the water, the roaring noise, the complete immersion in the spray, the
momentary danger, the degi'ee of exertion which is necessary to preserve hold, the
perfect silence of each person, — combined to create a degree of excitement not easy
to be described. The raft reached Merambmig in safety ; when, the descent being
comparatively easy, two chairs were fastened in the centre, and the passage was a
continued scene of pleasure, in admiring the beauty of the surrounding country ;
until the men suddenly stopped, and said they would not venture further in the
dark, but that there was a village on the banks of the river, where shelter might be
found. It was still early, but no inducement could prevail upon the inhabitants to
venture out of their houses, for fear of tigers ; and it was only by desiring the Chief
of the place to order a party, that messengers were dispatched with lighted flam-
beaus, to procure horses from Manna to conclude the journey.

Sir Stamford rested at Manna one day, and proceeded down the coast to
Cawoor : this part of the journey was very trying ; it was performed on horseback,
principally on the sea-beach, and in the middle of the day, on account of tigers ;
the glare from the sea, the heat of the sand on the beach, the vertical rays of a
tropical sun, without any shade, either natural or artificial, after the fatigue and
exposure already experienced, were distressing to all, and proved fatal to one of the
party. Dr. Arnold, on arriving at Cawoor, was seized with a fever, where no medi-
cine could be procured. After remaining there one day with him. Sir Stamford
hastened back to Bencoolen to obtain medical aid ; this journey was again neces-
sarily performed on horseback, as the route was impassable for any carriage, and
nearly proved fatal to the whole party : in endeavouring to pass a projection of
rock called by the natives the jylace of death, the tide rose so rapidly, and the
surf was so high, that the horses began to stagger, the people from the top of
the rock screamed in despair, and it was with the utmost difficulty the horses
were turned, urged back, and a longer route piu'sued through the forest. A cir-
cumstance occurred here, which marks the superstitious fears of the natives. The
Coolies, in passing through the forest, came upon a tiger, crouched on the path ;
they immediately stopped and addressed him in terms of supplication, assuring

EXTRACT FROM MR. PRESGRAVE’S JOURNAL.

323

him they were poor people carrying the Tuan Basar, great man’s luggage, who
W'oulcl be very angry with them if they did not arrive in time, and therefore they
implored permission to pass quietly and without molestation. The tiger, being
startled at their appearance, got up and walked quietly into the depths of the forest ;
and they came on perfectly satisfied that it was in consequence of their petition that
they passed in safety.

In October, 1818, Mr. Presgrave, Resident of Manna, performed nearly the
same journey, with the intention of visiting the volcano on the summit of Gunung
Dempo, one of the highest mountains in that part of the Island, and gave the fol-
lowing adchtional particulars of this part of the Island.

“ The first part of the journey was perfonued on horseback over beautiful
plains : our party consisted of Mr. Osborn (whose object was the dissemination of
the benefits of vaccination), myself, and four Bugguese soldiers for the escort of our
baggage, canied by twenty-five coolies or porters. Whilst resting at Gunung Ayu,
,our attention was suddenly roused by a great noise in the village, the people running
in all directions ; we soon learned the meaning of this tumult. A man from a dis-
tant \illage, whose father was shot when the Sepoys under Colonel Clayton were
sent, after the murder of Mr. Pan-, to destroy the villages in Pasumah Ulu Manna,
having arrived at the nllage, and heard that we were there, drew his sword, and in
a transport of rage and fury w-as proceeding to the door crying out for the white
men, when he was stopped by the people, disarmed, and conveyed by them away.
So bent was he on revenge, that he vowed he would yet accomplish his purpose, for
nothing but the blood of an orang puti (white man) would satisfy the manes of his
deceased father. The people are particularly affected with goitres, some of which
grow to an immense size, and render the person a disgusting object. Among them-
selves they do not look upon these monstrous excrescences as deformities, nor do
they seem to experience any pain or inconvenience from them ; the inhabitants on
the plains are entirely free from the disorder, while as you approach the hills almost
every individual is affected with it. The natives attribute it to drinking the water
of some particidar stream. The latter part of the journey was principally over
plains of a fine black loam of very considerable depth, the horses’ feet sinking in as
they passed over it. We approached the great mountain on the fifth day, winding
round the east side of it. On our arrival here, we found one of our horses had died
suddenly, by its having eaten some noxious herb which grows amongst the grass.
The natives ate part of the carcass, pillaged the bones, and even before death robbed
it of all its mane and tail. As this was the first time a horse had been in this part of
the country, it excited much curiosity. The people did not seem to entertain any
favourable idea of our persons and colour. On entering a village to-day, a tall spare
figure, more resembhng a spirit broken loose from the infernal regions than a human
being, with one of the largest wens in his throat I have ever seen, came up to us;

T t 2

324

VISIT TO THE SACRED MOUNTAIN.

and after sun'eying us with an attentive eye for some time, at length exclaimed
aloud, ‘ These are the white men we have so often heard of ; here they are hke
de\ils.’ For this remark he received a rebuke fi'om his countrymen, and slunk away
ashamed.

“ W e now began to suffer from want ; we had only two bottles of uine left ;
we found considerable inconvenience in procuring fowls and other supplies, not from
any scarcity of these articles, for they appeared to be in abundance, but on account
of our rupees, which to om* daily loss we found were not current here. Spanish
dollars were in great request ; the reason for this was that the people of Pasumah
Lebar were dependent on Palembangfor salt and their piece articles of clothing. We
announced our intention of visiting the summit of Gunung Dempo, or the Sacred
Mountain, for in that light it is viewed by the natives themselves, who conceive that
the guardian genius of the country has his abode in it, and that the Devas and infe-
rior deities have also their residence there. Om* object was if possible to reach the
Crater. M’ith this riew we called for Panghmo, who had been our guide from the coast,
and whom we found on all occasions a most useful and faithful man. Panghmo was a
man of desperate fortunes ; he had been banished by his relations, and his attachment
to us he acknowledged arose from the pecuniary aid which he received. Since the Go-
vernor’s journey to Pasumah, he said he had realized upwards of a hundred and twenty
dollars, which had enabled him to discharge a large portion of his debts. He confessed
himself to have been one of the greatest resaus (plunderer) in the whole country ;
and, indeed, fi’om the countenance of the man, you would judge him to be capable of
executing the most desperate deed : a few dollars would induce him to take away
the hfe of his nearest relation. Panghmo was the only man in all Pasumah who
would undertake the arduous task of conducting us to the top of the mountain.
Twenty dollars were to be the amount of his reward for performing this serrice. Not
knowing the road, he succeeded, by the promise of five dollars, in procuring a man
who professed to be acquainted uith it to accompany him. This man was an Imam
(priest,) whom, fi’om the sanctity of his character, Panghmo considered necessary to
ensure success, as he would deprecate the wTath of the deities, and render them pro-
pitious to om* undertaking. This was to be accomphshed by prerious sacrifice and
fasting, and the day before we set out the Imam performed this part of the ceremony
by kilhng a fowl.

Oct. 27. — The Imam having announced this as a lucky day (for we were
obliged to give way to his prejudices,) we set out uith our fearless guide, our party,
including Coolies and attendants, amomiting to eighteen persons. We chd not think
it necessary to acquaint the Chiefs with om* design, anticipating that they would, in
consequence of their superstitious prejudices make objections, raise difficulties, and
perhaps finally hinder us from accomplishing our object. We therefore told them that
■vve were going to the foot of the mountain, but did not acquaint them that we intended

ASCENT OF THE SACRED MOUNTAIN.

325

to attempt to ascend to any height. We set forward on our expedition on the
morning, passing through several of their villages before we came to the foot of the
mountain. At a small elevation from its foot we saw several of the magnificent
flowers found by the Governor on his tour to Pasumah Ulu Manna, (Rafflesia Ar-
noldi.) Some were fidl blown, others in the bud, and the buds of others were just
emerging from darkness. We continued our ascent, marking the spots where the
flowers grew, in order that we might take some of them with us as specimens on our
return. Night was now drawing on, and finding ourselves fatigued, we began to
look out for a convenient spot on which to raise our huts. Hearing the rushing of
water below us, we were induced to descend, in hopes of obtaining a good supply of
water, which appeared to be scarce in this place. On descending a deep ravine we
found ourselves on the banks of the river Salangis. This river runs through the
whole of the Pasumah Lebar'country, in an easterly direction, and at last empties
itself into that of Palembang. In this place the river is very narrow ; its banks are
formed of a black sand, resembling, except in colour, that of the sea-beach. The
silence of the stream is here interrupted by an abrupt cataract, over which the water
is precipitated with great impetuosity ; this was the cause of the noise we heard for
the greater part of the afternoon. We at first pitched our tent opposite to the
cataract, but the rushing of the water caused a draft of air which pierced so keenly,
that we were obliged to remove it to a greater distance. At times there was such a
strong smell of sulphur, that it became almost intolerable. The water was also so
impregnated with this mineral as to render it undrinkable, and we were obhged to
make use of what we could catch from the side of the rock.

On examining our provisions, we found the steward had laid in so scanty a
stock as would serve the whole of oim party only another day ; we therefore sent
back several of our followers, taking with us only such as were absolutely necessary.
The number of our party thus curtailed, consisted of eleven, viz. Mr, Church, Mr.
Cudlipp, myself, three servants, three Coolies, and the two guides.

“ Oct. 28. — Early in the morning, after partaking of a slight breakfast, not dar-
ing to indulge lest our stock should fail us before we had completed our undertaking,
we ascended from this singular spot, and made another effort to gain the summit of
our ambition. We reached the top of the ravine, and bending our course W.N.W.,
proceeded through deep forests, in which no human traces were to be discovered.
Our only path was one that had been opened to us by the passage of elephants : the
traces of these masters of the desert were visible in every direction. We passed
through what is called by the natives the region of tigers ; the superstitious inhabi-
tants of the surrounding country imagine that there is a stream in these parts, which
when passed over by a human being, possesses the virtue of transforming him to that
ferocious animal, and on his return, of restoring him to his original shape. From
this fabulous story we expected to find the woods infested with tigers ; but to our

326

ASCENT OF THE SACRED MOUNTAIN.

astonishment we discovered nothing that could lead us to suppose, that these animals
had deserted the plains to take up their abode in the mountain. During the day we
remarked the footsteps of the rhinoceros and the ^^ild goat. Our two guides were
employed as we proceeded in cutting the small and low branches, and notching the
tmnks of trees which grew in our path, in order to serve as marks on our return, to
prevent the possibility of our wandering from the right course. Oirr ascent during
the day was pretty gi-adual and regular; at intervals however this regularity was in-
terrupted by abrupt acclivities of one hundred feet; and haring gained the top of
these the ascent became less steep, and in some places almost subsided into a plain.
We passed over four of these Tanga Gunung* to-day. Towards evening we found
ourselves beyond the deep wood. The tall and majestic trees of the forest seemed
suddenly to have vanished fi’om our riew, and those of a smaller and more sickly
growth to have taken their place. The road became almost impassable on account
of thorns and briars, which were so thickly interwoven as to present an almost insur-
mountable obstacle to our progress. The poor and exhausted Coohes wth the
gi'eatest difficulty di'agged their bm’dens through these formidable opponents : in-
deed we, who were not encmnbered vith any thing extraneous, could scarcely pass ;
the naked bodies of our servants gushed ^rith blood in every part, and our own
clothes were torn off our backs. We ate nothing diuing the day excepting some of
the fruit of the forests, called by the natives buzvaJi salak. Night now came on
apace, and we looked for a stream of water to enable us to prepare our evening
fare, but none could we discover ; so we were obliged to content ourselves nith a
small quantity of muddy water, found in a hollow place made by some animal,
which, from the traces in the neighbom’hood, we supposed to be the rhinoceros.

“ Haring rested a httle from the fatigues of the day, in vain we looked for the
plains we had left yesterday morning ; the face of the earth below was concealed
from oiu sight ; clouds and darkness rolled under om* feet. e found ourselves
above the summit of the surrounding mountains ; and, for the first time in oiu lives,
heard the thunder roll beneath us. The heavens above fromied, as in anger
at the presumption of man daring to enter these aerial abodes ; and the roaring
of tlie volcano at intervals, impressed us with a kind of sacred awe, as if we had in
reahty approached the habitation of celestial beings. These were the only forerun-
ners of the deluge which was to follow. The gloomy spot in which we were doomed
to pass the night far surpassed the power of description. On the one side, the
steep acclirity of the mountain ; on the other, a deep precipice ; not a tree to afford
us a covering or protection from the threatening storm, and scarcely a bit of dry
Avood to light a fire. In this situation we were enveloped in total darkness. The
thunder grew louder, the hghtning more ririd, while the volcano above us continued

So called by the natives ; the term signifies ladders of the mountain.

ASCENT OF THE SACRED MOUNTAIN.

327

its frightful roarings. At length the storm burst upon us in all its fury ; our light
and fire were suddenly extinguished, and we were necessitated to eat in the dark a
half-prepared meal. We then sat down to wait the holding up of the rain, but we
soon lost all hope of a calm interval. The storm continued with unabated violence
until near day-hght. Fatigued by the arduous task of the day, and with little to eat,
we would fain have reheved our troubles by sleep ; but to sleep in our condition was
certain death. Besides the rain which poured in at every part of om’ hut, the tor-
rent which rushed down the mountain threatened to sweep us below. We wrapped
ourselves up in blankets, but these were very soon soaked through ; indeed we
appeared to be sitting in the bed of a river, rather than on firm ground. The air
was bitterly cold ; our shivering people murmured loudly : we had never felt it so
cold since we left England. If we attempted to talk or laugh, our guide, the Imam,
in a tremulous voice, begged we would be silent, and not provoke the already angry
gods. We asked whence proceeded the roarings we heard above us. Panglimo
told us they came from the telago, or crater of the volcano, and desired we would
ask no questions about this frightful place. Towards morning the rain in some
degree abated, when Messrs. Church and Cudlipp very imprudently went to sleep in
the wet condition in which they were. Day-light at length made its appearance, and
again the men attempted to hght fires, which were most desirable ; for, from the un-
comfortable manner in which we passed the night, our followers were half dead with
hunger, cold, and wet ; and, indeed, although two of us had been accustomed to the
severities of an Em’opean winter, we were all most happy to enjoy the comfort of a
fire-side, even in the heart of Sumatra.

“ Oct. 29. — Having partaken of a little unsavomy rice, without even salt or
chilies to render it palatable, we prepared for another day’s labour. From the diffi-
culty we experienced yesterday in bringing the baggage as far as this, we conceived
that greater obstacles lay before us. We therefore resolved to leave the Coolies and
baggage in the hut, and proceeding unencumbered to the summit of the mountain,
retmm if possible to the place where we slept the last night, before the close of the day,
which orrr guide told us could be accomphshed. We did not proceed far before we
found that we were correct in regard to the difficulties we had anticipated ; for now
the ascent was steep, and the briars became thicker and more closely entwined toge-
ther, so that it was an absolute impossibihty to penetrate through them. Here we
began to look on our object as unattainable : we unsuccessfully sought for some sort
of path along which we might pass. The same insurmomitable obstacles beset us on
all sides, and no choice appeared to be left but to retrace our steps to the hut : yet
when we turned our heads and beheld the lofty summit above us, and volumes of
dark smoke rolling on its dusky and naked top, we felt an irresistible desire to sur-
mount every difficulty, and face every danger. Our progi'ess being thus impeded,
w'e could not help noticing the strange aspect of the scene aroimd us ; the grand

328

ASCENT OF THE SACRED MOUNTAIN.

majestic trees of the forest, whose venerable tmnks had withstood the shocks and
storms of ages, no longer struck our eyes, but in their stead thorns and briars, and
trees of a diminutive gi'owth, '\^'hat was most singular, all around us were seen the
dead trunks of trees, some of which had attained to a large size and considerable
height, standing erect without a single branch. All these tmnks being black, as if
burnt by lightning, we conceived it probable that some ^^olent shock of nature, not
far back, had reduced the former flourishing wood to its present blasted condition.
Perhaps some recent eruption from the volcano might have produced this effect ; or
might not noxious exhalations arising from the crater have checked, and nearly
destroyed vegetation in this part ? We were sensible of a very strong smell of
sulphm*.

“ It was now for the first time that we saw the stout-hearted Panglimo shrink
from difficulty. The man who seemed calculated to perfonn the labours of Her-
cules, and who ever made it his boast that he had encountered danger in eveiy shape,
was the first to sound a retreat. ' You see,’ said he, ^ the gods are not propitious
to our undertaking : — they have shut up the road against us : — they will bewilder us
in this desert place ; — we cannot proceed.’ We all appeared to inchne to this ad\ice,
but each felt ashamed of a defeat. Again we endeavoured to penetrate the thick
briars ; again Panglimo turned pale : ‘ It is vain to contend against the gods,’ he
said, and sat down. I rallied him, and taking the sword, which now served as a
pruning-hook, from his hand, endeavom-ed to cut through the brambles ; but their
stems were so tough and closely interwoven that it made no impression. This was
sufficient for Panglimo, who started up, and mounting with his naked feet upon the
thorns, instead of forcing a passage through them, walked on the top ; we all fol-
lowed him, and in this way proceeded, by slow degi'ees, for an hour or two. HaHng
surmounted this formidable obstacle, we met with another not less discoiuaging.
Instead of thorns and briars, we now had to walk over the tmnks of trees, that
were thrown down and piled on each other. They appeared to have lain in this
state for a long time, for some were decayed, others decajdng, and the whole covered
over with a sort of vegetation which sprang from their moiffd.

e were two or three hours walking over these weeks of the forests, at the
imminent hazard of slipping through the interstices of the trunks, and thus of
being buried alive, or else of breaking our bones. During the whole time we did
not once set our foot on Arm ground, or see the soil over which we were walking,
nor by putting our sticks through could we reach the bottom. The vegetation of
ages appeared to be piled up here in a widely-extended and confused mass ; and we
seemed to have approached the brink of general destruction and desolation. We
found that we were on a ridge of tlie mountain ; on each side of us was a precipice
of immense depth. The ridge gi*ew narrower at every step. The day was bright,
and looking down, the country immediately subjected to our Hew was beyond ima-

ASCENT OF THE SACRED MOUNTAIN.

329

gination beautiful ; extensive plains, scattered over with smoking villages : pools of
water reflecting the rays of the sun ; to the north the Musi river, called by these
people the sea of Musi. Having stayed a short time to contemplate this scene, we
again set forward, and made another effort to gain the top of the mountain. Our
path was now comparatively smooth, but steep of ascent ; we no longer found any
of our former obstacles. The only vegetation on this part is a sort of shrub, very
much resembling the box-tree ; the natives call it Kayu umur panjaiig, or the tree of
long life, and say it is only to be met with on the top of this mountain. The shrub
is about six feet high, and appears to be checked in its growth. Its branches and
leaves were covered with a kind of dust, which being shaken off as we passed along,
proved very troublesome and disagreeable, almost choaking us. We thought this
rather singular, as the rain which fell the preceding night, if it had reached this
part, ought to have entirely washed away the dust, but the earth appeared as dry
as the trees. Although we had not, as I have just noticed, our former difficulties
to encounter, we were not less affected by feelings of a different nature. Our path
had now become less than two fathoms wide, bounded by deep precipices, the bottom
of which the eye could not penetrate, and whose naked sides filled us with terror,
and narrowing at every step, we were threatened -with being ingulphed in these
unfathomable depths. We had now gained the summit of this narrow ridge; and
disappointment was the only recompense we found for our troubles and difficulties,
for our guide told us we had ascended the wrong ridge, and could not get to the
crater, which was the grand object we had in view when we undertook the task ;
nor were we even on the highest part of the mountain, for the place where we stood
was overtopped by Gunung Berapi ; this was entirely bare, and might be three or
four hundred feet above where we stood. Gunung Berapi is another peak of this
great mountain. There are in all three, to which the natives give separate names,
\dz. Gunung Dempo, Gunung Lumut, and Gummg Berapi. Gunung Lumut we did
not see, it being on the other side of Gunung Berapi ; this last, as its name points
out, is the one connected with the volcano. We were still doomed to disappoint-
ment ; for the brightness of the day became overclouded, and nothing could be seen
from this elevated situation but the tops of surrounding mountains, and a white mist
at our feet, which, like a sheet, veiled from us the face of the earth. We now
consulted whether we should make any farther attempt to attain our object, but all
agreed in the impossibility of succeeding ; besides, we had not a grain of rice or
other food with us, and only another scanty meal left at the hut, which we must
reach before night.

“ Oct, 30. — If any thing, we passed a worse night than the one we have already
described. We awoke at day-fight, or rather did not sleep all night, on account of
the wet and cold. Boat-cloaks and blankets were of no use ; they were wet through
in a few minutes, and only made our bodies more chilly. Having partaken of a

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380

EXTRACT FROM MR. PRESGRAVE’S JOURNAL.

half breakfast, we set forward on our return, retracing our footsteps, which were
easily found by the marks and cuttings of the trees, which were made on our ascent.
The spot where we spent the last two nights is situated rather more than two-thirds
up the mountain. Being tired of the woods, we resolved to make a forced march
and reach the village of Sawah Batuhan before night. We stopped to take three
specimens of the Krabut flower (Rafflesia Arnoldi ), two full-blown, and one bud.
As I have noticed before, the spot on which these extraordinary flowers grow is
rather elevated. No part of the plant is seen above ground except the flower, which,
decked in all the splendour of nature, bursts forth to light from a root which i*uns
horizontally on the gi’ound. The natives appeared not to be well acquainted with
it, and gave us a confused account of it, from which we collected that there are
two species of the krabut, one of which springs up into a shiaib and bears flowers
rather different from those which we now saw ; in the other, no part except the
flower makes its appearance above ground, without leaves and \vithout stem. —
About two o’clock in the afternoon we reached the villages, thankful that we had
once more extricated ourselves from such frightful wilds.

“ As the above extracts from my jornmal Avill afford a pretty good idea of the sort
of people we were among, and the difficulties we had to encounter, I shall not
detain you with the details of our journey back to Manna, but attempt a general
sketch of the country and inhabitants which we \dsited ; noting only by the way that
on our arrival at Tanjung Alam (the end of the world), many inquiries were made
after Tuan Adam. Having no acquaintance with Adam, we were surprised at the
entreaty and earnestness with which the inquiry was made ; and it was some time
before we found that Tuan Adam was no other personage than Madam Besar, or
Lady Raffles, the name by which she is known to this people. Madam it appears
was metamorphosed by them into Adam, a very pardonable mistake, considering
that they look upon Adam as some very extraordinary person, and Lady Raffles as
no less so, in ha\ing overcome such difficulties, and being the first Em'opean lady
who had visited their country.

“ The chief mountains in this neighbourhood, in the western range, are Gunung
Dempo, Gunung Lumut, and Gunung Berapi, which form one great mountain, by
far the highest in this part, being conspicuous over all the rest, and visible from Fort
Marlborough, bearing from Manna, N.N.E. and from Padang Guchei, N. With re-
gard to the height of this mountain, it would be but mere conjecture if I were to
estimate it at twelve or thirteen thousand feet above the level of the sea; but the
eye is easily deceived, and not having been accustomed to judge of heights, I may
be far from correct. We may perhaps judge something from the time we were
ascending. We commenced about ten o’clock on the 27th of October; about half-
past four we stopped for the night ; at seven the next day we set forward again, and
travelled till five o’clock; the following morning we recommenced at seven, and

EXTRACT FROM MR. PRESGRAVE’S JOURNAL.

331

reached as far as we were able to go about half-past one o’clock, making altogether
twenty-four hours. Allowances must be made for the badness of the roads, and the
many impediments we met with in the last third part of our journey. Although we
were so long in ascending, we were not more than ten hours in descending, having
started at six from our hut, which we guessed to be two-thirds of the height of the
mountain, we reached the foot at about four o’clock or past. The highest peak
(Jambul Baniul) of the ranges which we passed over between the coast and Passu-
mah Ulu Manna, did not occupy more than three or four hours, or scarcely so long.
The temperature of the atmosphere on the top of this mountain was very low; al-
though we discovered neither snow nor ice, yet from what some of the natives told
us, we were led to think that both have been seen there. They related a story of
three persons who were frozen to death, ^ matt ka krasan,’ stiffened or hardened to
death. I cannot state the precise degree of temperature for want of a thermometer,
though I should think Fahrenheit’s would have been as low as thirty-five degrees
before sun-rise. We were informed by some of the natives, that within their me-
mory the volcano, which now appears to be extinct, had been known to emit flames,
covering the trees and lands of the adjacent country with white ashes. This emis-
sion was accompanied with a loud noise, that filled the whole country with alarm.
The singular appearance of the trees near to the top of the mountain, mentioned in
another place, gives some colour to this report; hence we may probably account for
large trees being deprived of every branch, and the outer part of their trunks, the whole
being too solid a substance to be entirely consumed, being burnt black as a cinder.
But from the best information we could collect on the subject, it appears highly pro-
bable that the thick smoke seen to issue from the side of the mountain, is an aqueous
vapour arising from a hot spring, situated in the crater of the volcano. The water
of this spring has a constant motion, sometimes greater and sometimes less, alter-
nately rising and sinking, and when this agitation is greatest, it is attended with the
emission of a dark volume of smoke ; this is immediately preceded by a loud noise
resembling thunder, only of shorter duration. I have myself observed the smoke
issuing forth at intervals of a few minutes, as if repeated explosions had taken place
within the crater. — Dempo is the only mountain in this part that is honoured with
the epithet of Gunung, all the rest being called Bukit or hill.

We made inquiry respecting the large lake said to be situated somewhere in
these parts, but could not learn that one existed. Perhaps the jealousy of the people
might take care to conceal the knowledge of it from us.

“To the N. W. of Sawah Batuhan lies the country of Passumah Lambah, about
a day and a half, or two days’ journey. Lintang or the Ampat Lawang country,
divided into Lintang Kanan and Lintang Kidow by the river which flows through it,
lies N. W. by W. ; to the north is Kikim ; N. E, Lamatang and Palembang. The
former is only one day’s journey thence. The latter we were informed could be

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332

EXTRACT FROM MR. PRESGRAVE’S JOURNAL.

reached in eight or ten days, though it requires a much longer period in return. In
going to Palembang from this country, you pass through Lamatang, and at iSIuaro
Milang take water, and are conveyed in boats or rakits to Palembang. The face of
the country is beautifully diversified by hill and dale, and has much the same undu-
lating appearance as on the coast. The ra\nnes in general are very deep, and prove
a great impediment in mo\nng from place to place. The soil has a fine black loamy
appearance, and could with very little labour, produce almost every thing that grows
within the tropics, while from the variety of chmates which are to be found here, many
foreign productions, I make no doubt, might be brought to perfection. At present
rice, tobacco, and the plant called kalawi, are almost the only articles of cultivation.
The sawah grounds are \ery extensive. The price of rice just after harvest is fifty
bamboos coast measure, or one hundred Kulah-ulu, for the Spanish dollar, and not
unfi-equently cheaper than this. I beheve none is grown for exportation. The tobacco
is considered inferior to that of Lintang, but the pulas superior. The pulas, or twne,
is made the medium of exchange in many of their bartering transactions, and sells in
their country at the rate of ten or twelve ticals to the dollar. It is usually exchanged
with Palembang or Lamatang people for their salt, for which article of general con-
sumption they are entirely dependent on Palembang. The pulas is also disposed of to
the people of the coast, with whom it is in great requisition, and is principally used by
them in the manufacture of their fishing nets, for which purpose it seems to be well
adapted, as it receives little or no injury fi'om the water. Might not this be made an
useful and valuable article of commerce ? IMight it not in time rival the hemp ?
Indigo is cultivated in small quantities for the purpose of dyeing their cotton. Cassia
was also brought to us ; — they demanded an exorbitant price for it. If properly
sought after and taken care of, I make no doubt large supphes of it might be ob-
tained. The people took care to impress on our minds that there were two articles
which their country would not produce, the kapu (cotton) and pepper. For the
former article they are indebted to Pasisir ; the latter is of no use to them, and I can
easily account for their saying the pepper plant will not grow. They knew this was
the only article cultivated at the Pasisir, and they were fearful should their soil and
climate be thought adapted to the gro^\1;h of it, that the Company might be led to
enforce its cultivation : but why the former article should not thrive here, unless the
sea air be necessary for it, I cannot conceive. One would imagine that self-interest
would induce them to turn their thoughts to the cultivation of the kapu, as they
greatly stand in need of it for the manufacture of their coarser wearing apparel : but
as they told me, they had this on the faith of their ancestors (nenek poyang,) I
doubt whether they have made the trial in latter days, and as they infoiTned me
both the kapu and the pepper plants were invariably destroyed by tigers before they
came to perfection, I was led to consider some superstitious prejudice might prevail,
especially with regard to the growth of the kapu.

EXTRACT FROM MR. PRESGRAVE’S JOURNAL.

333

“ The chief of this latter article is supplied to them by the Padang Guchie and
Kadiuang people, though fi-equently the natives themselves remove to the latter
place and cultivate it, and as soon as they have gathered the cotton, return with it to
their country. As it requires but a few months from the first planting of the kapu
to the time of gathering the fruit, this can be done without much inconvenience.
The cocoa-nut tree does not thrive well here, though it is more productive than at
Pasumah Ulu Manna, where the climate is much colder. Cocoa-nut-oil is not to
be procured, instead of which they burn damar, which they procure from the woods
west of Pasumah Ulu Manna. The betel trees are numerous and seem to fiourish.
Fruit of every description, except plantains, is scarce : we saw scarcely any. The
orange-tree is not to be found in the country.

“ I have noticed before that these people are dependent on Palembang for
their salt and finer clothing ; and since they procm*e their cotton from Pasisir,
they are dependent on their western neighbours for their coarser cloths also. The
men, when at home, and employed in their Ladangs, usually wear a coarse white
cloth, reaching from the waist to the knee, sometimes with a jacket, and a cloth
for the head of the same sort, all of their own manufacture. The women are all
habited with clothes of their own weaving ; but the young unmarried women, who
find it necessary to be a little finer when they appear at Bimbangs, in order to attract
the attention of the young men, sometimes wear a silk scarf of Palembang manu-
factm’e, though more frequently it is the work of their own hands. They breed the
worms in order to supply themselves with silk for this purpose.

At this time the people were suffering greatly from the want of salt, a prohi-
bition on the importation of this article having been laid by the Dutch Government
since its return to Palembang, and heavy duties imposed on all boats and merchan-
dize coming into the interior of that place. This has created much inconvenience
to the inhabitants, who express a desire to be supplied with salt from Manna.
Although they have not the advantage of water-carriage in their communication with
the western shore, they would gladly resort thither to supply their wants, if any
thing certain could be secm'ed to them. They prefer an intercourse with the English
to one with the Dutch, towards whom they express a great aversion. From a rough
estimate, made by the assistance of the Chiefs, I calculated that fifty or sixty koyans
of salt would be annually consumed by them. They object to going to Bencoolen,
on account of the great distance. If regular and well-supphed markets, free from
the spirit of monopoly, were established at stated periods throughout the interior of
Manna, I make no doubt the whole population of this part of the interior would
resort thither for the purpose of supplying themselves with many of the necessaries
and even the luxuries of life. Salt, kapu, the finer sort of Malay clothing, piece-
goods, &c. would be always in demand. These would be changed for tobacco, pulas,
rice, and other articles.

334.

EXTRACT FROM MR. PRESGRAVE’S JOURNAL.

The people of Pasumah Lebar have traditionary reports of their descent
from the Javanese. They relate that in the time of the prosperity of the kingdom
of Majapahit, two persons, a brother and sister, vith several followers, whose names
and title they told me, but which I have now forgotten, left that kingdom, and
landing on the eastern shores of this island, the female settled at Palembang, where,
in a short time, she became a powerful princess ; but the brother, travelhng more
inland from that place, settled himself in the fertile valley of Pasumah. In this
way the country was first possessed and peopled ; and hence the origin of the pre-
sent race, which in many respects, I conceive, bears considerable analogy to the
people of Java.

‘‘ In their persons the inhabitants of Pasumah Lebar, generally speaking, are
not so tall and robust as those of Pasumah Ulu Manna. This may be attributed
to the difference of the climate, and moimtainous situation of the latter, as more
adapted to form a strong and robust frame of body, than the level plains of the
former. Their deportment is sedate and grave. The higher class are respectful and
courteous in their manners. Their wtues are, perhaps, of a higher order than we
meet with on the coast. Their hospitahty to strangers is unbounded, and a viola-
tion of its law, in their estimation, would be httle less than a crime of the greatest
magnitude.

“ The lines are almost as applicable to them as to the Scottish Highlander : —

And stranger is a holy name,

Guidance and rest, and food and fire.

In vain he never must require.

“ They are open and generous, and appear to be not destitute of that delicacy
of feehng usually termed honour. Insult would be instantly repelled, and injury
revenged, not by the secret dagger concealed under the screen of darkness, but pub-
licly and in the face of day. They are chaste and temperate, of a bold and daring
disposition, but passionate and hasty, with a strong attachment to their ancient cus-
toms ; they look upon all innovation as a departure from truth and justice ; they are
extremely independent, and jealous of any infringement of their ancient liberties.
They are industrious, and less infected ^vith the vice of gambling than the Com-
pany’s subjects. Opium smoking is unknown among them ; they look upon that
dmg as poison. On the other hand, they have little regard for truth, and think but
lightly of the violation of an oath. They have no regard to honesty or fairness of
dealing in their transactions, but make a merit of cheating. They are more warhke
than the inhabitants of the coast, and are extremely dexterous in the use of their
weapons. They cannot bear to hear the term Coolie applied to them, and abso-
lutely refused to assist us in carrying our baggage under that name.

“ They are very temperate in their diet, and seldom eat fiesh of any kind. The

EXTRACT FROM MR. PRESGRAVE’S JOURNAL.

335

Buffalo, not being a native of their plains, is slain only on occasions of importance.
Goat’s flesh, although more plentiful, and fowls, which are abundant, are seldom
eaten, except in their offerings to the gods. Swine’s flesh is not eaten ; but, besides
this, they have few prejudices with regard to food. They are by no means dehcate
this way ; and the entrails of the fowls killed for our dinner were eagerly picked up,
and, after midergoing some preparations, greedily devoured.

For this purpose they attended the cook daily in his culinary operations, to
carry off every thing he threw away. They do not even scruple to eat the carcass
of an animal found dead, although they know not how it came by its death : thus the
carcass of the unfortunate horse that died in one of the villages, was almost wholly
devoured by them, and some declared they had made a hearty meal from it.

“ The only inebriating drink made use of by them, is a fermented liquor, pre-
pared from rice, and termed hrum : this is drunk only at festivals. They have the
same aversion to milk, and every preparation from it, as the Javanese and other
Eastern people. A Chief being asked whether he would take milk with his tea,
rephed that he was not an infant.

“ The villages are in general neat and clean, the houses well built, and not ill
adapted for convenience. They are tolerably commodious and airy ; many of them
are constructed of plank, particularly those of the Chiefs, and are ornamented with
carved work.

“ Their language is not so much peculiar to themselves as the manner of pro-
nouncing it : except in this, it differs little from that spoken in the interior of Manna.
It has no words not to be found in languages of the neighbouring countries ; in
other respects it is the same as that spoken by the people on the coast from Sellibar
to Kawa, where another dialect, and different usages, are found to commence, bear-
ing a near resemblance to those of Lampung. The dialect of Serawi is also called
Sambilan Lura, and includes the rivers of Sillabar, Angalum, Salumah, Tallo, Alas,
Pino, Manna, Beneannon, and Padang Guchie, throughout which the same language
and customs prevail. This last may be considered almost distinct from the Malayan.
About one-fifth of it may consist of Malayan words, but the remaining four bear no
afflnity to that language. A native Malay previously unacquainted with it, would
not understand a conversation earned on between two persons in the Bhasa Serawi ;
but from the frequent intercourse between the people of the districts already men-
tioned, and the Malays, the language of the latter is mutually understood. But to
retm'n to the Pasmnahs, it is difficult even for a Serawi man to understand clearly
what they say ; this arises chiefly from the peculiar utterance given by them to their
words, their sounds being more guttural. All the words, which, by the natives of
the coast, are made to terminate in a simple o, by these people have a sound almost
hke eu or euh, as in the last syllable of dieii, but pronounced much longer and more
forcibly ; e. g. the Malay word kuda, or, as pronounced by the natives of this Island,

336

WRITING— SUPERNATURAL BEINGS.

kudo, is by the Pasumahs called kudeuh, and kata or kato, kateuh; maro, or
marah, mareuh. These people are not ignorant of wTiting. They use the characters
which Mr. Marsden calls Rejang, but which are not pecuhar to those people. The
mode of miting is on pieces of split bamboo, on which they cut or scratch the letters
with the point of a knife or sewar. They seldom use it but to send a message to a
distant person, or to acquaint him with any piece of news ; thus for instance, a de-
spairing swain inscribes his love verses (pantuns), and conveys them to his mistress.
They have no written memorials of past transactions or events, nothing in the form
of history, popular tales, or writings of any other kind, with the exception of a few
forms of prayer used in their religious ceremonies.

“ In travelling through their villages, the first thing that strikes the eye of a
stranger is the temple, a small square building, erected always in the centre of it.
This proves, not only that they have a rehgion, but that they possess a consider-
able degree of attachment to it. This rehgion is undoubtedly Hindu, with a slight
admixture of Mahomedanism, which seems, at some time or other, to have made
some progress among them. Circumcision is universally practised, and they mani-
fest the same prejudice to swine’s flesh that the professors of the Mahomedan reh-
gion do ; but it is chiefly, nay almost entirely, in these particulars, that the cere-
monies and institutions of the one bear any resemblance to those of the other. It
is rather remarkable that one tribe, called Anak Semundo, more strictly adheres to
the tenets of the rehgion of Mahomet. They read the Koran, pray at the stated
periods of the day, practise charity, which, according to the Mahomedans, con-
sists entirely in giving alms, keep the puaso, or feast of Ramazan, with other observ^-
ances of that rehgion. The head of this tribe is called Nabi Panghulu. Both the
jujur and ambil anak marriages are very rare among them, the Semundo mode being
almost exclusively adopted. But to return, although the greater part of the inhabi-
tants of this country, as I have already said, are Pagans, they nevertheless worship
neither idols nor external objects, neither have they any order of priesthood. They
have no idea of one eternal Supreme Being, who made all things ; although they
frequently make use of the expression Allah Tuah, the term by which the Arabians
express that idea, and, borrowing from the latter, which the Malays use to express
the same idea ; but the more ignorant Pasumah affixes no such meaning to it.
Ask him what he means by it, and he replies, it is one of the Dewas. In the my-
thology of these people, Dewas are the highest order of beings, whom they regard
with superstitious reverence. They are looked upon as benignant spirits, whose
influence is beneficial to the human race. These divinities listen to the prayers, and
are pleased with the sacrifices offered to them by mortals. They know all that
passes on earth ; they have a general superintendence over mankind and all mun-
dane affairs ; the destinies of men are in their hands, and all events are at their dis-
posal. To these benignant beings man is indebted for the principle of life, and this

POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS— INVISIBLE MEN.

337

debt is continually increasing through every instant of his existence, for the preserva-
tion and maintenance of that principle within him. There appear to be orders and
gi'adations of these beings ; they are not all of the same importance to man. They
have their abodes on the earth, and choose different parts of its surface for their
habitations ; some resort to the deepest and most gloomy woods and forests ; some
to hills and mountains ; some preside over the rushing torrent, while others, dehghted
with the gentle mimmurs of the hmpid stream, retire to its shady banks. Particular
trees are devoted to these deities : thus the sacred bringin tree or the venerable
banyan, spreads forth its shade in a peculiar manner, in order to shelter the sacred
habitation of a Dewa ; even the kalapo gading, (a variety of the cocoa-nut tree), in
the opinion of these superstitious people, is under the benignant influence of a holy
Dewa, who resides in its branches, and produces a more excellent sort of fruit.

“ But besides these there is another order of beings, whose influence is far less
benignant. They are called Jins, or e\dl spirits, and are considered to be the authors
of evil. All the misfortunes and calamities attendant on human life proceed from
them. They likewise have their residence on different parts of the earth ; and
should a man by accident approach the unhallowed spot, he usually feels the anger
of these resentful spirits.

“ There is still another class of beings, who, in regard to the quahties and
attributes ascribed to them, appear to possess a middle rank between the Dewas and
the Jins, approaching much nearer to the nature of the former. They are termed
Orang Alus, that is, fine, impalpable, or invisible men. I do not know the precise
office or natme of this fairy tribe. They seem to be a mixture of material and
immaterial beings, partaking of the nature of men and spirits. I have seen a man
who, it was said, was wedded to one of these Orang Alus. I concluded his children
partook of the nature of their mother, for although he had a large family, nobody
had ever seen one. The name of the man was Dupati Rajo Wani; in appearance
he much resembled a wizard. Such are the ridiculous ideas of this people ! But
are they more gross than those entertained by the Greeks and Romans with regard
to their deities ?

“ The manes of their ancestors are held in the highest veneration, and are
esteemed not inferior to the gods themselves. They suppose them to take con-
cern in the welfare of their posterity, over whom they are always watchful. They
have a strong regard and attachment to the spot where their forefathers were
interred ; and if Alexander the Great had penetrated into this quarter of the globe,
and attempted to molest the natives in their woods and forests, they would have
sent him the same reply that the ancient Scythians did. They have a strong per-
suasion in the doctrine of the metempsychosis, though, I beheve, it is only par-
ticular animals which are allotted to the reception of the souls of the dead : nor need
these, in temper and disposition, bear any resemblance to those of the persons

X X

.338

TRANSMIGRATION— SACRIFICE TO THE MANES.

while living, whose souls are transfused into them. The tiger is the animal they
look upon as most generally animated by a human soul. This is the reason why
they regard that ferocious beast almost as sacred, and treat it with so much unde-
served mildness and respect. Even when its jaws are polluted with human gore, a
man cannot be prevailed on to kill it in order to prevent it from repeating its bloody
feast. If a near relation have fallen its victim, he will perhaps be roused to revenge
his death ; yet sometimes, even in this, his superstitious prejudices and fears get the
better of his ardent thirst for revenge.

“ When a man finds himself plunged in distress, and the dark clouds of adver-
sity gathering over his head, he repairs to the temple or kramat, there to propitiate
the Dewas, and to invoke the manes of his ancestors to assist him under his
sufferings. This is done by sacrificing a buffalo, a goat, or even a fowl, according
to the urgency of the occasion, and by prayer and fasting. I have been told that
some have remained in a state of fasting for fourteen days, during the whole of which
time they have tasted not a morsel of food ; a little quantity of water was allowed.
Others have supported it for seven days, but two or three is the general period for
this sort of holy penance. At this time they cannot be said to pray ; part of the
time being spent in silently lamenting their distress, and uttering a few words, the
purport of which they do not understand. But the chief merit of this ceremony
consists in calling upon their Dewas by their proper titles, and in due order ; for
each has its particular title and rank. They then repeat the names of their nenek
puyang, or forefathers, and entreat them to deliver them from their existing difficul-
ties. In the language of the country this mode of invoking the deities is termed
hertarak, but it is chiefly in cases of the most pressing calamity that they have re-
course to it : for instance, in the time of war, they frequently go through this austere
ceremony in order to ensure success. As I have somewhere remarked, Gunung
Dempu is looked upon as the sacred abode of the Dewas, and the souls of their
ancestors occupy the regions of the mountains.”

CHAPTER XII.

Sir Stamford Raffles at Bencoolen — Proceeds toPadang — Appeal of the native Chiefs against the Dutch —
Is anxious to go to Menangkabu — Considered impracticable — Dangers represented — Determines to
make the attempt — Difflcultyof the road — Beauty of the country — Course up the river — Thermometer —
Height of the mountain— Description of the Tiga Blus country and people — Cattle — Horses — Clothing
of the people — Houses — Vierv of the Lake of Sincara — Description of it — Town of Simawang —
Country compared to that of Java — Arrival at Suruasa — Discovery of an inscription in the Kawi cha-
racter— Description of Menangkabu — Hindu image similar to those of Java — Height of the city —
Return to the Lake — Description of crossing it — Minerals — Vegetables — Agriculture — Return to Ben-
coolen— Death of Dr. Arnold.

A MONTH was passed at Bencoolen in attending to the duties of the settlement.
The only event which occurred was a successful attempt to cross the Island from
Bencoolen to Palembang. The following details are contained in the extract of a
letter to jNIr. Marsden :

“/w/y, 1818.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ I thought it would not be long before we found our way across the
Island. Finding it necessary to send a mission with a detachment of Sepoys to Pa-
lembang, I marched them across the hills, and have the pleasure to infonn you, that
the party reached Muara Bilhti on the Palembang river, where boats were in readi-
ness to take them to Palembang in nine days from their leaving Bencoolen, without
difficulty or casualty ; not a sick man or a single want the whole way. They expected
to reach Palembang in two days more, making eleven from their departure. As a
satisfactory document, I enclose you Mr. Bogle’s report, just received by a messenger,
who is only five days fi*om Muara Bilhti : you shah hereafter have a copy of the
journal, &c.

Captain Sahnond, after detaihng his route to Palembang, adds : ‘ We thus
reached Palembang in twelve days from leaxing Bencoolen, being the first Europeans
who had crossed the Island in any direction. We found the difficulties much fewer
than we expected ; and though we occasionally experienced fatigue, we were abun-

X X 2

VISIT TO PADANG.

,‘}40

dantly compensated by the variety and novelty of the scenery we passed through.
The banier range of hills appear to be more easily passed in this part than in most
other places ; and the rich and fertile districts of Musi are, in consequence, much
more accessible from Bencoolen, than has generally been supposed. The inhabit-
ants are partly Rejangs, and consider themselves more dependant upon Bencoolen
than Palembang, From Muara Bilhti, where we embarked, the Palembang river is
deep and navigable for native craft of considerable bm*then, and nothing seems want-
ing but good government and fi'eedom of intercourse, to raise the importance and
prosperity of this part of Sumatra.’

“ I should not omit to inform you, that all the old pepper-contracts, &c. are
cancelled, and that in theu* new treaties \vith the Chiefs, it is clearly stated that the
Company shall govern the comitry ; the fines and fees of the court go to govern-
ment ; the sugar lowered to one-fourth of its amount ; and every article of pro-
rision full thirty per cent cheaper than when we landed : rice twelve bamboos the
dollar.

“ I have, with Lady Raffles and Dr. Arnold, visited the Pasumah countr)",
which is equal to any thing in Java. We had the pleasure of spending three nights
in the forests, and of sometimes walking thirty miles in the day ; but we are now so
accustomed to exploring, that we are not sensible of the fatigue.

“ I am building a bungalow on tbe first range of hills at the back of Bencoolen,
on Guniing Kabut, the Hill of Mists, where we have a cool climate.

“ The trade in pepper has been thrown open, and my next excursion is north-
ward.

“ I shall mite you more fully by ‘ The Lady Raffles.’ In the meantime, accept
our united mshes for yom' health and happiness, and with kindest regards to Mrs.
Marsden, believe me,

“ T. S. Raffles.”

In the beginning of the month of July (1818), Sir Stamford embarked fi-om
Bencoolen to risit Padang, and if possible to obtain some information regarding the
situation and circumstances of the ancient Malay city of Menankabu, which, from
his love of Eastern hterature, was an object of great interest to him.

On his arrival at Padang, the Chiefs approached with consternation, apprehen-
sive that he was the herald to proclaim the coming of the Dutch ; and when he told
them that it was his duty to transfer the settlement to the Dutch, they made the
strongest remonstrance. They stated that twenty-five seasons (years) had elapsed
since the Dutch had quitted the place ; that when the English first came many of
the inhabitants were childi’en, some indeed were yet unborn ; they had during the
whole period looked upon the English alone as their protectors ; that their engage-
ments had long been exclusively with them ; and that, were they now transfeiTed to

APPEAL OF THE NATIVE CHIEFS AGAINST THE DUTCH.

the Dutch, they would be punished and degraded for every act of duty and good
faith towards the English.

The Chiefs, in the course of their representations, respectfully stated that
Padang did not belong to the Dutch ; that the Dutch were not sovereigns, but trus-
tees only upon a friendly agreement, paying tribute to the Sultan of Menangkabu.
To ascertain the nature of their footing a reference was made to the public records,
and the oldest inhabitants ; from these it appeared that the treaties of the Dutch were
entirely of a commercial nature ; that the sovereignty was legally vested in the Chiefs
of the Tigablas country, of which Padang formed a part ; and that the Tigablas
country itself was under the superior control and general authority of the Sultan of
Menangkabu, forming one of the independent states still belonging to that empire.

The capital of Menangkabu, the jurisdiction of which in ancient times extended
over the whole of Sumatra, was understood to be situated about eighty miles inland
of Padang, beyond the western range of high mountains, and nearly in the centre
of the Island. No European had ever visited the country, and but little was known
of its constitution.

From his observations, and the information he collected at Padang, Sir Stam-
ford was led to anticipate that in this inland government, whence all the Malayan
states acknowledge to have derived their power, much civilization was to be disco-
vered. The origin of the Malayan nation was of itself a question of interesting
inquiry. The present state and condition of the seat of empire promised to throw
light on the subject ; and as it was uncertain how long Padang, the key to Menang-
kabu, might remain in the possession of the English, he was determined to attempt
the enterprize.

Menangkabu had been famed since the earhest periods of history for the riches
of its gold mines, its iron ores, and its mineral productions in general. It was from
Menangkabu, and principally down the Siak, Sudragiri, and Sunda rivers that the
gold which traders found at Malacca in remote periods was carried. It was to the
gold of Menangkabu that Malacca owed its designation of the golden Chersonesus,
and navigators even distinguish in their charts to this day two mountains in its
\dcinity, called Mount Ophir, one in Sumatra to the west, the other on the peninsula
of Malacca, but nearly in the same degree of latitude with the capital of Menangkabu,
that is to say, under the equinoctial line. Sir Stamford wrote an account of this
journey to his friends in England.

To Wm. Marsden, Esq.

Pageruyung, at the foot of Berapi, July 2ith, 1818, long. E., lat. 10° »S'.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ I have the satisfaction to send you a few lines from this noted spot, to
prove to you that I have not been idle since my arrival. Dr. Horsfield, who is with

342

LETTER TO THE DUCHESS OF SOMERSET.

me, will carry home an account of our discoveries ; and in the mean time it may be
sufficient to inform you that at Sumasa I yesterday discovered t\vo inscriptions in
the Kawi character, and at Pagemjomg, ten minutes ago, I met with a regular
Hindu idol w’ell sculptured in stone. Lady Raffies is by my side, and desires her
kindest remembrances.”

Extract from a Letter written at sea to the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Sept. 10, 1818.

“ On my arrival at Padang, I found, that notwithstanding the previous in-
structions I had given, no arrangements whatever had been made for facihtating the
proposed jornaiey into the interior. Here, as in a former instance at Manna, wiien
I proposed proceeding to Pasumah, the chief authority had taken upon himself, on
the advice of the good folks of the place, to consider such an excursion as altogether
impracticable, and to conclude that on my arrival I should myself be of the same
opinion. I had, therefore, to summon the most intelligent European and native
inhabitants, and to inforai them of my determination. At first all was difficulty
and impossibility. Besides physical obstructions, the whole of the interior w'as re-
presented to be under the sway of Tuanku Pasaman, a rehgious reformer, who
would undoubtedly cut me off without mercy or consideration : but wffien they
found me positive, these difficulties and impossibihties gi'adually v’anished ; distances
were estimated, and a route projected; letters were immediately sent off to the
principal Chiefs of the interior, informing them of my approach, and in three days
every thing was ready for the jornmey.

“ Om* first object was to send the baggage and provisions a-head. This party,
which consisted of about two hundi'ed CooHes, or porters, each man carrying his
separate load; fifty military as an escort, and all our personal servants, left Padang
on the afternoon of the 14th of July, by beat of drum, forming a most ridiculous
cavalcade, the interest of which was much heightened by the quixotic appearance
of my friend Dr. Horsfield, who was borne along on the shoulders of four of the
party, in order that in preceding us he might gain time for botanizing.

‘‘ Thursday, the 16th, at daylight, was fixed for om* departure, hut the rain
dm'ing the whole of the night had been violent and incessant, and continued to fall
so heavily that no one could move out of the house till after ten o’clock ; the clouds
then broke, and the native Chiefs who were to accompany us appeared ; one and all
declared the impossibility of our proceeding on that day ; such had been the quantity
and the violence of the rain, that the river of Padang had overflowed its banks ; the
bazar or native towm was three feet under water ; all communication with the countiy
was cut off ; the long-boat of the Sunburry and another native boat had been lost in
attempting to get out of the river ; but as the weather cleared up by noon, and every
thing was arranged for departing, we were not inclined to be disappointed. At half-

JOURNEY INTO THE INTERIOR OF SUMATRA.

31.*}

past twelve, therefore, we left the Residency, under a salute from the fort, accompa-
nied by the Tuanku, or native Chief of the place, two Princes of Menangkabu, the
principal native merchants, and about 300 followers.

‘''For the first part of the road we proceeded on horseback, but were soon
obhged to dismount. We had scarcely passed the bazar of Padang, when we had to
swim our horses across a rapid stream, and in the course of three hours we had suc-
cessively to cross at least twenty streams of the kind : over some we were carried
in small canoes, over others we were borne on men’s backs, and through some we
boldly waded, for it was impossible to think of remaining free from wet. At length,
we struck across the country to the northward, over a fine plain of rice fields, which,
fortunately for us, were not in a state of cultivation. We had hardly got over our
difficulties in crossing the numerous rivulets, when a heavy shower drenched us
completely, and as there was every prospect of a wet night, we thought it best to look
out for shelter, and accordingly, at half-past four, put up in the village of Campong
Bam, where we remained housed for the night. We at first expected to have reached
Lemau Manis, a small village at the foot of the mountains ; but the rain coming on,
we were content to satisfy ourselves with having got thus far, and accomplished the
great object of breaking ground. Although we had been four hours on the road,
we did not estimate our distance from Padang, in a direct line, at more than six miles.
The country through which we had passed was populous, and generally well culti-
vated ; many herds of cattle and buffaloes straying near the road ; an appearance of
plenty and content throughout ; the villages appearing to occupy a very considerable
extent, and to include orchards and plantations of various kinds. I notice these ap-
pearances, because they are not found to exist within the same distance of Bencoolen.

“ Just before reaching this village, I received an express from Dr. Horsfield,
which, on account of its encouraging tenor, I shall transcribe.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ Your servants, Covrington and Siamee, have just arrived at Gedong
Beo, with a report that one of the Coohes was earned away by the stream, in
attempting to cross the river ; we have had continued rain for twenty-four hours, by
which the rivers are all greatly swelled. Covrington thinks it impossible that Lady
Raffles can pursue the route. As for myself, I came in just before the rain. I must
inform you that there are many difficult passages ; I should not, however, despair
of your progress, as far as relates to yourself, but as for Lady Raffles, I almost doubt
whether, in favourable weather, she could come on, as in many places a lady cannot
he carried; if it rains, doubtless, communication is stopped. The road passes
through the bed of a stream, which rapidly swells after rains ; and if the rains con-
tinue, the natives are positively of opinion, that the progress forwards or backwards
is impeded. I do not wish to discourage you in the attempt, but it is my duty to

LETTER TO THE DUCHESS OF SOMERSET.

infonn you of what your servants have communicated to me, mth a request to make
it knoNNTi to you as early as possible.

“ Your’s, &c.

(Signed) “ J. Horsfield.”

" P.S. — The further route towards Tiga bias is reckoned worse than that hither
by far, and large packages, as a table, &c., cannot be transported.

“ Wednesday night.”

“ This letter was poor comfort, considering that it continued to rain during
the whole of the night.

Fridatj \1th. — As the sun rose the clouds dispersed, and, fully determined to
overcome every obstacle, we started from Campong Baru at seven ; at half-past
eight we reached Leman Mauls ; about two miles from thence entered the forests,
and at half-past eleven overtook Dr. Horsfield and the advanced party, at the Ge-
dong Beo, or toll-post of Ayer Malentang, where we halted for the night. The
first miracle m'ought was to bring the dead to life, in the re-appearance of the
Coolie, who was reported to have been lost ; this poor fellow had truly enough been
carried away by the flood, but haHng had the good sense to lay hold of the branch
of a tree which overhung the river, he afterwards regained the rocks.

“ Our route fi*om Campong Baru to Lemau IManis, and for about a mile beyond
it, lay over a rich plain of sawas, or rice-fields, alternately rising above each other,
till we brought the top of Padang hill on a fine with the horizon ; the soil extremely
rich, and the country intersected by numerous streams; every indicatiorr of an
extensive and industrious population ; sheds, or warongs, as they are tenrred in
Java, erected for the accommodation of travellers, at convenierrt distances; and
here and there the vestige of a road, once passable for wheel-caniages. The
ricinity of Lemau Manis affords several beautiful and cornrnarrding situations for
the residence of Europeans ; and should Padarrg rernairr perrrranently under the
English flag, they would doubtless be immediately resorted to. The village itself
is elevated above the sea about four hundred feet; this is called the Pau country,
in which an interesting ceremony is understood to attend the annual inurrdation of
the rice-fields, by opening the embankments of the principal river. Lerrrau Manis
is a long straggling village, or rather plantation, on the romantic hanks of a rapid
river, which discharges itself into the sea at Ujurrg Kararrg, arrd up the stream of
which om* further course lay. Here, as well as in several rillages we had passed,
Ave obsei^'ed a considerable quantity of coffee gr'owing under the shade of the large
fniit-trees, and contiguous to the houses. Our arrival was welcomed by the beating
of the gr-eat drum, or tabu, which has a place in ever)' large Hllage. This driun is
pecultar ; it is for*med of the trunk of a large tree, and is at least twenty feet long.

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PULO CHEPADA.

345

hollowed out, and suspended on a wooden frame, lying horizontally under an attap
shed ; one end only is covered with parchment.

As the nature of our road, after entering the forest, has already been described
in Dr. Horsfield’s letter, it will be only necessary to observe, that the violence of the
current ha\ang abated, we found tbe route passable. The ascent was very moderate,
but many passages along the sides of slippery rocks very unsafe. We had frequently
to wade across the stream, and continually to leap, like a flock of goats, from rock
to rock. The native traders secm*e their loads in a peculiar manner, by lashing
them fast to a small frame, or stand, which is placed on the shoulder, and kept
steady by being held with one hand while the leap is made.

“ The bed of the river afforded a fine opportunity for collecting specimens of
minerals ; those we observed were principally of volcanic origin. Dr. Horsfield
noticed several plants entirely new to him.

“ Our course from Lemau Manis was about E.N.E., estimated distance from
Campong Baru sixteen miles.

“ The barometer, at the toll-post where we slept, was 28° 55' ; the thermo-
meter, in the morning, 72°; at two o’clock, P.M., 75°; in the evening, at eight,
69°, oiu' estimated height, above the level of the sea, fifteen hundred feet.

I shall not speak of the natm’e of the accommodation which we found at this and
other toll-posts, further than by obser\dng that they generally consist of one or more
large sheds, for the accommodation of the native traders and travellers, who pay a
small sum for being accommodated during the night. Sometimes we had a small
dhision of the shed to ourselves ; at other times we had not even this accommoda-
tion. When it rained, om* whole party, consisting of not less than three hundred,
was sometimes collected under one shed alone.

Saturdaij, 18th. — Ha^dng accomplished our journey thus far with less diffi-
culty than we were at first prepared for, we set out this morning at about half-past
seven, in high spirits, but before we came to om- resting-place for the night they
were pretty well exhausted ; for, in consequence of some misapprehension in the
party which had gone before us, we had to walk nearly twice the distance we had
calculated upon, and this over the most fatiguing road, with little or nothing to eat
or diink. From the place where we had slept, our course continued up the bed of
the river, but the ascent was much steeper, and the road far more difficult than on
the preceding day. Rocks piled on rocks, in sublime confusion, roaring cataracts,
and slippery precipices were now to be surmounted. Nothing could be more
romantic and udld than the course which we had to pass ; but in the proportion that
the scene was irregular and grand, the road was difficult and laborious, and ere we
had reached the small station of Pulo Chepada about noon, we were completely
wearied out. At this place we had directed that a small hut should be erected
where we might pass the night ; but to our mortification we fomid that the party

Y y

346

ASCENT OF GUNUNG DINGIN.

who had received these orders had pre\aously proceeded further on, and left us to
follow them to a more convenient resting-place, said to be distant about five hours
further walk. It was too late to remedy the evil, for even had we been able to keep
out the rain, which now began to fall, we could not have remained. Not only our
bedding and clothes, but the cook with all our eatables and drinkables had also
gone a-head — we were therefore compelled to follow, and after resting about an hour,
again set out. From this place we quitted the bed of the river, and ascended an
extremely steep mountain (Gunung Dingin), the summit of which we reached with
great difficulty at twenty minutes past four. Here the thermometer was sixty-three,
the weather close and rainy ; estimated height by the barometer five thousand two
hundred feet; vegetation stunted, and the trees covered with moss. From the
summit, our descent to the eastw^ard was more gi'adual, but for the first hour
principally through a very naiTow channel of about two feet wide, and sometimes
fom' and five feet deep, apparently cut as a pathw^ay, but more calculated for a
water-course, w^hich in fact it had become, the w^ater being in most places more than
ankle deep. We continued descending till dark, when it was with difficulty and
danger w'e could grope our w’ay for a few yards. The night was extremely dark ;
w^e w^ere in the centre of a deep forest, through which the twinkling of a star could
not be seen, on either side of us were steep precipices of several hundred feet ; we
had no one with us w^ho knew the road ; it was impossible to distinguish it either by
the sight or touch, and in this miserable predicament, without any thing to eat or
diink (for we could not help arguing with Sancho, that this after all was the worst of
the affair), and not knowing how far we had to go, about seven it began to rain
pretty heavily : we then fired two or three guns, in the hope that the party a-head
would hear us, and sent off the boldest of our followers in search of a light ; dming
the next hour we were continually tantalized by the appearances of lights, which no
sooner approached than they receded, proving but the evanescent glare of the fire-
fly — at last a steady light was seen at some distance through the depth of the forest ;
a distant halloo answered our call, and we were relieved from our anxiety ; with this
assistance we reached our destination at half-past eight ; but many of om* party did
not get in till midnight, and several, giving way to despair, remained in the forest till
the next morning.

“ Between the toll-post we had left and Pulo Chepada, we suddenly came down
upon a small valley of about a mile in length, clear of forest, and covered with grass
alone, along which a beautiful stream meandered on a fine bed of pebbles ; this was
represented to us to have but a few years since been the bed of a lake, one of the
banks of which gave way during an earthquake : every appearance corroborated this
fact.

“ Our abode for the night was on a detached hill, Bukit Batu, at the verge of
the forest, the Gedung Beo, or toll-post, a wretched shed where people of all ranks

ARRIVAL IN THE TIGA-BLAS.

347

were indiscriminately accommodated, but in which we found as substantial comfort
and repose as we could have desired in a palace.

“ Our distance during this day of fatigue we estimated at not less than twenty
miles ; but we all agreed that we could have walked double that distance on level
ground and good road with less labour.

“ From an opening in the forest, about five in the afternoon, we had our first
view of Gunung Berapi, the Western Peak emitting a volume of smoke, and bearing
N. by W.

“ The estimated height of Bukit Batu by barometer is 3500 feet. The ther-
mometer at day-fight sixty-five. The toll-post here is under Ganton Chiri, one
of the Tiga-hlas Cotas, and seems regulated on the same principle as that of Ayer
Melangtang under Lemau Manis ; each traveller pays a certain sum according to the
goods he carries — if cloth, iron, or gold, a wang — if siri, and other inferior articles,
a satali or half wang. They are well adapted for the general object intended, and
afford evidence of the extent of the traffic carried on. We met several parties of
traders crossing the country towards Padang.

“ Sunday, 19th. — As we had now entered the limits of the Tiga-blas coun-
try, our further progress depended upon the good-will of the Chiefs, who are
here entirely independent of the European authority. It was intimated to us, that
we should arrive at Solo Solaya, the intended termination of our present day’s
journey, by eleven or twelve o’clock ; and as we had scarcely recovered from the last
day’s fatigue, we determined to breakfast before we moved. While partaking of this
meal, several of the Chiefs of the Tiga-blas country were announced ; and a party
who stated themselves to be the representatives of two-thirds of that country were
introduced. After the usual compliments, they proceeded to the business of their
\asit, and being informed of my wish to proceed without delay, very quietly stated
that they had already taken the subject into consideration, that they had been dis-
cussing it since daylight, and had at last come to the resolution, that as they were
only two-thirds of the Chiefs, and the other third had not arrived, they would come
to no decision at all, but proposed as an accommodation that I should remain where
I was for three days, after which, a final decision should be immediately passed.
This proposition I, of course, treated very lightly, and in few words intimated my
determination to proceed as soon as breakfast should be over. While the Chiefs
were deliberating upon what answer they should make, the arrival of the remaining
third was announced, and the conference broke up, in order that a general consulta-
tion might be held. As soon as breakfast was over, I went out to see what was
going on. The Chiefs, after sitting down in a circle, and debating for about an hour,
rose, and the parties dispersed, in order that the newly arrived Chiefs might think
on the subject by themselves and advise with their followers. They accordingly

Y y 2

348

RECEPTION BY THE NATIVES.

adjourned to an opposite hill, on which several hundred people had collected. Here
they continued in conference till ten o’clock, when finding there was no chance of a
speedy termination, I ordered my party to be in readiness to move. We were no
sooner in motion than the Chiefs again assembled in council, and it was requested
that I would wait ten minutes longer ; wanting the patience to do this, and deter-
mined at once to break through this tedious delay, to which it was to be feared we
should be subjected in passing the boundary of every petty state, I walked into the
middle of the circle, and demanded that they should say in one word what was
required, on which the most respectable looldng man among them answered, Sa tali
sa pail — that is to say, twenty dollars ; the money was immediately tendered, we
shook hands, the utmost cordiahty and good understanding instantly prevailed, and
we were permitted to proceed on om' journey wthout further hesitation.

“ It was now between ten and eleven o’clock : our coiu'se on the descent lay
partly through a wood, and partly over several cleared hills, cultivated \\ith coffee,
indigo, &c. In about an hour after starting, the country opened ; and we had the
gi'atifying Hew of the Tiga-blas country, an extensive and highly cultivated plain,
bomided to the south by the noble mountain of Talang.

“ After descending the hills, and reaching the plain, our course lay entirely
along the narrow ridges or embankments raised between the rice-fields until we
reached the market-place, distinguished by several large w'aringin or banyan trees.
Here we halted and partook of different kinds of fruits presented to us. In our
course from Bukit Batu to the place, our party had been strengthened mitil it
amounted to several thousands — the people of the country being collected at the
different eminences near where we passed ; they welcomed us as they joined the
throng, by the most discordant howls and cheers which can be well conceived.
Anived at the market, they formed an extensive circle several row's deep, the front
row squatting ; nearly the whole w'ere armed with spears, and among them w^ere
some women. One old woman made herself very conspicuous by her attentions,
and wiien a little alarm w'as evinced by Lady Raffles, on account of the violence of
the howling and cheering, she was the first to assime us no harm was meant ; it
was only the way of the hill-people, who took this mode to show their dehght, and
how happy they were to see us. On the whole, I cannot well conceive any thing
more savage than the manners of this noisy party, from the time the Chiefs joined
us until we left the market-place. It was evident they wished to give us an hospi-
table reception * * * I wiU only

add, that before they suffered us to proceed beyond the market-place, a new con-
sultation was held, which lasted more than half-an-hour, when another douceur be-
came necessary. We then prosecuted our journey to the towns of Solo Solaya,
which were considered as the first in rank of the Tiga-blas Cotas, and about four

DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY.

349

o’clock reached our destination. Here, after having been kept for half-an-hour in
the Bali, or town-hall, we were accommodated in a very commodious planked house,
and which appeared to be the residence of one of the principal Chiefs.

“ Finding ourselves among a set of people who exhibited in their manners so
much of the savage, we detennined to keep our party close together, and whenever
any general movement was made, to call in the aid of the drum and fife, which for-
tunately we had brought with us ; this imperfect music, most wretchedly performed,
seemed to have a great effect upon the people.

“ I have now once more led your Grace across the Barisan, or chain of moun-
tains, which had hitherto so effectually opposed the approach of Europeans to the
rich and populous countries in the interior. In a former letter, I attempted to ex-
press the delight with which I first viewed the fertile valley of Pasumah, after
spending three days in the forests. Here I was certainly prepared to find a country
still more fertile and populous, and I was not disappointed. The whole of the
plain, or valley, (I hardly know which to call it,) occupied by the Tigas-hlas Cotas,
or Thirteen Confederate Towns, is one sheet of cultivation ; in breadth it may be
about ten, and in length twenty miles, thickly studded with towns and villages,
some of them running in a connected fine for several miles ; this was the case with
the to^vn of Solo Solaya, where we put up. The town of Solaya joins that of Solo,
whence the Chiefs are usually denominated to be of Solo Solaya ; a third town,
called Cola-baru, is again only separated from these by a river : the whole are shaded
by extensive groves of cocoa-nut trees.

“ On the slopes of the hiUs, the principal cultivation is coffee, indigo, maize,
sugar-cane, and the oil-gi\dng plants ; on the plain below, almost exclusively rice.
The sawas, or rice-fields, are here managed exactly on the principle of the mountain
sawas in Java, and the soil and produce seem equally good. A fine breed of small
cattle, which seems peculiar, abounds here and throughout the Menangkabu country;
oxen seem to be generally used in agiiculture, in preference to buffaloes; they
are in general about three feet four inches high, beautifully made, and mostly of a
light fawn coloiu*, with black eyes and lashes, and are sold at from three to four
dollars a-head. They are, without exception, the most beautiful little animals of the
kind I ever beheld ; we did not see one in bad condition. Horses, of which there
seems to be plenty, are not much used; for a mare and foal the price was four
dollars, twenty shillings.

“ On entering the country, we were struck by the costume of the people, which
is now any thing but Malay, the whole being clad according to the custom of the
Orang Putis, or Padris, that is to say, in white or blue, with turbans, and allowing
their beards to grow, in conformity with the ordinances of Tuanku Pasaman, the
rehgious reformer. Unaccustomed to wear turbans, and by nature deficient in
beard, these poor people make but a sorry appearance in their new costume. The

350

SOLO SOLAYA.

women, who are also clad in white or blue cloth, do not appear to the best advan-
tage in this new costume ; many of them conceal their heads under a kind of hood,
through which an opening is made sufficient to expose their eyes and nose alone ;
but we obseiwed some general customs in their dress, which are not perhaps attri-
butable to the recent reformation. The women invariably wear their hair parted
over the forehead, and combed smooth dowm the sides; and the children and young
girls were frequently seen uath their hair plaited down the back, after the manner of
the Chinese. All the women have the lobe of the ear distended to an enormous
extent, in order to receive an immense ear-ring, or rather wheel, which it more
resembles; this is usually about two inches in diameter, and differently ornamented;
some are of wood, ornamented with silver, others of copper, &c.

“ The people in general are by no means good-looking ; neither in stature or
countenance do they equal the Pasumahs; they are decidedly a less ingenuous
people; their manners, if anything, more rude and uncultivated; but their agri-
culture, their comforts, and their condition, certainly superior.

“ Monday, 20th. — This day was spent at Solo Solaya. About noon I was
informed that ail the Chiefs of the adjoining districts had assembled, and were de-
sirous of a conference. In number they amounted to some hundreds, and I therefore
requested they would select ten or twenty, with whom I could personally confer.
After about an hour’s disputing, and when I found by their clamour that they w'ere
likely to separate in disorder, I was compelled to say I would confer \rith the whole
of them, if they wished it. They accordingly assembled in the ricinity of the Bah,
or towm-hall ; and having formed a circle, in which a place was reserved for me, I
took my seat mth all the state which circumstances admitted. The object of my risit
w'as then inquired into, and the propriety of allowing the Dutch to return to Padang
discussed with much vehemence, until one and all declared the Dutch never should
retiu*n. To enforce this declaration the foremost stmck their spears in the ground
and set up a shout. A letter was then written to the King of England, and signed
by the principal Chiefs; and other agreements, of a pohtical nature, entered into.
A translation of the letter to the King of England I enclose to your Grace, as a
pohtical document of high import.

“ This business terminated, a general shout announced the conclusion of the
conference. Each of the principal Chiefs was presented with a piece of British
broad-cloth, and three volleys of musketry fired, the drum and fife playing ‘ God
save the King,’ and escorting me home, in the most ridiculous state that can be
conceived.

“ The remainder of the day w'as passed in examining the town and making
inquiries.

“ These towns, I found, had little to do with commerce; the inhabitants are
almost exclusively devoted to agiiculture ; and to this cause the native merchants
7

GOLD MINES.

351

who were with me attributed the want of civilization among them. ‘ The people of
those towns,’ said they, ‘ which lie on the road to the gold mines, and where they
miderstand how to trade, are of very different manners; these people, though con-
sidering themselves as of most importance, have always been noted for their rude
and obstinate behaviour.’ This account I had subsequently reason to believe was
pretty correct. The Tiga-blas country has always been famed for its produce in
gold; indeed to Emopeans it has been known as a gold country alone. To find it
also in a high degree agricultural was more than I expected. Hitherto the country
through which we passed was exclusively volcanic ; the rocks for the most part
basaltic; a hot-spring, 108® of Fahrenheit, close to the town, and two burning
mountains in sight ; no evidences of primitive formations ; no indications whatever of
metals. We had therefore to look for the gold mines beyond the immediate confines
of the Tiga-blas country ; and we soon ascertained the principal mines to be situated,
some at two and three, and others as far as ten and twelve, days’ jornmey distant, in
a south-eastern direction. The principal mines are those of Sungy Pagu and Sungy
Abu, which are marked on the map as lying at the back of Gunung Talang. Of
the extent and value of these mines I shall have occasion hereafter to make some
observations; for the present, I will confine myself more particularly to that part of
the Tiga-blas country through which we passed.

“ On entering the town of Solaya, we passed through the burial-ground, dis-
tinguished by a very large waringin-tree and several tombs built of wood, here
termed jb'i ; these are peculiar, sometimes little more than a shed, but frequently
with a raised flooring, and seats raised one above the other at each end, like the
stern of a vessel. Several of these were observed outside of the town, and in the
middle of the rice-fields ; these, we were informed, had been raised in memory of
persons who had died at a distance ; they now served as a shelter for the children,
when watching the birds, as the rice ripened, and as places of amusement for the
younger branches of the family. The waringin, or banyan trees, reminded me very
much of Java ; they are here even larger than any I ever observed in that country.
Nothing in the vegetable creation can well exceed the peaceful grandeur of these
trees.

“ The houses are for the most part extensive and well built ; in length seldom less
than sixty feet ; the interior, one long hall, with several small chambers in the rear
opening into it. In the front of each house are generally two lomhongs, or granaries,
on the same principle as those in Java, but much longer and more substantial : they
were not less than thirty feet high, and capable of holding an immense quantity ;
many of them very highly ornamented, various flowers and figures being carved on
the uprights and cross-beams ; some of them coloured. The taste for ornament is
not confined to the lomhongs ; the wood-work of most of the houses is carved, and
coloured with red, white, and black. The ridge-poles of the houses, lomhongs, &c.

352

DEPARTURE FROM SOLO SOLAYA.

have a peculiar appearance, in being extremely concave, the ends or points of the
crescent being very shaq^ In the larger houses they give the appearance of two
roofs, one crescent being, as it were, within another. The whole of the buildings
are constructed in the most substantial manner, but entirely of wood and matting.

“ In the evening, I was much amused by the return of the cattle from pasture.
To every house there appeared attached several head of cattle ; these came in, as
the sun declined, of their oum accord, and were severally secured by the children
and women, the cattle being quite as docile as those in Europe, in which respect they
foiTu a striking contrast to those on the coast, wdiich are, for the most part, too wald
to be approached.

“ Being anxious to refresh myself in the river which passed at the back of the
town, I enquired for a convenient place to bathe ; my intention was no sooner inti-
mated, than the women of the village flocked round me, and insisted on accompany-
ing me to the place ; but, however great their curiosity, my modesty did not allow
me to gratify it, and I was content to disappoint myself as w^ell as them.

“ It is now, however, time to proceed on the journey, lest I tire you on the way.

‘‘ Tuesday, 21st. — At day-light the drum was beaten, and every thing in readi-
ness for oiu departure, when a serious difficulty was started. In the distribution of
the presents the day before, it was stated that one piece of cloth had been stolen,
and that the Chiefs of Solo had in consequence received one piece less than those of
Solaya. This was represented as likely to be the occasion of a feud between the
two people after my departure. I would wdllingly have given another piece of cloth,
but I found the whole statement to be an imposition ; for when I offered to do so, a
new^ demur arose ; the Chiefs of Solo came in a body, sa}dng that I had slept two
nights in Solaya, and not one in Solo ; that I had therefore done more honour to the
former ; that the two toums had always maintained an equahty, which was now
lost, unless I would consent also to stay two nights at Solo. This I represented to
be impossible ; the Chiefs of both toviis had received me at the boundary, and it
Avas left Arith them to conduct me whither they pleased ; they took me to Solaya ;
the drum was now beating, and I must be off, I promised, however, to visit Solo
on my return ; but nothing would pacify them, and we had very nigh come to
an open impture. At last, I gave the piece of cloth to the Chiefs of Solo, and a
written certificate that the important point should be regularly ffiscussed after my
return to Padang, wffiere the Chiefs were invited to proceed, should any bad blood
remain. At length, with the greatest difficulty, we got clear out of the town, and
bent our course across the plain towards the Lake of Sincara, which w'e expected to
reach in the course of the day.

“ During this day’s journey, w hich lay through one of the most highly culti-
vated countries I ever passed, w^e w'ere subjected to several gross impositions. On
first leaving Solo Solaya, wt had to find our way without guides ; but we had not

JOURNEY INTO THE INTERIOR OF SUMATRA.

353

proceeded many miles, when, on being at a loss which way to proceed, some men
immediately came forward and offered their services as guides, provided we would
pay them in the first instance ; this we at first declined, but at length were forced to
give into ; but they no sooner got the money than they took an early opportunity to
decamp. To our surprise, however, we soon fell in with the Chiefs of the towns which
we had left ; they had proceeded by a shorter route, and now presented themselves
as guides. They did not, however, allow us to pursue our journey for more than a
mile at a time without stopping to consult ; and the whole country being raised as
we proceeded, it was impossible for us to oppose their will. In this manner they
detained us at least six or seven times in the course of two hours, nor would they
allow us to proceed until we paid them a certain sum, by way of customs, for the
liberty of passing through the country ; all hands seemed determined to get some-
thing by us ; at last, about half-past nine, we reached the termination of that part
of the plain under the Tiga-blas Chiefs, who after making their last demand, insisted
on our remaining half-an-hour to see them exhibit in a tournament, to which we
were obliged to submit, notwithstanding the excessive heat of the sun, from which
we had no shelter. At ten o’clock we obtained a view of the lake, and about eleven
we reached Kasi ; at twelve we arrived at Sindangbaher, a populous town on the
banks of the lake, where we remained for the night. Both here and at Kasi, we
w'ere received, comparatively, with politeness and attention ; the people seemed to
have some respect for authority, and it was evident they had the advantage of more
general intercourse with strangers ; we were, in the first instance, conducted to the
large waringin tree, under the shade of which the Chiefs and people assembled to
receive us, and where cocoa-nuts and fruits were presented. At Kasi the most par-
ticular attention was paid to us, owing, most probably, to its being the native town
of one of the principal merchants who accompanied us, and who seemed to possess
much influence here.

“ The town of Sindangbaher is situated about a mile from the banks of the
lake, on a fine stream. The buildings, &c. are much in the same style as at Solo
Solaya, but not so substantial or numerous, many of them having been burnt during
the late civil war ; but the most interesting object before us was the lake, across
which our coiu'se lay to Menangkabu ; of this an account will be given in the next
day’s journey.

“ Of the country through which we had passed, I shall only observe that our
course this day lay through the richest corn-fields, and frequently on the slope of a
low range of hills on the western side of the plain. The fertility of the plain fully
equalled any part of Java, and particularly about Kasi and in the vicinity of the lake,
where the rice-fields evinced an uncommon luxuriance ; they were here in full culti-
vation, the rice in all its stages, but chiefly in ear. The plain gradually narrowed
as we approached the lake, and between the rice-fields under the Tiga-blas country,

z z

351

JOURNEY INTO THE INTERIOR OF SUMATRA.

and those of Kasi, we passed an uncultivated tract, but even this was cleared, and
covered with a short sod, affording excellent pasture for cattle, of which there were
gi'eat abundance ; many parts reminded us of the beautiful district of Serayu, the
pride of Java.

“ We estimated om* journey this day at twelve miles, and Lady Raffles had the
advantage of being carried a considerable part of the way in a chair, but in passing
through the rice-fields in cultivation, the embankments which formed the foot-paths
were too narrow to admit of this aid.

“ We estimated the height of Sindangbaher, above the level of the sea, eleven
hundred feet ; that of Solo Solaya we also ascertained, by the barometer, to be
twelve hundi-ed feet ; so that the plain gi*adually descends from Great Talang, its
southern bomidary to the lake, of the bed of which, in early days, it may probably
have formed part, being bounded to the west by the high range of mountains, and
to the east by the ranges of low hiUs, which in their continuation confine the waters
of the lake as at present defined.

‘‘ Of the population of the Tiga-blas country, I shall hereafter have occasion to
speak ; and here it may only be necessary to notice, that from the best information
I could obtain on the spot, we formed a loose estimate that it could not fall far short
of eighty thousand souls.

“ The da^vn of ^\'ednesday found us on the banks of the lake, shipping our
baggage, and embarking for Simawang. We should have started the preceding
night, but the boats had not arrived ; even now we had but one at our command,
and in this we proceeded, leaving the heaviest part of the baggage, the escort, and
coolies, to follow by land, should no other boat be procurable in the course of
the day.

“ This beautiful sheet of water, called the Danau, or lake of Sincara, is about
fourteen miles long, and on the broadest part seven, surrounded by mountains and
hills, except towards the Tiga-blas country, where a plain of its own width gradually
sinks into its bosom. Proceeding northward, we had on our left the high moun-
tains which form the Barisan or boundary of the sea-coast districts, in height from
five to seven thousand feet, at the foot of which, on the margin of the lake for two
or three miles deep, were rice fields, plantations, and rtllages, rising successively
above each other. On the sides of the mountains themselves, nearly to the summit
of the first ridge, the forest had been cleared and cultivation carried. The opposite
side, as well as the northern part of the lake, is confined by a succession of low
hills, which in their constitution we found to be essentially different from the high
volcanic ridges we had passed over, being primitive, and abomiding in metals ; among
these the most conspicuous, and lying nearly north, was the Gunung Besi, or Hill of
Iron, which from time immemorial has been the principal source whence these dis-
tricts have been supphed with that metal. Behind these, a little to the westward.

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355

rises the Berapi, a grand volcanic mountain, emitting smoke from its western peak,
and towering in the clouds to the height of at least ten thousand feet above the lake
itself, Further west, connecting its base with that of the Berapi, is the Gunung
Sincalang, another insulated mountain, in height about eight thousand feet. To
the eastward of Berapi, and nearly over Simawang, as we approached it we obtained
a glimpse of the stupendous mountain of Kasumha, the estimated height of which
is not less than fifteen thousand feet. To the southward, the view was bounded
by Gunung Talang, lying at the extremity of the Tiga-blas country, at the back of
which were observed a ridge still higher than itself.

On the banks of the lake are situated seven principal towns with their
numerous villages and hamlets, these being shaded by trees form so many groves,
the dark foliage of which pleasingly contrasts with the bright tints of the rice planta-
tions in the middle of which they are situated. The beach is a bright sand, and
cultivation immediately commences. At each of these towns a weekly market is
held, to which the traders, &c. from the other towns and adjacent countries repair
by water. The canoes are numerous, and each town has one or two large boats,
capable of carrying six tons, and one hundred men: it was in one of these that we
embarked. These large boats are well built, and at a distance when filled with
people, have very much the appearance of the large war boats of the South Sea
Islands. At a short distance from Sindangbaher, and where the lake was said to be
by no means deep, we obtained bottom with a deep-sea lead at sixty-eight fathoms,
but subsequently in attempting to ascertain the depth more in the centre, we found
no bottom with one hundred and eighty fathoms. The shores are easy of access,
and no rocks or shoals exist to obstruct its navigation. It abounds in fish, and
the inhabitants procure lime by burning a small shell of the muscle kind found on
its banks.

“ As we approached Simawang, a very peculiar hill, with three ragged peaks,
was pointed out to us as lying immediately at the back of Pageruyong, the capital
of the Menangkabu country. This hill, Gunung Bongso, will be hereafter noticed.

“ We had embarked at a quarter-past eight, it was now half-past one, when we
landed at the foot of the hill on which Samawang is situated, and at the source of
the Kuantau or Indragiri river, which issues from the lake of Sincara at this place.
We had a very hot and fatiguing walk for above an hour in ascending the hill, but
were amply repaid for oirr labour by the friendly and cordial reception we met with
at the summit, where the head of the village, a venerable old man, quietly conducted
us into his dwelling, and made every preparation for our comfort without subjecting
us to exposure under the waringin tree, or any of the ridiculous and annoying cere-
monies and delays to which we had in former instances been liable.

“ The house in which we were now accommodated was in length about one
hundi'ed feet, and from thirty to forty in depth, built in a most substantial manner,

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JOURNEY INTO THE INTERIOR OF SUMATRA.

and supported along the centre by three large wooden pillars, fit for the masts of a
ship : indeed fi-om the peculiar constmction of the house, the gable end of which was
raised in tiers like the stern of a vessel, they had very much this appearance. The
floor was raised from the ground about ten feet, the lower part being inclosed and
appropriated to cattle, &c. The principal entrance is about the centre, but there is
a second door at one end. The interior consists of one large room or hall, the
height proportioned to the other dimensions ; three fire-places equally distant from
each other were placed on the front side, and at the back were several small
chambers, in which we perceived the spinning-wheels and other articles belonging
to the women. This may serve as a general description for the houses in this part
of the coimtry, which I have described thus particularly, because they differ essen-
tially from those on the coast, and from what j\Ir. Marsden has described as the
usual dwellings of the Sumatrans.

“ Notwithstanding the room in which we were now accommodated was so
commodious, we suffered more from the heat at this place than elsewhere, on
account of the gi'eater number of people admitted, and the number of fires. That
end of the hall which rose in tiers, like the stern of a ship, was set apart for Lady
Raffles and me, and separated from the rest by mats. The number at one time
accommodated in this caravansera did not fall short of a hundred and fifty persons.

“ As I must have pretty well tired your Grace with the detail of this day's
journey, I will close the account, and proceed to the next.

“ Thiirsdaij, 23d Julij. — The town of Simawang occupies the siunmit of a hill
elevated above the banks of the lake about 500 feet, and commands a most beautiful
prospect. Notwithstanding this elevation, there are hills in the vicinity of gi’eater
height, which give it the advantage of several streams. These are directed into
numerous channels, and fertilize the country in the immediate vicinity, which is for
the most part cut into terraces and cultivated with rice. The river Ulu Kuantau,
as it is here called, but which is the source of the Indragiri river, (which, after
pursuing a south-easterly course across the country, discharges itself into the sea
on the eastern side of the island,) is seen to issue from the lake at the foot of the
hill, dashing with great rapidity over the rocks as it winds along the valley. The
lake itself, serene and placid, insensible of the loss it sustains, is always the same. No
sooner, however, are its waters withdrawn from its bosom, than they are made sub-
servient to the purposes of man. Not fifty yards from the source of the river we
observed a well constructed water-wheel, by means of which the adjacent fields were
irrigated. These wheels, which are composed principally of bamboo, are well
adapted for their object. They are in general use in the iNIenangkabu country, and
may be considered as an improvement in agriculture to which even the Javans
have not advanced, notwithstanding their long connexion with the Chinese. As
neither Europeans nor Chinese had hitherto penetrated the Menangkabu country.

JOURNEY INTO THE INTERIOR OF SUMATRA.

357

and the natives themselves, for many centuries at least, have had little or no inter-
course with foreigners, these wheels may be considered of native invention. I had
formerly occasion to notice one on the Manna river, and in the Musi country I am
told they are common. I do not recollect to have seen any thing of the kind in
Java.

“ On those slopes of the hills which cannot conveniently be cut into terraces,
or where streams of water cannot be carried, sugar-cane is the principal article. Of
this the cultivation is considerable, and very neatly constructed mills for expressing
the juice, which is afterwards manufactured into a coarse sugar, are common. They
consist of two perpendicular cylinders, the upper ends of which are formed into
screws or gi’ooves, which fit into each other so that the cylinders, which at the bottom
are fixed into a stand, and are turned by an ox, revolve different ways. The
expressed juice is received in a reservoir below.

“ It was near Simawang that we first found feltspar, granite, quartz, and other
minerals of a primitive formation. They were here mixed wdth a variety of volcanic
productions in the greatest confusion, strongly indicating that this part of the country
had at some distant period been subjected to violent convulsions. Dr. Horsfield got
specimens of these, which he gave in charge to some coolies who attended him ;
after the day’s journey he wished to examine this collection ; the men produced
their baskets full of stones, but on the Doctor’s exclaiming they were not what he
had given them, and expressing some anger on the occasion, they simply observed,
they thought he only wanted stones, and they preferred carrying their baskets
empty, so they threw away what he gave them, and filled them up at the end of the
day’s journey, and they were sure they gave him more than he collected.

“ But to proceed on our journey. We were now in a country abounding with
metals ; iron ore of various kinds lay in our path, and it was not long before we were
to be in the vicinity of the gold mines.

“ We left Simawang at half-an-hour before seven, and reached Suruasa, the second
city of the Menangkabu country, and in the immediate vicinity of Pageruyong, about
one o’clock, the road nearly the whole way lying over a range of low primitive hills, and
the distance about twelve miles. After descending the hill of Simawang, we crossed
the river by a most romantic hanging bridge, which swung in a very nervous manner
as we passed one by one. We soon came into a country entirely primitive, or rather
composed of the debris of primitive matter ; we passed over several hills, said to con-
tain gold, and saw extensive excavations, where the miners had been at work ; these,
however, cannot be considered as regular mines, and they are not reckoned very
valuable. The excavations, however, afforded us a fine opportunity of noticing the
direction of the strata, and other appearances interesting to the geologist. About
eleven o’clock we obtained our first view of Pageruyong.

“ Shortly after this view, our path, which had hitherto been narrow, and some-

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JOURNEY INTO THE INTERIOR OF SUMATRA.

times steep and broken, wdened, and it was e%’ident we were approaching the %dcinity
of some place of importance : but, alas ! little was left for our cmiosity but the wreck
of what had once been great and populous. The waringin trees, which shaded and
added solemnity to the palace, were yet standing in all their majesty. The fruit-trees,
and particularly the cocoa-nut, marked the distant boundaries of this once extensive
city ; but the rank gi'ass had usiu’ped the halls of the palace, and scarce was the thatch
of the peasant to be found ; three times has the city been committed to the flames.
Well might I say, in the language of the Brata Yudha, ‘ Sad and melancholy was her
waringin tree, like unto the soitow of a wife whose husband is afar.’

“ On our arrival at Sumasa we were conducted to the best dwelling which the
place now afforded — to the palace, a small planked house of about thirty feet long,
beautifully situated on the banks of the Golden River {Soongy Amas.) Here we
were introduced to the Ti/an Gaclis, or Mrgin Queen, who administered the country.
We were received ^^^th all the satisfaction and kindness that could be expected. It
was a scene which made me melancholy, and I hill not attempt to describe it.

“ The extensive population and high state of cultivation by which we were sur-
rounded, seemed to confinn the opinion I had always formed, and even publicly
maintained, as you may see in my History of Java, that the Malayan empire was
not of recent origin, and that in its zenith it v.'as of comparative rank, if not the rival
and contemporary of the Javan. The Malays have always excited considerable spe-
culation fi*om the circumstance of their being eHdently in a retrograde state ; but
where were we to look for their history ? In their literary compositions they seldom
go farther back than the introduction of ^Mahomedanism, except to give an account
of Noah’s ark, or some romantic tale fi'om which httle or nothing can be gathered.
It was my good fortune in Java to discover the vestiges of a former high state of
literature and the arts, in poems, in the ruins of temples, in sculptm*ed images, in
ancient inscriptions. Nothing of this kind was supposed to exist among the Malays;
Java was therefore considered as the cradle of the arts and sciences, as far as they
had been introduced into the Archipelago. The "Malays were even stated to have
derived their origin from Java, from the Javan word Malayu, meaning a runaway ;
they were said to be the runaways and outcasts of Java. You may see all this, and
much more to the disadvantage of the Malays, stated in the forty-first number of the
Edinburgh Review. Your Grace may therefore judge with what interest I now sur-
veyed a country which, at least as far as the eye could reach, equalled Java in
scenery and cultivation ; and with what real satisfaction I stumbled, by the merest
accident, upon nothing less than an inscription in the real Kawi character, engraved
on a stone, exactly after the manner of those which have excited so much interest in
Java. Immediately opposite the house, or palace, which I have described, was the
mosque, a small square building. In fi-ont of the mosque, turned up on its
edge, and serving as a stepping-stone to this modern place of Mahomedan wor-

JOURNEY INTO THE INTERIOR OF SUMATRA.

359

ship, was this relic of Hindu dominion. I soon traced the characters to be
the same as those we had discovered in Java. All hands were immechately col-
lected. In about an hour we succeeded in laying the stone flat on the gi’ound,
and the operation of transcribing was immediately commenced. The evening did
not pass without further inquiries. A second inscription, in similar characters,
was chscovered near the site of the former kudam, or palace. This was on a
stone of irregular figure, and partly buried in the ground. We had only time to
transcribe two lines of this. On Friday, the 24th of July, we left Suruasa at seven,
and arrived at Pageruyong a quarter before nine, the estimated distance between the
two cities being not more than two miles ; the road over low hills, in which we
observed numerous petrifactions : whole forests would appear, in some remote age,
to have been buried by some violent convulsion. Passing along the sides of the
hills, our attention was repeatedly attracted by the numerous stumps and trmiks of
trees in a state of petrifaction. These were mostly protruded from considerable
depths under ground.

In quitting Saruasa we noticed several small tanks, and passed over the site
of many an extensive building now no more. The only vestige, however, of any
thing like sculpture, beyond the inscriptions already alluded to, was in four cut stones,
which evidently had formerly served for the entrance of the city.

“ In approaching Pageruyong we had an excellent view of the situation of this
once famous city. It is built, as I before noticed, at the foot, and partly on the
slope of a steep and rugged hill called Gunung Bongso, so remarkable for its appear-
ance and the three peaks which it exhibits. Below the town, under a precipice of
from fifty to a hundred feet, in some parts nearly perpendicular, winds the beautiful
stream of Selo, which, pursuing its course, passes Suruasa, where it takes the name
of the Golden River, and finally falls into the river of Indragiri. In front of the
city rises the momitain Berapi, the summit of which may be about twenty miles
distant. It is on the slopes of this mountain that the principal population is settled.
The whole side of the mountain, for about fifteen miles from Pageruyong in every
direction, being covered with villages and rice-fields. The entrance to the city,
which is now only marked by a few venerable trees, and the traces of what was once
a high-way, is nearly three-quarters of a mile before we came to the Bali and site of
the former palace. Here httle is left save the noble waringin trees, and these appear
in several instances to have suffered from the action of fire : scarcely the appearance
of a hut is to be seen ; the large flat stone, however, on which the Sultan used to sit
on days of public ceremony, was pointed out to us ; and when the weeds had been
partially cleared, the royal burial-ground was discovered. In this we did not dis-
cover any inscription in the ancient character ; but the ground was but very par-
tially and hastily examined. We were struck, however, with the sculpture of later

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JOURNEY INTO THE INTERIOR OF SUMATRA.

days, the memorials of the dead raised in Mahomedan times ; these were on a
small scale, but very heaiitifnlly executed.

“ Arrangements had been made for our accommodation in a small house recently
erected on the banks of the river, to which we descended. Here we remained for some
time ; but intending to return to Suruasa in the afternoon, I left the party and wan-
dered for an hour or two.

“ This city had shared the same fate with that of Suruasa. Three times had
it been committed to the flames by a remorseless fanatic ; twice had it again risen to
something like splendor : from the last shock it had not yet recovered. The Prince,
no longer able to make a stand against the oppressor, had fled to a distant retreat ;
and a few peasants now cultivated those spots which had formerly been the pleasure-
gi'ounds of the rich. Where the palace of the Sultan had stood, I observed a man
planting cucumbers, and the sugar-cane occupied the place of the seraglio. From
the heights of the town the view stretched to the north and west, as far as the sum-
mit of the mountain of Berapi and the neighbouring hills. The whole country, from
Pageniyong as far as the eye could distinctly trace, was one continued scene of culti-
vation, interspersed with innumerable towns and villages, shaded by the cocoa-nut
and other fmit-trees. I may safely say, that this view equalled any thing I ever saw
in Java ; the scenery is more majestic and grand, population equally dense, cultiva-
tion equally rich. In a comparison with the plain of Matarun, the richest part of
Java, I think it would rise. Here, then, for the first time, was I able to trace the
source of that power, the origin of that nation, so extensively scattered over the
Eastern Archipelago.

“ I returned to the party where the Tuan Gadis and Princes of the house of
Menangkabu had assembled. A royal salute of one gun was fired, and after three
cheers, we set out on our return to Suruasa.

“ But I must not quit this (to a Malay) classic ground, without informing you
of a most interesting discovery. At Suruasa I had discovered tw^o inscriptions : here
I looked for them in vain, but unexpectedly stumbled upon something no less inte-
resting : a Hindu image, chastely and beautifidly carved, corresponchng with those
discovered in Java, and eridently the work of similar artists, and the object of a
similar w^orship. This image was mutilated, but in sufficient preservation to decide
thus much.

“ Tlie estimated height of Pageniyong above the level of the sea is 1,800 feet.
In Mr. Marsden’s map, Pageniyong is placed at about eighty-two miles N.E. of
Padang, and sixty-six from the coast. By our observations we found it to be not
more than fifty miles from Padang, and forty-five from the coast, in a straight line ;
the latitude being 14' south, and longitude twenty-eight miles east of Padang, or
100” 20' east of Greenwich.

JOURNEY INTO THE INTERIOR OF SUMATRA.

361

“ We returned to Suruasa about three o’clock, and in the evening I visited an
extensive excavation where gold had been procured in considerable quantities.

“ On the next day, Saturday the 25th, we left Suruasa at half-past six, and
reached Simawang on our return towards Padang, at half-past eleven. Here we re-
mained till Sunday evening, when to he prepared for an early departure on the next
morning, we descended to the lake and bivouacked on the banks for the night,
hterally lying down on the ground. While collecting specimens of minerals on this
spot, I discovered another inscription in the Kawi character, the characters of which
were nearly obliterated by the constant action of the water. This stone was lying
among the rocks over which the waters of the lake fell into the Indragiri river.

“ Monday. — The baggage having been embarked on the preceding evening, we
rose at four, and by day-hght were nearly half-way across the lake ; four large boats
in company which conveyed the whole of the party.

“ Besides the pass into the Tiga-blas country, by which we had passed from
Padang, there are three other principal passes leading to the Menangkabu country,
at Kati, Sindangbaher, and Paningahan ; that at Sindangbaher called the Sri-menenti
(the same term that is used in Java for the entrance to the palace) appeared to be
the most frequented, but the road was said to lie along the beds of several rivers :
that of Kasi had nothing particular to recommend it; but the pass of Paningahan,
though the longest, was said to be the most practicable for cattle, and to run prin-
cipally on dry ground. I therefore determined to proceed by the last, in the hope
of tracing something hke a road which would admit of improvement.

“ We accordingly quitted Paningahan on our return across the Barisen about
eight o’clock, and reached the Gedong Papan or planked-house (a toll-post) about
twelve. Contrary to our expectation, our com-se so far lay almost entirely along
the bed of a rapid stream. Lady Raffles being fatigued, we rested at this place for
the night ; but several of the party went on to the next resting-place. The ascent
hitherto had been gi'adual, and the scenery very romantic, the distance from the
lake estimated at six miles in a south-west direction. In a mineralogical point of
view, this ascent from the lake was by far the most interesting we had met with.

here found abundance of granite, marble, great varieties of lime-stone, beautiful
masses of calcareous spar, and a variety of subjects with which we enriched our
collection.

“ Tuesday, 28th July. — Left the Gedong Papan at six, and ascended the moun-
tains, om* course being near the banks of a rapid stream which we frequently crossed
for the whole of the morning. At half-past nine reached another toll-post, where
we overtook the advanced party and obtained some refreshment: set out again at
eleven, and continued ascending till three o’clock, when we reached the summit of
the highest ridge. The thennometer was here sixty-six — on the water sixty-three :
height above the level of the sea four thousand five hundred feet. We now descended

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till six, when just as the day was closing in we reached the toll-post of Sambung,
after a most fatiguing day’s jornmey. The road was execrable, in some parts wet and
muddy, and exceedingly difficult to pass — estimated distance from the Gedong Papan
not less than twenty miles.

“ Wednesday, 29th. — Started from Sambung at seven in the morning, and
ascended the Sambung mountain until near ten, when we had the satisfaction to find
that the remainder of our journey was a descent do\vn to the sea-side. The road,
however, was even worse than what we had passed the day before, the descent being
very rapid, and the only firm hold which our feet could have being upon the roots of
trees, which mtersected the path in every direction, and from which the earth had
been washed away. In many places this path was knee-deep in mud for a consider-
able distance, and we could only pass by stepping from root to root. This was even
more fatiguing than leaping from rock to rock, and our shoes being soaked through,
om* feet soon became so tender that it was with real pain we moved on : eveiy step,
on accoimt of the steep descent, was a strain to the muscles of the leg, and a wound
or blow to the foot. The people on this road cany their load in a very different
manner to that described on the road to the Tiga-blas comitry. Here the load is
lashed to a kind of frame or cradle, and elevated to a considerable distance above the
head, the lower part of the frame being fastened round the head and shoulders. It
was proposed that Lady Raffles should be carried in this manner, but we could not
reconcile her to the attempt. Salt, rice, &c. in loads of about fifty and sixty pounds,
are carried in this manner. At length, at about two o’clock, we once more got a
view of the sea from a place called Liring, where a small shed was erected, and where
the forest in some degree was cleared. From this spot the countiy gradually opened ;
and w*e descended by a tolerably good road, passable for horses, through a country
which had once been cleared, and was stiU partially under cultivation. At five obtained
a new of Padang HiU, bearing south by w'est, distance about ten miles ; in half-an-
hour more arrived at Pinang, a comfortable hut, where we remained for the night.
Here we received fresh supplies from Padang, and found our horses, which had been
sent on to meet us. Om* distance this day we estimated at about sixteen miles : we
were now out of the forest, and nearly at the bottom of the hills on the sea-side.

“ Thursday, 30th. — Started at day-light, and proceeded partly on horseback
and partly on foot ; om' com*se towards the sea for about six miles, the latter part of
which was through a fine plain of rice-fields, and along the banks of a rapid stream.
Pursuing our journey to Padang through Cota Tingaand along the sea-shore, we had
to pass the mouths of two rivers, which, in consequence of the rain that had fallen
during the night, were not fordable ; we were in consequence soon wet through.
Near Fjung Carang, however, the gentlemen fi’om Padang had assembled to receive
us on our return, and a buggy being pronded, we reached Padang without fur-
ther difficulty at about noon ; having thus completed oiu’ journey in fourteen days.

JOURNEY INTO THE INTERIOR OF SUMATRA.

363

during whicli we had traversed in a straight line about one hundred and forty, and by
the course we were compelled to pursue, not less than two hundred and fifty miles
over one of the worst roads that perhaps ever was passed by man.

What may be the eventual results of this journey, it is impossible to say. In
natural history, it has afforded us a very interesting insight into the mineral kingdom.
We have traced the junction of the volcanic with the primitive series ; and by the
evidences afforded in our collections, are enabled to estimate the mineral resources
of the country. In the vegetable kingdom we discovered no less than forty-one
plants, which appeared to Dr. Horsfield entirely new, and certainly not contained in
the Flora of Java. The different elevations above the sea were ascertained, some by
barometrical, others by trigometrical observations. The latitudes and longitudes
fixed, partly by observation and partly by dead reckoning. By crossing the range of
mountains at different passes we clearly ascertained that there are three ridges, the
central being the highest.

“ The discovery of an extensively populous and highly agricultural country
cannot fail to be interesting. On a moderate calculation, the population within a range
of fifty miles round Pageruyong cannot be estimated at less than a million ; by the
returns I received on the spot, the number appears more considerable. Throughout
the whole of our journey I did not observe a single Ladang, that migratory kind of
cultivation so accurately described by Mr. Marsden, and so universal near the
southern coast ; it had long been superseded by the conversion of the land into regu-
lar sawas, and the establishment of fixed property in the soil ; manufactories also are
here more advanced. Menangkabu has always been famed for its cris blades. Iron
has been worked from time immemorial. An extensive manufactory of coarse pot-
tery near the banks of the lake supplies not only Padang but Bencoolen with that
useful article.

" Politically the greatest results may accrue. At no very distant date the
sovereignty of Menangkabu was acknowledged over the whole of Sumatra, and its
influence extended to many of the neighbouring Islands ; the respect still paid to its
princes by all ranks amounts almost to veneration. By upholding their authority, a
central government may easily be established ; and the numerous petty states, now
disunited and barbarous, may be again connected under one general system of go-
vernment. The rivers which fall into the Eastern Archipelago may again become
the high roads to and from the central capital ; and Sumatra, under British influence,
again rise into great political importance.”

One or two anecdotes of the natives may be added to the above. When the
people of the Tiga-blas country first beheld the Editor, they seemed to be struck
with amazement, and the question was not, who is that ? but, what is that ? The
disguise of dress, and, to them, the extraordinary appearance of fairness were unac-

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ANECDOTES OF NATIVES.

countable. With all the wonder of ignorance they immediately conceived that there
must be something supernatural ; and mothers pressed in crowds, imploring to have
their children touched as a preservative from all future evil. It was in vain to urge
fatigue, to entreat to be excused ; no one liked to lose so easy an opportunity of
insmnng future good, and the noise, the pressure, and confusion were not a httle
amusing ; when one crowd was satisfied a fresh collected, and it would be difficult to
guess the number on whom was bestowed this slight but coveted act of kindness.
At Solaya the Editor was left alone in a native house, with a sepoy stationed as a
sentry at the door to keep the people away ; but they collected in such numbers that
they ovei-powered him, and hundreds rushed into the house to gaze and express their
astonishment ; after this had been endured for a length of time they were entreated to
retire and allow some repose to be taken ; with one accord they seated themselves
in a moment, saying, of all things they should hke to see the mode of sleeping, and
that they w^ould w^atch all the time, and only sit and look ; and no entreaty could pre-
vail upon them to go aw^ay, so there they remained until the rest of the party returned
from the assembly of the Chiefs. On reaching Simaw^ang the same thing w^as re-
peated, the same curiosity and wonder ; crowds assembled to see how the Editor took
food, and during the night strange dark faces w^ere continually seen peeping through
the curtain wffiich parted off her place of rest from the numerous imnates of the
same room.

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Bencoolen, August 15, 1818.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ My last letter was fi*om Pagemyong ; and you will be happy to hear
that we are again safe at Bencoolen, without having suffered any serious injury from
the fatigues of the journey. We were absent fi'om Padang fifteen days ; and oiu*
course in the map w^as, in a straight Hne, about one hundred and forty miles. For
the details of our journey I refer you to Di'. Horsfield, who will be the bearer of this,
and to wiiom, independently of his claims as a man of science and research, I have
to request yom' kind attention as my particular friend.

“ To Dr. Horsfield I have entmsted a sketch of our route ; in his I have cor-
rected the situation of Pagemyong, wffiich is a few miles different to wffiat I stated in
my letter from thence. I do not think w^e can be much out ; perhaps you will be
induced to consider it sufficient authority for coirecting the map. On this subject I
am anxious to hear from you. I have now an establishment in two parts of the
interior of Menangkabu and inland of Bencoolen, and I have some idea of traversing
the central districts from one end of the Island to the other. Do you contemplate
the publication of any improved additions to your map ? or shall I keep the observa-

DEATH OF DR. ARNOLD.

365

tions here until I can fi'ame a new one. I mention this because we are badly off for
draftsmen ; and under the existing regulations of the post-office you may have trouble
in securing the detailed surveys sent as they are made.

“ You ■will be gratified to hear that the neighbourhood of Pageruyong contains
a population of certainly not less than a million ; that agriculture is nearly as ad-
vanced as in Java; and that in soil and climate we have reason to believe Sumatra
is fully equal to that Island. The first fi'uits of our establishment in the hills have
been the regular supply of Bencoolen with potatoes, which hitherto have been
imported.

Our discoveries in Menangkabu enhance the value of Padang to'wn ; it is the
key of that place, and of all which is valuable in Sumatra. Without this we can do
nothing — with it every thing. The measmres which I have taken ’will, no doubt, be
considered strong ; but our interests have been so shamefully sacrificed, that I could
do nothing less. Nothing but definite arrangements in Europe ■will place things on
their proper footing.

“ I have to report to you two melancholy losses which we have sustained. Poor
Dr. Ai'nold, our naturalist, died of a fever, occasioned, I fear, from the fatigues of
our journey to Pasumah ; and accounts were yesterday received of the death of
Mr. Holloway at sea.

I send by Dr. Horsfield a fac-simile of one of the inscriptions which I found at
Suruasa. The stone to which you allude as remarkable near Pnaman, turns out to
be modern, and a vestige of Dutch authority.”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

** Fort Marlborough, August 18, 1818.

“ My last letter to your Grace was from on board ** The Lady Raffles,” on our
return from Padang and Menangkabu ; and I did hope, before the ship left us finally
for England, that I should have been able to give you a detail of our subsequent
proceedings ; but this is impossible, and I must be content to send her off -with a few
lines, saying we are all well.

We are now tolerably quiet, but the earth continued to quake for the first
month after our arrival, and we were seldom without one or two shocks in the day.
The sensation, particularly during the night, is very unpleasant.

"We are going on, I am happy to say, very well ; our dear httle Charlotte
daily improving, and promising to be every thing we could wish. Lady Raffles
is quite well, notwithstanding the excessive fatigue of the journeys we have taken ;
the last occupied fifteen days, and we did not walk less than two hundred and fifty
miles over the very worst route, for road there was none, — at first, up the bed of
a river, where we had to force our way by leaping fi'om rock to rock ; then for some

366

DIFFICULTIES OF THE JOURNEY.

days over hills covered wth forest ; and the roots of the trees which projected far
above the ground, our only foot-path ; the ascent sometimes so steep, that Lady
Raffles was obliged to be dragged up by two men, being often so fatigued she could
not raise her foot the length of the step, having to w'alk some days from day-light,
with one hour’s rest at mid-day, when the only refreshment to be obtained was a
little rice and wine, until eight o’clock at night, before we reached the shed pre-
pared for our night’s lodging.”

CHAPTER XIIL

Sir Stamford's arrival at Bencoolen — Improvement in the feelings of the inhabitants — State of affairs in the
Eastern Archipelago requires him to proceed to Bengal — Wrecked on the passage — Attention of the
Government already directed to the subject of the Dutch encroachments — Lord Hastings determines on
another line of policy, and to secure the command of the Straits of Malacca — Sir Stamford appointed
Agent to the Governor General for this purpose — Account of the discovery of the Tapir — Departure
from Calcutta — Anticipation of Singapore as the spot for the new settlement — Arrival at Panang —
Proceeds down the Straits of Malacca — hoists the British flag at Singapore — Acheen — Decides on the
right to the crown— Description of Acheen — Reformation introduced at Bencoolen — Journeys — General
politics — Conquest of Java — The first convention for the unconditional restoration of it to the Dutch —
only communication from Europe — Representations made in England — Apprehensions realised on
return to India — Bornean States — Dutch at Palembang — Acheen affairs — Title to the occupation of
Singapore — Bible Society — Opinions of Captain Horsburgh and Mr. Carnegie on the settlement of
Singapore — Accident to the vessel off Rhio.

On his return to Bencoolen Sir Stamford had the satisfaction to find that a gene-
ral impression prevailed with those committed to his charge, that the object of his
government was to promote a spirit of enterprise among them as individuals, to give
the utmost freedom to cultivation, to extend the commerce of the country, and to
advance the happiness of the people in general. It would have been dehghtful to
him to have remained with them, desirous as they appeared to be to promote his
views for their welfare ; but the larger national interests in the Ea^stern Archipelago
required his immediate attention. On his arrival in Sumatra he had foreseen that it
would be necessary for him to have personal communication with the Bengal go-
vernment on this subject ; and he therefore thought it adtisable to proceed at once
to Calcutta.

It is only necessary to state, that Sir Stamford embarked in a very small vessel,
which had no better accommodation than one small cabin, with only a port-hole to
admit air, where centipedes and scorpions roved about without interruption : but per-
sonal convenience was never considered by him if it interfered with duty, and no
better opportunity was likely to occur. The vessel lost a mast in the Bay of Bengal,
and, owing to a drunken pilot, was literally upset in the middle of the night upon a

368

LETTER FROM LORD HASTINGS.

dangerous bank at the mouth of the river Hoogley, where Sir Stamford was obliged
to remain mitil boats were sent fi’om Calcutta to take him out of the vessel.

The following letter is from Lord Hastings, permitting Sir Stamford to proceed
to Calcutta.

“ July 6th, 1818.

“ Sir,

“ I have the honour to acknowledge yom’ letter, and to offer my congra-
tulations on your safe arrival.

“ It was painful to me, that I had, in the course of my public duty, to express
an opinion mifavourable to certain of your measm’es in Java. The disapprobation,
as you would perceive, affected their prudence alone ; on the other hand, no person
can have felt more strongly than I did yom* anxious and unwearied exertions for
amehorating the condition of the native inhabitants under your sway. The proce-
dure was no less recommended by wisdom than by benevolence ; and the results have
been highly creditable to the British Government.

“ I request you to consider yourself at liberty to carry into execution your wish
of visiting Bengal, whensoever your convenience and the state of affairs in the Island
may afford an ehgible opportunity. The means of rendering the settlement at Ben-
coolen more advantageous to the Honourable Company than it now appears to be,
are certainly more hkely to be struck out in oral discussion.

“ I am, &c.

“ Hastings.”

Sir Stamford found that the measures which he adopted in Sumatra, in particular
the general protest which he had made against the Netherlands’ authority on the
occasion of its interference at Palembang, had attracted the attention of the Governor
General in Council : and as the Netherlands’ government had submitted to the same
authority its appeal against the part which he had taken, the question was fairly
before the Bengal Government. Fortunately the Government of Prince of Wales
Island had at length, on the transfer of Malacca to the Dutch, been awakened to
the dangerous consequences which must have ensued to the interests of that Island,
and the eastern trade generally ; and their representations had the effect of corro-
borating and confirming all Sir Stamford’s previous apprehensions and statements.

Having thus succeeded in bringing the subject fully before a higher and compe-
tent authority, and having convinced that authority of the necessity of adopting some
defined line of pohcy for the protection of those interests, he had the satisfaction to
find that at length their nature and importance were justly appreciated ; and the mea-
sures which he had previously adopted, however they might be regretted as occasion-
ing colhsion with the Netherlands’ Government, were pronounced to have been

CHANGE IN MARQUESS OF HASTINGS’ POLICY.

369

dictated by the purest spirit of patriotism, and to have been such that, in the circum-
stances in which he was placed, he could not well have acted otherwise.”

It is not necessary, and perhaps it might be improper, to advert to the grounds on
which the Governor General resolved upon the line of policy which was subsequently
adopted. It is sufficient to state, that it was determined, under existing circum-
stances, to concede to the Dutch their pretensions in Sumatra ; and to limit the inter-
ference to measures of precaution, by securing a free trade with the Archipelago and
China through the Straits of Malacca, leaving to the Dutch the exclusive command
of the Straits of Sunda. In order to effect this, and at the same time to protect the
political and commercial interests in the Eastern Seas generally, it was essential that
some central station should be occupied within the Archipelago, and to the south-
ward of Malacca ; and Sir Stamford was appointed Agent to the Governor General to
effect this important object, if practicable, and generally to assume charge of the
British interests to the eastward of the Straits of Malacca.

Sir Stamford wrote to Mr. Marsden on these subjects.

To William Marsden, Esq.

“ Calcutta, October 16, 1818.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ You will be happy to hear that I have made my peace with the Mar-
quess of Hastings, and that his Lordship has at last acknowledged my exertions in
Java in flattering terms. This was one object of my visit to Calcutta, and on it
depended, in a great measure, the success of the others. I am now strugghng hard
to interest the Supreme Government in the Eastern Islands ; and the measures taken
by me at Palambang, &c. wiU, I doubt not, lead to the advantage of some deflned
line of policy being laid down for the future. With regard to the Dutch proceed-
ings at Palembang, of which I hope you are, ere this, fully apprised. Lord Hastings
has unequivocally declared, that his mind is made up as to the moral turpitude of
the transaction, and that he considers this but as one of a course of measures
directed in hostility to the British interests and name in the Eastern Seas. My
despatches are now under consideration, and it is uncertain what may be the imme-
diate result. There is but one opinion in regard to the manner in which our inter-
ests have been sacrificed by the transfer of Java, &c. and it is clear that the govern-
ment at home will be called upon from hence to interfere for the security of our
trade ; but in the mean time, and pending the reference to Europe, I fear that
nothing decisive will be done. Lord Hastings is, I know, inchned to recommend
om’ exchanging Bencoolen for Malacca, and to make the equator the hmit.

“ As soon as I see my way more clearly, and obtain leisure, I shall write you
fuUy : in the mean time I am anxious you should be apprised that, although I hope
to carry this government with me, I do not expect they will do any thing decisive of

3 B

;370 ESTABLISHMENT OF A STATION AT SINGAPORE.

themselves ; they vdll refer every thing home, and then despatches may not be
dispatched for months. They possess no information which can assist the decision in
Enrope ; what they forward will be obtained fi'om me ; and I am not aware of any
advantage which will arise from delaying a decision till their references ari'ive. Every
day, every honr that the Dutch are left to themselves, their influence increases, and

our difficulties will be proportionally increased.

* * * * *

“ The conversion of my Lord Hastings and the favourable opinion expressed
by the Supreme Government in the wind-up of affairs in Java, give me a plea for
appealing to the Court of Directors for a final decision on the merits of my adminis-
tration, which you will recollect was withheld when I left England ; and I have ex-
pressed to Mr. Canning my expectations.

* * * *

“ Lady Raffles has accompanied me — she is quite well, but finds the climate
very different from that of our Eastern Isles — the heat has been extremely oppres-
sive, and the whole of India very sickly — it is computed that not less than two mil-
lions have fallen a sacrifice to what is here called the cholera morbus. Our kindest
regards.

“ Marco Polo has not yet appeared in this part of the world.

“ I have just received your kind letter, written on Christmas day last, for which
accept my best thanks — on my retm*n to Bencoolen I shall no doubt find a large
collection of English letters. I hope to be there in January.”

Although Sir Stamford did not succeed in his endeavours to induce the Bengal
Government to adopt all his riews regarding Sumatra, his presence in Calcutta
created a general interest, and tmaied the attention of the merchants, as well as that
of the government, towards the progress of the Dutch power, and the probable total
destruction of the English trade, if some strong efforts were not made. If the mo-
ment was then allowed to pass away, the time would be over when any thing could be
done : the two only passages to the Eastern Archipelago secured by the Dutch, nothing
but actual force would obtain for the British trader ingi'ess to its thousand Isles. In
his o\Mi words, he neither wanted people nor territory ; all he asked was, permission
to anchor a hne-of-battle ship, and hoist the English flag, at the mouth either of the
Straits of Malacca or of Sunda; and the trade of England would be secured, the
monopoly of the Dutch broken.

Lord Hastings was convinced ; and the occupation of Singapore was the con-
sequence. Even before he left England, Sir Stamford contemplated this, to him,
classical spot as a place favourably situated to become a British station. Mr. Craw-
furd has inadvertently given, in his account of the mission to Siam, an erroneous
statement of the establishment of this settlement ; the Carimons, which he describes

CHANGE IN THE OPINIONS OF THE SUPREME GOVERNMENT.

371

as the original object of Sir Stamford’s selection, being the plan in fact of Colonel
Farquhar, while Resident at Malacca, and not of Sir Stamford, who surveyed them
out of courtesy only to that officer.

Whilst still engaged at Calcutta, in endeavouring to secure the concurrence
of the Supreme Government in his designs, he addressed letters to Mr. Marsden
and other friends, of which the following are extracts.

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Calcutta, November 14</«, 1818.

*****

“ I am sorry to say that I cannot induce this Government to enter warmly into
my \dews with regard to Sumatra, and that Padang must be transferred to the Dutch
without delay. This measure is conceived necessary in order to preserve their con_
sistency ; for they had stronger grounds for retaining Banca, and yet gave it up
pending the reference to Europe. I think they were ^vrong in doing so ; and I am
convinced that had Banca been held till the independence of Palembang was
guaranteed, it woidd never have gone out of our hands. The misfortune, however,
is, that at that period the authorities here did not see their interest clearly — a change
has now taken place, and the personal communication which I have had with the
members of Government, since my arrival here, has induced a very different feeling —
all parties are now united in opposing the grasping and excluding policy of the
Dutch — they now regret they did not listen to my advice at first, &c. &c. ; and to
bring the results of my visit to a conclusion, I have now to inform you, that it is
detennined to keep the command of the Straits of Malacca, by forming estabhsh-
ments at Acheen and Rhio, and that I leave Calcutta in a fortnight, as the agent to
effect this important object. Acheen I conceive to be completely within our power,
but the Dutch may be before-hand with us at Rhio — they took possession of Pon-
tiano and Malacca in July and August last ; and have been bad politicians if they
have so long left Rhio open to us.

“ Lady Raffles is quite well, and unites, &c.”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Calcutta, November 26th, 1818.

“ I have now accomplished the principal object of my visit to Bengal, and pur-
pose embarking once more in the course of four or five days, for the Eastern
Islands, which, I doubt not, I shall find as fresh and as blooming as ever. I yet
hope to be in time to do something for the public good ; but the policy of the Dutch,
and the unreserved terms of the convention, preclude me from being very sanguine.

“ My own health remains much the same as when I left England, and Lady

3 B 2

372

APPOINTED AGENT FOR THE EASTERN SEAS.

Raffles is, if any thing, better. Do you not pity poor Lady Raffles, and think me
very hard-hearted to drag her about in her present state, but she will not remain
from me, and what can I do? We are now above three months without any news
of our dear baby, so that you see we have our minor as well as major separations.

“ I have begged of Lady Raffles to give your Grace an account of the regal state
of the Governor General, which really exceeds all I had heard of it.

“ I take domr from hence a medical man of the name of Jack, who will be en-
trusted with the botanical part of my researches ; and I have two Frenchmen, M.
Diard and M. Duvausel, the former the pupil, and the latter the step-son of Cinder ;
so that in comparative anatomy I shall be strong. These three savans, with a
missionary clergjTuan, who takes charge of a printing-press, form my equipment from
Calcutta, so that I hope we may do something.

“ I have, at last, succeeded in making the authorities in Bengal sensible of their
supineness in allowing the Dutch to exclude us from the Eastern Seas ; but I fear it
is now too late to retrieve what we have lost. I have full powers to do all we can ;
and if any thing is to be done, I think I need not assure your Grace that it shall be
done — and quickly done.”

The following letter from Sir Stamford will shew the terms on which he engaged
the services of the two French gentlemen alluded to in the foregoing letter.

To Messrs. Diard and Duvausel.

“ March 7, 1819.

Gentlemen,

" I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 3d instant, ex-
planatory of the object of your researches, and of the circumstances in which you
are placed.

“ It is my intention, at an early period, to submit to the most noble the Go-
vernor in Council, and also to the Honourable the Court of Directors, my opinion
on the advantages which may result to science and general knowledge, by the pro-
secution of the pursuits in which you are engaged, and in the mean time I request
to make you the following offer.

“ 1st. Your researches to be confined to Sumatra and the smaller Islands in its
immediate vicinity.

“ 2dly. The dmftsmen, &c. engaged by you to be entertained at the charge of
Government, wdio will also defray all incidental and necessary expenses to wfflich you
may be subjected in the prosecution of your researches, ‘ on condition that such
researches are made for and on account of the Honourable the East India Comimnij,
and that your collections, ^c. are considered as their property'

DESCRIPTION OF THE TAPIR.

373

3dly. An estimate to be framed of your monthly expenses for such establish-
ment, &c., in which a fixed siun will be paid to you to cover all charges of every
description, ^ and the arrangement and transmission to Europe, or to Bengal, of such
information and materials as you may collect, to he subject to the orders of Govern-
ment.'

“ With reference to your present establishment, and the expenses you must
necessarily be subjected to, a fixed monthly allowance of five hundred dollars is
considered adequate to cover all your disbursements, and at the same time to pro-
\dde di’aftsmen, &c. for the botanical department ; this sum will therefore be autho-
rized until I may be honoured with the further orders of the supreme authorities ;
and I shall hereafter have the honour to communicate with you personally my sen-
timents regarding the arrangement of your materials, and the plan which it will be
ad\1sable to pursue, in order to combine economy and efficiency.

“ I am, &c. &c.

T. S. Raffles.”

A full detail of the circumstances connected with this arrangement will be
found in the Appendix, with the original documents.

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Calcutta, December \0th, 1818.

My Dear Sir,

“ I am not certain whether, while in England, I mentioned to you a disco-
very which I thought I had made of the Tapir in the Malay countries.

“ On my arrival at Penang in 1805, it was represented to me that a short time
before, in the government of Sir George Leith, an animal in every respect the model
of an elephant, but of diminutive size, had been brought from Queda ; the animal
had unfortunately died while Sir George was on the hill, and the servants threw the
body into the sea.

I subsequently visited Malacca, and made particular inquiries for an animal of
this description ; and from the information I received there, I had httle doubt in my
mind but the animal in question was rather the tapir than the elephant, and on shew-
ing the drawing of the former to the natives, they seemed at once to recognize it.

“ The result of further inquiries has been conclusive on this head, and I now
have the satisfaction to assure you that the animal exists, not only on the Peninsula,
but in Sumatra. The head of one obtained in Malacca is now deposited in the
Museum of the Asiatic Society at Calcutta ; and a li\ing tapir, from Sumatra, is now
in the Governor General’s park at Barrackpore.

“ By the hands of Mr. Holton I send you a correct drawing of the Sumatran

374

MISSION TO THE EASTERN ISLES.

animal. It is the most docile creature I ever met with, and is more hke the hog than
any other animal to which I can compare it.

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Nearchus, off the Sandheads, Dec. 12, 1818.

“ My Dear Sir,

* * * * *

We are now on our way to the eastward, in the hope of doing something,
but I much fear the Dutch have hardly left us an inch of ground to stand upon.
My attention is principally turned to Johore, and you must not be surprised if my
next letter to you is dated from the site of the ancient city of Singapura.

“ Yours, &c.

T. S. Raffles.”

With his usual foresight, knowing that his present objects required a military
force, and fearing that he should not obtain any assistance from the government of
Penang, Sir Stamford wrote from the Sandheads, at the mouth of the Ganges, to
the officer commanding the troops at Bencoolen, which were about to be relieved,
and requested him to come round by the Straits of Sunda, where a vessel should
meet him with instructions.

“ Penang, Jan. 16, 1819.

“ Me void d Pulo Penang. God only knows where next you may hear from
me, but as you will be happy to learn of the progress of my mission, I will not lose
the present opportunity of informing you how I go on. In the first place, I have to
complain most bitterly of * * * * * *

“ Whether any thing is to be done to the eastward or not, is yet very uncertain.
By neglecting to occupy the place we lost Rhio, and shall have difficulty in esta-
blishing ourselves elsewhere, but I shall certainly attempt it.

“ At Acheen the difficulties I shall have to surmount in the performance of my
duty will be great, and the annoyance severe, but I shall persevere steadily in what
I conceive to be my duty. I think I may rely on the Marquess ; his last words
were, — ^ Sir Stamford, you may depend upon me.’

“ Sophia will remain at Penang, while I visit Acheen.

“ Yours, he.

“ T. S. Raffles.”

Of the delicacy and difficulties of the trust confided to Sir Stamford, some
idea may be formed, when it is considered, that before he had reached Penang

HOISTS THE BRITISH FLAG AT SINGAPORE.

375

on his way to the eastward, the government of that settlement had failed in an
attempt to acquire such a station, had declared its conviction that the period
had passed in which any such station could be obtained within the Archipelago,
and on his arrival protested in the strongest manner, and exercised its power and
influence in every possible way, against his proceeding towards the attainment
of the important object intrusted to him; while the Dutch authorities, having, as
they thought, already succeeded in occupying every station, had not hesitated to
declare their supremacy over the whole Archipelago, and to publish their prohibitory
regulations for the exclusion of British commerce, and the exercise of their own
sovereignty throughout the Eastern Seas.

Sir Stamford, determined to accomplish the duty entrusted to him, proceeded
in person down the straits of Malacca, and in ten days after quitting Penang hoisted
the British flag, on the 29th of February, 1819, at Singapore, as he had anticipated
upon leaving Bengal. The commanding situation of this settlement embraced all
the objects which he expected and desired.

Sir Stamford conceived it of primary importance, to obtain a post which
should have a commanding geographical position at the southern entrance of the
Straits of Malacca, which should be in the track of the China and country traders,
which should be capable of affording them protection, and of supplying their wants,
which should possess capabilities of defence by a moderate force, which might give
the means of supporting and defending the commercial intercourse with the Malay
States, and which, by its contiguity to the seat of the Dutch power, might afford an
opportunity to watch the march of its pohcy and, when necessary, to counteract
its influence.

The occupation of this station proved to the varied and enterprising population
of the Archipelago, that the power and commerce of the British nation had not
entirely sunk under the encroachments of the Dutch ; and it also proved a determi-
nation to make a stand against them, and to maintain the right of free commerce
with the Malay states.

Independently of the tribes of the Archipelago, the situation of Singapore is
peculiarly favourable for its becoming the entrepot to which the native mariners of
Siam, Camboja, Chiampa, Cochin China, and China itself, may annually resort. It
is to the Straits of Singapore that their merchants are always bound, in the first in-
stance ; and if on their arrival in them they find a market for their goods, and the
means of supplying their wants, they have no inducement to proceed to the more
distant, unhealthy, and expensive port of Batavia.

The passage from China can be made in less than six days, and the same
time is all that is required, in the favourable monsoon, for the passage from Batavia,
the coast of Borneo, and Penang.

376

SETTLEMENT OF SINGAPORE.

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Singapore, Jan. 81, 1819.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ Here I am at Singapore, true to my word, and in the enjoyment of all
the pleasure which a footing on such classic ground must inspire. The lines of the
old city, and of its defences, are still to be traced, and within its ramparts the
British Union waves unmolested.

“ Y ou are already apprised how much I have been disappointed in the necessity
of foregoing all the advantages which might have resulted from my visit to Page-
ruyong; it did not suit the politics of Bengal that they should be followed up ; and
it is only now left for me to solicit your support in behalf of my more recent
attempt to extend the British influence.

“ Most certainly the Dutch never had a factory in the island of Singapore ; and
it does not appear to me that their recent arrangements with a subordinate authority
at Rhio can or ought to interfere with our permanent estabhshment here. I have,

however, a violent opposition to surmount on the part of the Government of Penang.
^

“ This place possesses an excellent harbour, and every thing that can be desired
for a British port in the island of St. John’s, which forms the south-western point of
the harbour. 'NVe have commanded an intercourse with all the ships passing through
the Straits of Singapore. We are within a week’s sail of China, close to Siam, and in
the very seat of the Malayan empire. This, therefore, will probably be my last attempt.
If I am deserted now, I must fain return to Bencoolen, and become philosopher.

“ We are making very considerable collections in natural history ; and if the
pohtical arrangements, which I now contemplate, are adopted and confirmed, we
shall have it in our power to do a good deal in every department. We find more
work than can be accomplished by six draftsmen employed from eight o’clock till four.

“ I expect to conclude all my arrangements at this place in the course of a few
days, and then to return to Penang, where I have left Lady Raffles, and my anxiety to
get there, on her account, is very gi'eat. From Penang my course will probably bend
towards Acheen, where I have to establish the British influence on a permanent foot-
ing ; from thence I shall proceed to Bencoolen.

My next letters will speak decidedly as to our future footing on these seas. If
I keep Singapore I shall be quite satisfied ; and in a few years our influence over the
Archipelago, as far as concerns our commerce, will be fully established.”

Sir Stamford was only able to remain a few days at Singapore ; he had requested
permission of the Bengal Government to employ Colonel Farquhar at that station :
but on reaching Penang he found that this officer had already engaged his passage to
Ihigland, in a vessel which was to sail in a few days. Colonel Farquhar was, how-

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IMPORTANCE OF SINGAPORE.

377

ever, prevailed upon to alter his arrangements; and Sir Stamford placed him in
charge at Singapore, as being, from his long intercourse with the natives, well calcu-
lated to inspire them with confidence in the new settlement.

“ Penang, February 19, 1819.

“ I have already written to you from Bengal, informing you of the complete suc-
cess of my mission to the eastward, and of the estabhshment of a British station at
Singapore. * * *

At Singapore I found advantages far superior to what Rhio afforded ; and as
you know what I contemplated from the latter place, you will easily form a judgment
of the value of what we have obtained. You have only to glance at the map for the
Straits of Singapore, at the south extreme of the Straits of Malacca, and to consider
that we have another port at St. John’s, close under which all the China trade must
pass : this will convince you that our station completely outflanks the Straits of Ma-
lacca, and secures a passage for our China ships at all times, and under all circum-
stances. It has further been my good fortune to discover one of the most safe and
extensive harbours in these seas, with every facihty for protecting shipping in time of
war, &c. In short, Singapore is every thing we could desire, and I may consider
myself most fortunate in the selection ; it will soon rise into importance ; and with this
single station alone I would undertake to counteract all the plans of Mynheer ; it
breaks the spell ; and they are no longer the exclusive sovereigns of the Eastern
Seas.

“ Sophia is, I am happy to say, quite well : she is now devoting her time a great
deal to botany, and so far from finding it hang heavy on her hands, she is constantly
complaining that the days are too short.

“ Your’s, &c.”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Penang, Feb. 22, 1819.

" I am afraid your Grace will already have been tired out by the accounts I
have, from time to time, given you of my rambling life ; it seems that I am never
to be settled for any time, never to enjoy that rest and repose, which the heart so
much longs for.

‘‘ From Calcutta I came to this Island, and from hence proceeded to the fur-
ther east, down the Straits of Malacca. I have scarcely returned a w'eek, and am
now bound to Acheen, whence I shall again return to this place, and proceed round
the eastern and southern coast of Sumatra to Bencoolen. Nearly six months have
now elapsed since we left our dear baby there, and we have scarcely heard of her
since ; two or three months more must pass before our amval, and in the interim

3 c

378

GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATION OF SINGAPURA.

what important events take place. Among these I must mention Lady Raffles’ ex-
pected confinement, an event which we daily look for; this you will admit is a
domestic event of no small importance. I have also to communicate to you a poli-
tical event of gi'eat import, namely, the accomplishment of the great object which I
have always had in \iew, by forming a permanent British establishment in the Ma-
layan Archipelago, by which the progress of the Dutch supremacy may be checked,
and our interests, political and commercial, secured.

“ It has been my good fortune to establish this station in a position combining
every possible advantage, geographical and local ; and if I only meet with ordinary
support from the higher powers, I shall effectually check the plans of the Dutch.

* * iff *

“ I must, however, tell you where you are to look for it in the map. Follow
me from Calcutta, within the Nicobar and Andaman Islands, to Prince of Wales’
Island, then accompany me down the Straits of Malacca, past the town of Malacca,
and round the south-western point of the Peninsula. You will then enter what are
called the Straits of Singapore, and in Marsden’s map of Sumatra you will obseiwe
an Island to the north of these straits called Singapura; this is the spot, the
site of the ancient maritime capital of the Malays, and within the walls of these
fortifications, raised not less than six centuries ago, on which I have planted the
British flag, where, I tmst, it will long triumphantly wave.

* * iff *

“ Almost all that I attempted in Sumatra has been destroyed, from a delicacy
to the Dutch ; if this last effort for securing our interests also fails, I must be con-
tent to quit politics and turn philosopher.

fie * Jff * Sf

“ Your Grace would, I think, be amused were you to overlook our present
occupations. Were it not for the Dutch, I should have little in politics to interest
me, and as it is, I should have much leisure if I did not devote my time to natural
history, in which we are daily making very important discoveries — the lower part of
our house, at this moment, is more like the menagerie at Exeter Change, than the
residence of a gentleman. Fish, flesh, and fowl, alike contribute to the collection ;
and above stairs the rooms are variously ornamented with branches and flowers, ren-
dering them so many arbours. There are no less than five draftsmen constantly
employed, and with all our diligence we can hardly keep pace \rith the new acqui-
sitions which are daily made. I can assure your Grace that while directing these
various departments, we often think of the days that are to come, when quietly in
Park Lane, or in the country, I may attempt to display to your domestic circle,
some of the riches and beauties with which nature has adorned these Islands ; but
when will that day come ? A year has nearly elapsed since we landed on Indian

DECIDES ON THE RIGHT TO THE CROWN AT ACHEEN.

379

ground : that year has not been spent in idleness ; but yet I must look through three
or four more still longer years before I think of home ; would that they were past
too !

*****

T. S. Raffles.”

The duty which Sir Stamford had to perform at Acheen involved him in much
trouble and discussion. The point to be decided was the right to the crown. A
native merchant settled at Penang had endeavoured to estabhsh a claim to it, which
was not a little strengthened by his command of wealth So much intrigue,
trouble, and difficulty attended the arrangement of this disputed point, that Sir
Stamford was absent three months. When the business was settled he returned to
Penang, blithe only remained a few days, and proceeded again to Singapore, where
he was most agi’eeably occupied for some time, in marking out the future towm, and
giving instructions to Colonel Farquhar for the arrangement and management of his
new colony.

The following are extracts from letters written at this time from Singapore.

To Colonel Addenbrooke, late Equerry to Her Royal Highness Princess Charlotte.

“ My Dear Colonel,

“ Singapore, June \0th, 1819.

You will probably have to consult the map in order to ascertain from

what part of the world this letter is dated.

* * * * * *

“ I shall say nothing of the importance which I attach to the permanence of the
position I have taken up at Singapore ; it is a child of my own. But for my Malay
studies I should hardly have knowm that such a place existed ; not only the Euro-
pean, but the Indian world was also ignorant of it. * * * *

“ I am sure you will wish me success ; and I wiU therefore only add, that if my
plans are confirmed at home, it is my intention to make this my principal residence,
and to devote the remaining years of my stay in the East to the advancement of
a colony which, in every way in which it can be viewed, bids fair to be one of the
most important, and at the same time one of the least expensive and troublesome,
which we possess. Our object is not teri'itory, but trade ; a gi'eat commercial em-
porium, and a fulcrum, whence we may extend our influence politically as circum-
stances may hereafter require. By taking immediate possession, we put a negative

* This was the only instance in which a bribe was offered to the Editor : a casket of diamonds was
presented, and it seemed to create much surprise that it was not even looked at.

3 c 2

380

GENERAL POLITICS,

to the Dutch claim of exclusion, and at the same time revive the drooping^ confi-
dence of our alhes and friends. One free port in these seas must eventually
destroy the spell of Dutch monopoly ; and what Malta is in the West, that may
Singapore become in the East.

“ I shall leave this for Bencoolen in a few days, where I hope to remain
quietly mitil we hear decidedly from Europe ; at all events I am not likely to quit
Smnatra again for some months, and then only for a short period to re\isit my new
settlement.

“ You may judge of our anxiety to return to Bencoolen, w^hen I tell you that
we left our little girl there in August last, and have not since seen her. Lady
Raffles, who accompanied me to Bengal, and is now with me, has since presented
me with a son. The circumstances preceding his birth were not very propitious.
I was obliged to quit her only four days before the event ; w^e were almost amongst
strangers, no nurse in whom to confide, no experienced medical aid ; for we had
expected to reach Bencoolen in time. And yet all went on well ; and a finer babe,
or one with more promise of intelligence, never was beheld. You vill recollect that
om* little girl was born on the wave, under circumstances not more promising, and
yet no mother and no childi'en could have suffered less ! What strange and mys-
terious dispensations of Providence ! When I think of Claremont, and all the
prospects which were there anticipated — but I must check my pen.

“ I thank you most sincerely for yom* letters of the 8th December, 1817, and
29th April, 1819 : the former I could never acknowledge till now, the latter is before
me, and I cannot express how much I feel indebted to you for your kind and affec-
tionate attention. The engrarings I have duly received, one of them in particular is
dear to me fr'om many associations ; it is from the painting which I so often admired
in the ch*awing-room.

“ Your account of our amiable and invaluable Prince has given me the greatest
satisfaction. He has indeed had his trials : my heart overflows when I think of him
and of his sufferings ; and though far removed and separated from the }>assing scene,
be assured I hsten with no common interest to all that is said of and about him.

“ I have told you that Lady Raffles has presented me vith a son and a daughter :
from the circmnstance of the latter haring been born on the voyage, the Javans,
wfflo are a poetic people, wished her to be named Tuujung Segara, meaning lotos of
the sea ; and a more appropriate name for purity or innocence could not have been
conceived. I gi-atified then* wsh, but at the same time my own, by prefixing a more
Christian and a more consecrated name, “ Charlotte.” My son has been christened
Leopold ; and thus will Leopold and Charlotte be commemorated in my domestic
circle as names ever dear and ever respected ; and that of my daughter, while asso-
ciated with the emblem of piuity, handed down in remembrance of one whose virtues
will never be forgotten.

SIR STAMFORD’S OCCUPATIONS AND VIEWS.

381

“ I must not close this letter without giving you some account of my occupa-
tions and \iews, as far as they are of a personal nature : I am vain enough to hope
that these will interest you more than all I could write of a pubhc or political
nature.

“ Notwithstanding the serious demands on my time, arising out of my public
station, and the discussions I have naturally had with the Dutch authorities, I have
been able to advance very considerably in my collections in natural history. Suma-
tra does not afford any of those interesting remains of former civihzation, and of the
arts, which abound in Java : here man is far behind-hand, perhaps a thousand years,
even behind his neighbour the Javan ; but we have more originality, and the great
volume of nature has hardly been opened. I was extremely unfortunate in the death
of Dr. Arnold, who accompanied me as a naturalist from England : he fell a sacrifice to
his zealous and indefatigable exertions in the first journey which he made into the inte-
rior ; but not until he had immortalized his name by the discovery of one of the greatest
prodigies in nature which has been yet met with, a flower of great beauty, but more
remarkable for its dimensions ; it measures a full yard across, weighs fifteen pounds,
and contains in the nectary no less than eight pints, each petal being eleven inches in
breadth, and there being five of them. I sent a short description of this plant, with a
dl•a^\^ng, and part of the flower itself, to Sir Joseph Banks, from whom, or some of
the members of the Royal Society, you may probably have heard more particulars.
I have now with me, as a botanist. Dr. Jack, a gentleman highly qualified ; and we
are daily making very important additions to our herbarium. We have recently dis-
covered at this place some very beautiful species of the Nepenthes, or pitcher plant,
which, in elegance and brilliancy, far surpass any thing I have yet seen in this quar-
ter : the plant is very remarkable, and though the genus has been generally described,
but little is knowm of the different species. We are now engaged in making drawings
of them, and with a few other of the most remarkable and splendid productions of the
vegetable world which w^e have met with, propose forming them into a volume, to be
engraved in Europe. This w'ill be an earnest of w^hat we propose to do hereafter ; and
you will oblige me much by informing me whether His Royal Highness would have
any objection to their being dedicated to him : there will not be above six or eight
engravings, but they will be on a large scale.

“ Besides our botanical pursuits, I have in my family two French naturalists?
one of them step-son to the celebrated Cuvier ; their attention is principally directed
to zoology, but we include in our researches every thing that is interesting in the
mineral kingdom. Our collection of birds is already very extensive, and in the
course of tw'o or three years w^e hope to complete our more important researches in
Sumatra. We shall endeavoirr to include the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and wherever
the Dutch, who are the Vandals of the East, da not estabhsh themselves to our ex-

382

SIR STAMFORD’S OCCUPATIONS AND VIEWS.

elusion. I hope the plants, &c. by Dr. Horsfield reached Claremont in safety and
tolerable preservation.

On the west coast of Sumatra we abound in great varieties of corallines and
madrapores, but few of these are known in England, and collections are rare ; I
am preparing a few for Claremont, and shall be happy to hear from you if they are
likely to be acceptable, or what would be more so.

I beg of you to present my respects to Prince Leopold, \vith every assurance
of deep regard, affection and esteem, which it may be res^ectfid for me to offer.

“To the Duke of Kent I will thank you also to present my respects, and my
congratulations on his marriage. * * * »

“ Allow me to add my kindest remembrances to Sir Robert Gardiner, the
Baron, and Dr. Stockman, and to assure you, my dear friend, that I am with sin-
cerity and truth,

“ Your obhged and very faithfully attached friend,

“ T. S. R

To Dr. Wallicli.

“ Singapore, June\7, 1819.

“ Our friend Dr. Jack will keep you so regularly informed of our proceedings,
that I shall not attempt to give you any account of our collections and dis-
coveries. You \rill be happy to hear that we are at last on the wing for Bencoolen,
wiiere we shall commence operations on a more determined plan. We have, how-
ever, no right to complain, and Singapore would have recompensed all our pains,
had "we found in it nothing but the new species of nepenthes, which are splendid
beyond description, and for novelty, size, and effect, certainly rank amongst the
beauties of the East.”

To her Grace the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Singapore, June llih, 1819.

“ We are, at last, on our return home, and hope to leave this for Bencoolen
in about a week. Poor Lady Raffles ! do you not pity her, to have been so long
separated from her little girl, at such an interesting age, and to have been again
confined among strangers, and with no one about her in wiiom she could confide ?

* The beautiful plant alluded to in the foregoing letter has been named Nepenthes Raffiesiana, and has
since been engraved by Mr. Lambert, whose liberality in patronising any new discovery in his favourite
science is well known.

INCREASE OF POPULATION AT SINGAPORE.

383

“ To add to our misfortunes, I was myself compelled to leave her only four days
before the event. On my return, however, to Penang, I found her quite well, and
one of the most beautiful boys that eyes ever beheld. Both have done well ever
since, and all are in doubt which is the most beautiful, Leopold or his sister Char-
lotte : he is three months old this day. Our troubles are not yet quite over, as we
have a sea voyage of at least a month before us.

“ My new colony thrives most rapidly. We have not been established four
months, and it has received an accession of population exceeding five thousand,
principally Chinese, and their number is daily increasing.

“ It is not necessary for me to say how much interested I am in the success of
the place ; it is a child of my own, and I have made it what it is. You may easily
conceive with what zeal I apply myself to the clearing of forests, cutting of roads,
building of towns, framing of laws, &c. &c.

“ T. S. Raffles.”

“ Singapore, June \5th, 1819.

“ I am happy to inform you that every thing is going on well here. It bids
fair to be the next port to Calcutta ; all we want now is, the certainty of permanent
possession, and this, of course, depends on authorities beyond our control. You
may take my word for it, this is by far the most important station in the East ; and,
as far as naval superiority and commercial interests are concerned, of much higher
value than whole continents of territory.

Sophia and young Leopold are in high health and spirits ; our darling girl is
running about and talking, but it is now eight months since we saw her. What
an age !”

To W. Marsden, Esq.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ Singapore, June 11, 1819.

“ I am now about to return to Bencoolen by the way of the Straits of Sunda,
after an absence of nine months, three of which were spent at Acheen. At some
future period I hope to give you an account of the information collected at the last-
mentioned place. Our political negociations were eventually successful, and al-
though I had much anxiety and annoyance, I have no reason to regi'et my employ-
ment on the mission. Our government were nearly committed on the worst side of
a very troublesome question; and it required no common degree of assiduity and
perseverance to persuade authorities, who had previously declared opinions, that
they were wrong. My colleague. Captain Coombs, however, at last saw the question

384.

TEAK FORESTS IN ACHEEN.

in the same light in -which it always appeared to me, and we had the satisfaction to
conclude a treaty with the legitimate sovereign, by which all our objects were ob-
tained, \nthout the necessity of inrohing om'selves in any way. I have sent a copy

of our report to Mr, , and you will obhge me by perusing it when at leisure; it

is not very long, considering the voluminous nature of om- detached proceedings,

which occupy upwards of 1000 pages.

* * *

“ The most important discoveries we made were in the existence of extensive
teak forests near the northern coasts, and the general prevalence of mutilated
Hindu images in the interior; of the former I obtained specimen branches of the
trees, and undoubted eridence; and of the latter the accounts given were of a
nature which left httle doubt in my mind \rith regard to the fact : I have set further
inquiries on foot, and in the com'se of time I hope to obtain much interesting in-
formation on this subject. I have obtained several copies of their annals, and much
information regarding their constitution and customs, but I have not time at this
moment to enter on the subject. Their line of Mahomedan kings appears to have
commenced in 601 of the Hegira, and from that period until the reign of Seconder
Muda, or Macota Alem as he is more generally called, Acheen is said to have been
tributary to Rmn; it then obtained Maa^ or exemption from tribute. The crown
and regalia appear to have been brought from Rum shortly after the estabhshment
of Islamism, and I think it probable that Acheen was the first and most important
footing obtained by the Mahomedans to the eastward, and whence their rehgion was
subsequently disseminated among the Islands.

“ There is a fine harbour on the northern side of Pulo Way, the best in the
Achenese dominions, and until this period unknown to Europeans. It wll be long,
I fear, before Acheen will be restored to a state of complete tranquillity and
confidence. ^ ^ ^ * *

To Sir Robert Harry higUs.

“ Singapore, June \2tfi, 1819.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ It is now nearly nine months since I left Bencoolen for Bengal, and
during the whole of this period, as well as preriously, my mind and time have
been so continually devoted to the pressing and embarrassing duties of the responsible
situations in which I have been placed, that the more satisfactory and comfortable
duties of private friendship have necessarily been too often neglected. Among these
I accuse myself of not haring written to you, and I tiaist in your kindness to admit
this general excuse as a sufficient apology.

“ From the warm and kind interest you take in all that concerns us, I am sure

LETTER TO SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS.

S85

you Avill hear with })leasure that both Lady Raffles and myself have in general con-
tinued to enjoy the blessing of health, and that we are the happy parents of two
most lovely children : our little girl was born at sea on the passage out ; the boy
at Penang about three months ago ; on both occasions the circumstances in which
Lady Raffles was placed were very distressing. It is easy to conceive the anxiety
and privations attending such an event on board ship ; and at Penang, independently
of our not being in the least prepared either with a nurse or otherwise, I was myself
compelled to leave her only four days before the event took place. All, however,
has gone on well, and we are truly thankful to the Great Author and Disposer of all
events, for the mercies and blessings we enjoy.

“ I know not how I can better fulfil my promise to you, than by giving you a
general, but, as it must necessarily be, a hasty account of my proceedings, plans,
and prospects, since I left England. I will endeavour to do this in as few words as
possible, but it must be without order or arrangement. I will begin with Bencoolen,
and the immediate interests of that settlement.

“ Before I left England I was prepared for the necessity of very essential
changes in the mode of management. The encouragement given to slavery, gaming,
and other vices, and the system of forced services, and dehveries at inadequate rates,
appeared to me incompatible with the general principles of good government, and
inconsistent wdth the character which the British nation has latterly assumed.

“ I accordingly endeavoured to procure an authority for reforming these evils ;
and although I did not succeed to the extent I wished, I believe an impression was
made on some of the more enlightened of the Directors, and on the President of the
Board of Control, (Mr. Canning,) that some change was necessary and indispensable ;
under these circumstances I assumed charge of the settlement, and a more reduced
and wretched place than I foimd cannot well be conceived ; recent neglect and an
awful visitation of Providence, had contributed to render the scene even more
miserable than it might otherwise have been ; but under any circumstances, Ben-
coolen would have struck me as more insignificant and unimportant than any one
of the twenty-two Residencies lately under my authority as Lieutenant-Governor of
Java.

“ The natural disadvantages of the place are so great, and the effects of mis-
rule so deeply and extensively felt, that whilst I had every inclination to commence
a new order of things, I was not very sanguine in the result ; the country had already
been too far impoverished and destroyed, the people too long deprived of all motive
for energy and improvement, and the coast too long abandoned by the native trader,
and too inhospitable to invite his return. In this state, *1 had to determine whether
I would undertake the thankless office of reformer, without the means of shewing any
immediate advantage, or continue in the course of my predecessors, and eat the
bread of idleness. My decision was in favour of the former, and among the first acts

3 D

386

LETTER TO SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS.

which I had the satisfaction to perform, were the emancipation of 300 slaves belong-
ing to the Company, and the abolition of the gaming and cock-fighting farms, whence
the principal local revenues had pre\’iously been derived.

“ These and other changes declaratory of the new system of government which
was about to take place, only paved the way to more essential changes ; and before
I proceeded to Bengal, the system of forced sendees and deliveries was abolished, new
agreements entered into with the Chiefs, the courts of justice regulated on some
fixed principle, and an active police estabhshed. All has been quiet since, and on my
return to Bencoolen, the experience of the last twelve months will afford some data
on the eventual effects.

“ Before, however, I proceeded to this length, I endeavoured to make myself well
acquainted with the people and the country, and with this riew visited the interior of
the Island, not only immediately inland of Bencoolen, but to the southward, inland of
Manna, and to the northward inland of Padang.

“ My journey inland of Bencoolen, though not more than between twenty and
thirty miles, seems to have exceeded any thing attempted by any former Resident ;
the other journies were of course declared absolutely impracticable. It would swell
this letter to an unreasonable length were I to attempt any detailed account of them ;
they were highly interesting, and though attended with fatigue and exposure, fully
repaid us for the trouble and anxiety. To the southw^ard of Bencoolen, and inland
of Manna, is situated the country of the Pasumahs, at a distance of three days’ jour-
ney entirely through primitive forests, abomiding in elephants and tigers. No roads
are cut, and continued wars haring taken place between the Pasumahs and people
of Manna, the few passes through the mountains were unknown, or with difficulty
traced. These mountains are Rom three to five thousand feet high, and in some
places much higher, and run in a connected range of two or three ridges almost the
whole length of Sumatra, at an average distance of about twenty miles from the coast.
It is inland of these mountains that the more fertile districts are to be found, those
on the coast and to the westward of the mountains being for the most part sterile,
and very thinly inhabited. The Pasumah country is on the eastern side of the
mountains, and independently of the advantage of settling in person the long-existing
disputes between those people and what are called the Company’s districts on the
coast, I had an additional inducement to visit the interior, in the hope of discovering
something in Sumatra more valuable and attractive than I had yet seen ; and I was
not disappointed, for I found in Pasumah a fine race of people, in physical appear-
ance far superior to those on the coast, \vith ingenuous manners, and comparatively
industrious habits ; a soil richer even than the most fertile lands in Java, well culti-
vated, and a climate in every way congenial, the thermometer being as low as 65°,
till after eight o’clock in the morning, while on the coast at the same hour it usually
exceeds 80°.

LETTER TO SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS.

387

“ Lady Raffles accompanied me on this as well as on my subsequent journey to
Menangkabu, and you may form some idea of the fatigue we underwent when I tell
you, that for the three days we had to pass in the forest and mountains, the paths
were so narrow and precipitous, that it was absolutely impossible to relieve her from
the fatigue of walking, except by occasionally carrying her for half-an-hour on a man’s
shoulders. We walked from before day-light, sometimes till nine at night, and then
we had to prepare our leafy dwelling from the branches of the surrounding trees.
We carried a cot and bedding with us, but sometimes this did not come up ; and I
had to select the smoothest stone from the river to serve as a pillow.

“ Every thing ha\ing succeeded at Pasumah to my wishes, a treaty of friendship
and alliance was entered into, and we returned to Manna by a different route, though
with equal fatigue and danger. Manna is situated about eighty miles from Ben-
coolen ; to this place we had proceeded in a buggy along the sands in a journey of
two days. We then continued our route southward as far as Cawoor, keeping the
sea-shore, and proceeding on horseback ; the distance about forty miles.

“ On our retiwn to Bencoolen, which was accomplished by the 4th of June, new
cares commenced. A Commissioner, uith a party of troops, had arrived in a Dutch
frigate, for the pm-pose of taking charge of Pedang, by far the most important, and
indeed the only valuable station on the west coast of Sumatra.

“ I had pre\dously mitten to the Governor General of Batavia, that there was an
out-standing account between the two governments to the amount of 170,000 dollars,
incmTed by the British Government on the faith of its being repaid by the Dutch,
whenever the place might be transferred, and according to the terms of the capitulation
of the place, I had requested His Excellency would depute some person to examine
the accounts, and give me some acknowledgment before the actual transfer. I ac-
cordingly called on the Commissioner for adjustment, but to my surprise, he informed
me, that he had explicit orders not to enter upon any discussion of the kind ; that it
was his duty first to hoist the Dutch flag ; and that afterwards the subject might be
considered. As we had woeful experience of such a procedure in Java, where after
we had once allowed them to hoist their flag, they treated all our claims with indif-
ference and disregard, I was satisfied that unless we had some acknowledgment of
this debt before the actual transfer, and while the Enghsh flag remained, the
amount would be irrecoverably lost, and the subsequent claims laughed at ; I there-
fore persisted in my demand, and the resrdt was the return of the Commissioner to
Batavia, for further orders. The Dutch government refused to waive the point. I
remained resolute ; and the discussion ended in a reference to Bengal. In the mean
time I was anxious to make myself acquainted with Padang, but more so to attempt
a visit to Menangkabu, the ancient capital of the Malayan empire, of which Euro-
peans in these seas had heard so much, but which no European had yet seen. The
difficulties which were opposed far exceeded those we had met with at Pasumah, but

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LETTER TO SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS.

determined to overcome them, we accomplished our object, and during a journey of
fifteen days, principally on foot, we passed over a distance of, at least, 250 miles,
which no European foot had before trodden, crossing mountains not less than 5000
feet in elevation ; sometimes whole days along the course of rapid torrents, on others,
in highly-cultivated plains, and throughout the whole, in a country in the highest
degree interesting. We here found the wreck of a great empire hardly known to us
but by name, and the evident source whence all the Malayan colonies now scattered
along the coasts of the Archipelago first sprung, a population of between one and two
millions, a cultivation highly advanced, and manners, customs, and productions in a
great degi'ee new and undescribed. I can hardly describe to you the delight with
which I first entered the rich and populous countiy of Menangkabu, and discovered
after four days’ journey through the mountains and forests, this great source of
interest and wealth. To me it was quite classical ground, and had I found nothing
more than the ruins of an ancient city, I should have felt repaid for the journey, but
when, in addition to this, I found so extensive a population, so fertile a country, and
so admirable a post whence to commence and effect the cmlization of Sumatra, the
sensation was of a nature that does not admit of description. Instead of jealousy
and distrust on the part of the natives, they received us with the utmost hospitahty,
and though their manners w^ere rude, and sometimes annoying, it was impossible to
misunderstand their intentions, which were most friendly. They had but one request,
namely, that I w'ould not allow the Dutch to come to Padang — ^ for the tw^enty-three
years that the place had been in our possession, great changes had taken place, new
interests had arisen, children then unborn had become men, and those who had
been friends to the Dutch were now no more.’ I pacified them by receiving an ad-
dress, w hich they WTote in public to the King of England, soliciting his attention to
their interests, and as I found on subsequent enquiry, that the Dutch influence had
never extended inland beyond the mountains, but had been expressly limited to the
w^estern side of them, I did not hesitate to enter into a conditional treaty of friend-
ship and alliance with the Sultan of Menangkabu, as the lord-paramount of all the
Malay countries, subject of course to the approval of Lord Hastings.

“ The state of agriculture in the Menangkabu country is far higher than I ex-
pected to find it; not in any respect inferior to what it is in Java, and in some
respects superior. Water-w'heels and sugar presses being common throughout
Menangkabu, while they are almost unknown in Java, shews that in this point of
view they are at least equal. In manners and civilization, however, they are very
far behindhand. Some traces of a former higher state of ciHlization are discernible,
but in general the people are little beyond wfiiat they are found to be in other parts
of Sumatra. The Sovereign of Menangkabu has little or no authority, and the popu-
lation seem to have relapsed into the ancient divisions of tribes so general throughout
Sumatra.

LETTER TO SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS.

389

“ On our return from Padang to Bencoolen, my discussions with the Dutch
Government had gone to considerable length. The first unfriendly and unneigh-
bourly act on their part was to discontinue the regular post which had been esta-
blished between Bencoolen and Batavia ; this afforded me an additional necessity
of obtaining a station in the Straits of Sunda, where our China ships might refresh
in passing to and fro. The coast of Sumatra from the south-western extremity to
Bencoolen is in general subject to a high surf and want of anchorage, and to bring
forward Bencoolen at all, it was essential that we should have some convenient port
for communication with shipping, and it occurred to me that the present was a
favourable opportunity to estabhsh our claim to an anchorage in Lampoon Bay.
The Dutch, however, would not hsten to it, and as the boundaries were not defined,
I hoisted our flag at the extremity of the bay to which I thought we had a just
claim. We discovered and surveyed an excellent harbour, and had the plan been
supported by the higher authorities, I am convinced that much might have been done.

“ It was evident the Dutch were determined to keep us out of the Archipelago
altogether, and that unless we immediately occupied some station for the security of
our own commerce, it would be in their power without direct acts of hostihty to in-
terfere with it, and seriously embarrass our future intercourse.

“ As however I am now getting into a more general question than the local
politics of Bencoolen, it will be necessary to give you some general idea of the pro-
ceechngs of the Dutch authorities, and of the measures which I have contemplated
to meet them. Much as the affairs of Bencoolen occupied my attention in the first
instance, they were sunk into insignificance when contrasted "with the higher objects
to be obtained by opposing the Dutch. Bencoolen has so little in itself that much
can never be expected from it. The only chance was by the establishment of a
port in the Straits of Sunda, or by the retention of Padang, and the extension of
our influence in the interior. Had the latter been practicable, I am inclined to
think the period would not have been distant when the whole of Sumatra would
have acknowledged our authority, and a settled and enlightened government been
estabhshed throughout. Under existing circumstances, and the orders I have re-
ceived to withdraw from Padang and the Straits of Sunda, all that has been left to
me has been to correct abuses, estabhsh a more rational kind of government in the
immediate vicinity of Bencoolen, and to reduce our expenses as much as possible.
But to proceed to the Dutch.

“ The circumstances in which the British interests and character have been
placed by the recent convention with Holland, and its consequences, are most dis-
tressing, and certainly call loudly for the interference of the authorities in Europe.
I will endeavour to explain them to you as briefly as possible.

“ From the period of our first establishment in India, our interests and policy
have been opposed to those of the Dutch. We found them in possession of the

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LETTER TO SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS.

all events respect our claims, seemed to prevail, and nothing was done. It was in
vain that I represented, while in England, that our settlements of Bencoolen and
Penang were both too inconveniently situated to answer any useful pui^iose : the eA"il
had not arisen, and it was conceived the Dutch would be as slow as usual in their
movements, and that at all events we had abundance of time. All that I could effect
was to obtain instructions to watch and report their proceedings, and on these in-
stmctions I have not failed to watch them narrowly, and to place before the higher
authorities the dangers to which our interests are already subjected.

“ On my arrival in India I found my apprehensions realized : the Dutch were
not only steadily pm-suing the policy for our absolute exclusion, of which I complain,
but they were openly and avowedly doing so, and they were not very particular as to
the means.

“ It had been an object of our policy to admit and preserve the independence of
the Bornean states. At the period of the conquest of Java, no Em’opean authority
was estabhshed in any of them, but the ports were open to the general trader. Many
of the princes of these states had risen into authority and independence subsequent
to the decline of the Dutch power ; and, with the exception of Banjar Masing, during
the administration of Marshal Daendels, the Sultan had fairly bought the Dutch out,
who withdrew, learing him, by a uTitten declaration, independent, on condition of
his purchasing the fort'and other buildings from them. This condition he fulfilled;
and while Lord Minto was at Malacca, on his way to Java, he received ambassadors
from that state, courting our alliance. His Lordship was pleased to listen to their
proposals, and an agreement or treaty was entered into, one of the first articles of
which was, that we should never transfer the place to the Dutch. Our treaty was
made with an independent Prince, who was then acknowledged as such by the Dutch,
and \rithout reference to the conquest of Java. This place the Dutch commissioners
claimed under the convention, and it was in vain we urged the impossibility of making
the transfer. They were, however, determined, and our Government not thinking
it a place worth contending for, and being further displeased with the local authority,
and perhaps ignorant of the value of the position, uithcfrew, on which the Dutch sent
a commanding force, took possession, entered into a nominal treaty uitli the Chief,
by which they secured to themselves the exclusive trade and control, and of course
shut us out from further intercourse, the first and most important article in all their
agreements with these states being the exclusion of the English.

“ As our Government were content to abandon Banjar Masing, and the Dutch
had already effected their pm-pose in that part of Borneo, it only remained for me to
endeavour to maintain the independence of Pontiana and Sambas on the western
coast, Rhio and Lingen at the southern entrance of the Straits of IMalacca, and Pa-
lembang and Acheen on Sumatra.

“ I received information at this period of extensive expeditions fitting out at

LETTER TO SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS.

393

Batavia for the purpose of taking possession of all the most commanding positions
in the Archipelago, and as no time was to be lost, I communicated my sentiments
very fully to the Supreme Government, urging a request to be permitted to proceed
there in person for the piu'pose of more particularly representing the dangers which
threatened us. Lord Hastings was at this time up the country, and it would have
been useless for me to have proceeded to Calcutta, until I knew he was on his return
to the Presidency.

“ In acknowledgment of my communication to the Sultan of Palembang, which
was sent overland (the territories of Palembang and Bencoolen being adjoining,)
ambassadors arrived, stating the apprehensions of the Sultan, that the Dutch were
about to invade the place with a large force, to dethrone him on account of his
haHng been raised by the English, and to throw the whole country into confusion.

“ To understand the Palembang question, it is necessary to revert to former
proceedings, and as it is a subject that will probably excite interest at home on ac-
count of Banca, you may be desirous of knowing some of the particulars.

“ While acting as agent for the Governor-General, and before the conquest of
Java, I had authority to treat with Palembang, and the Sultan being desirous of our
alliance, it was necessary to make it a condition that he first separated himself from
the Dutch. This he hesitated to do, and the negociation dropped.

“ The conquest of Java followed, and a Dutch establishment being still stationed
at Palembang, we conceived ourselves, according to the capitulation, entitled to the
fidl benefit of the Dutch existing treaty with the Sultan. A commission was, there-
fore, sent for the arrangement of our interest in that quarter. When they arrived at
Palembang, they found the Dutch fort and establishment deserted, and on enquiry
were told by the Sultan that the Dutch authorities had some time before quitted the
place. The Sultan then said he was willing to treat with us as an independent
Prince, but his conduct to the Commissioners was very unsatisfactory, and excited
considerable suspicion, and they returned without any advantageous result. Shortly
after, authentic intelhgence was received that the Dutch Resident and garrison had
been murdered in a most treacherous manner by the Sultan’s permission or autho-
rity, and that the story of their having quitted the place of their own accord was all
a fabrication. The event was stated to have taken place on the Sultan’s receiving
intelligence of the conquest of Java. He then seems to have seen his error in not
having accepted our previous offer, and actuated as well by a spirit of hatred to the
Dutch as by his own interest, which he conceived would be best consulted by setting
himself up as an independent Prince, the idea of massacring the Dutch and of keep-
ing the fact secret was discovered.

“ An expedition was immediately fitted out to punish the party. Gillespie
commanded, and had full authority to investigate and act according to circum-
stances. The fact of the murder was proved beyond doubt. The Sultan fled into

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394

LETTER TO SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS.

the hills and was dethroned, and his brother raised to the throne in his stead. To
compensate us for the expense of the expedition, the new Sultan ceded to us the
Islands of Banca and Bilhton in perpetuity, and it was a condition that we should no
longer interfere in the domestic affairs of Palembang. He, however, required from us
a military guard pro\dsionaUy, to protect him from his brother, who still remained in
the interior. All these arrangements were unreservedly approved of and confirmed
by the Supreme Government, and all went on quietly, until Major Robmson, an
officer in whom confidence had been placed, abused his rfust, and it is strongly sus-
pected for a valuable consideration, entered into an agreement with the old Sultan,
to re-establish him in authority, on condition of his paying 200,000 dollars to the
British Government. This agreement was of course disavowed by me. Major Robin-
son removed and disgraced, the old Sultan put off the throne, and his brother again
raised ; the money being returned, and the old Sultan permitted to reside at the
capital of Palembang, mider the guarantee of the British Government that he did
not interfere with the just rights of his brother.

“ In this state affairs stood when the convention was signed in Europe, by one
article of which his Britannic Majesty agrees to cede the Island of Banca to the
Dutch, but no mention is made of either Palembang or Bilhton. As soon as intelh-
gence was sent to the Sultan that we were about to withdraw, he strongly urged the
condition of the cession of Banca, namely, that the European power was not further
to interfere with Palembang, and called upon us to prevent the Dutch from interfer-
ing nith his authority, by requiring them to guarantee the treaty. This they
refused to do ; and no sooner had we quitted Bataria, than they commenced their
machinations against the unfortunate man, which ended in his brother being again
called to the throne, for a payment of 400,000 dollars, and himself being con-
veyed to Batavia as a prisoner, after his seal had been surreptitiously applied
to a mock treaty, which transfers all the Palembang territory to the Dutch.
The officer who was deputed by me to Palembang, Captain Salmond, brother
to Colonel Salmond of the India-House, was seized by the Dutch, and, with his
suite, sent to Batavia as prisoners. The circmnstances attending this seizure are
fully detailed in a protest entered by me, and sent to the Dutch authorities, and
evince a disregard of character greater than could well be conceived in any cirilized
nation of the present day.

“ The Palembang question, as politically considered, appears to stand thus :
Banca was not considered as natm’ally accming to the Dutch, under the general
terms of the convention, otherwise a specific article, ceding that Island to them,
would not have been necessary ; and his Britannic Majesty, by so specifically trans-
ferring his rights in it to the Dutch, confirms, of course, the treaty by which these
rights were obtained, at the same time that his Netherlands’ Majesty, by receiving
possession of the Island under this specific article of the treaty, in like manner

LETTER TO SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS.

395

acknowledges the full title of Great Britain to cede it. Now the terms on which the
Island was ceded to us were, that we would guarantee the independence and rights
of the Sultan, who ceded it, and that we would no further interfere with the internal
affairs of Palembang. The Dutch, however, not satisfied with Banca, require first
their factory at Palembang also, and afterwards the dethronement of the very Prince
from whom we first obtained the cession. Thus acting upon two principles incon-
sistent with each other, and destroying the only title by which we could legally cede
Banca, they claimed Palembang imder their ancient rights, and Banca under those
newly acquired ; and because the Suitan whom we raised required of them to guarantee
the existing treaty, and expressed his attachment to the power to whom he was in-
debted for his throne, they soon contrived to fabricate charges against him, to banish
him from his country, and to admit four lacs of substantial excuses (the sum said to
have been paid on the occasion,) as a sufficient retribution from the old Sultan, who
had murdered their countrymen, and whom they have again raised to the throne.

I fear, however, that if I go into further particulars, I shall never make an
end of my letter, and therefore I shall break off here with the account of affairs
before I proceeded to Bengal. In August I received accounts of the probable
return of the Governor General to Calcutta, and on the 1st of September proceeded
there with Lady Raffles in a small brig.

“ Lord Hastings had arrived, and my reception was very gratifying. I found
every unfavourable impression which had formerly existed, removed from his Lord-
ship’s mind, and that the Supreme Government were wilhng to enter on the con-
sideration of our interests to the eastward.

“ On a deliberate consideration, a moderate line of policy was decided upon, and
the relative advantages of the Straits of Sunda and of Malacca being considered, the
latter seemed to be more important to us. It would have been too much to have
kept the command of both, and as the west coast of Smnatra was comparatively un-
important, it was resolved to sacrifice our establishments there, in order to obtain a
more substantial advantage elsewhere. My plan for occupying the port of Rhio, and
which I had mentioned to the authorities in Europe, was adopted, by which we ex-
pected to obtain the command of the southern entrance of the Straits of Malacca ;
and it was determined to secure the command of the northern entrance by bringing
our long-pending discussions with Acheen to a close.

While in Bengal I received accounts that Colonel Bannerman, the Governor
of Prince of Wales’ Island, alarmed at the approach of the Dutch so near to Malacca,
had deputed an agent to proceed to the neighbouring states, including Rhio, for the
purpose of entering into commercial treaties for the security of our trade, on the re-
estabhshment of the Dutch at Malacca. In the Bornean states, however, this agent
was refused admittance by the Dutch, who had previously taken possession. But at
Rhio, Siak, and other minor states in the Straits of Malacca, he had met with every

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LETTER TO SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS.

success ; the native princes being anxious to render their connexion with the English
peiTuanent. In their treaties, however, no stipulation for the exclusion of the Dutch
was made, but the parties bound themselves not to act upon any obsolete or inter-
i*upted treaties ^^'ith them, and our acknowledgment of their independence was all
that they required. The Dutch, however, no sooner obtained possession of Malacca,
than, notwithstanding our treaties, which were cominmiicated to them for their in-
formation, they sent an overpowering force to Rhio, &c., declared the Chief to be
their vassal, treated our negociations A\ith contempt, and dictated a treaty which
excluded our trade from the port, &c.

“ The decision, however, of the Supreme Government was taken before intelli-
gence to this effect was received, and it was hoped I might yet be in time to secure
our interests at Rhio and Acheen.

“ As a proof of the confidence now placed in me by the Governor General, his
Lordship was pleased to appoint me his agent and representative, to effect the objects
he had in view to the eastward. In October I received authority to prosecute the
negociation commenced at Rhio, by the establishment of a British port at that place,
and to act as senior commissioner wth the agent of the Penang Government, for
adjusting all affairs at Acheen.

“ Contemplating the practicability of our fonning an establishment at Rhio, I
was authorized to place Major Farquhar, formerly Resident of Malacca, in charge
of it, and although our interests to the eastward were thus proWsionally decided
under two authorities, namely, those at Penang and Bencoolen, and my establish-
ment at Rhio would border verj' closely on the Straits of jNIalacca, it was conceived
that whenever Colonel Bannerman might vacate Penang, my succession to that
government would be the means of uniting all our interests, and a good understand-
ing in the meantime prevent inconvenience.

“ I will not tire you with details, but it is necessary you should know that in
forming our estabhshment at the place from which I write this letter, I was opposed
in the strongest manner by local authorities, but have received the unreserved ap-
probation of the Governor General. Of the grounds on which I felt myself justified
in taking up this position, as well as of the advantages of the position itself, I shall
hereafter speak. In the meantime I would wish to give you some account of my
proceedings at Acheen, a place which at one period attracted more attention in
Em'ope than most Eastern countries, but which has long declined in importance.

“ For the last four years the country of Acheen had been a prey to disorder
and anarchy. A rich merchant of Penang, Syed Hussain, patronized by the late
Mr. Petrie, taking advantage of the misettled state of the capital, set up claims to
the sovereignty, and haring expended an immense sum in briberies and corniption,
contrived by means of his superior naval force, and the advantage of equipping his
vessels from Penang, to command the trade of the Achenese ports, and to invest

LETTER TO SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS.

397

one of his sons with the title of Sultan. The Penang Government taking part with
this side of the question, strongly recommended the support of it by the Supreme
Government, and a force of a thousand men was actually applied for with proper
equipments in order to establish the newly created king thoroughly on his throne.
Captain Coombs, a protege of Mr. Petrie’s, and who had been employed as the
Agent of the Penang Government, was in Bengal at the time of my arrival, and
Lord Hastings asked my opinion. I had no hesitation in giving it as far as it was
then formed, and the Supreme Government were induced to pause. I was subse-
quently joined in a commission with Captain Coombs for the purpose of finally ad-
justing the question.

After my arrival at Penang, I was informed that Colonel Bannerman had
protested against my interference at Acheen, and had written in such terms to the
Supreme Government that it was incumbent on me to await the answer. I comphed
with this request, and while this question was pending, proceeded to this place,
effected my object, and returned to Penang in time to receive the further instructions
of the Supreme Government. These only tended to confirm what I had formerly
received, and Captain Coombs and myself accordingly proceeded to Acheen. We
remained there nearly seven weeks, during the early portion of which we were
directly opposed in our politics, but at length after a paper war which actually oc-
cupies above a thousand pages of the Company’s largest sized paper, he came round
to my opinion, and was satisfied that in justice and honour there was but one course
to pursue, namely, supporting the cause of the legitimate Sovereign. The spurious
claims set up by Syed Hussain were proved to be unfounded, and it was clear he
had grossly deceived our government. We therefore concluded a treaty, and
effected all the objects we required, namely, the right of having a Resident and
establishment at Acheen, and to exclude all foreign European nations from having
a fixed habitation. All that we had then to do was to require the Governor of
Penang to restrict Syed Hussain from further interference, and troops and equip-
ments of course became unnecessary.

“ I never had a more disagreeable duty, and consequently was highly satis-
fied to bring our mission to so desirable a conclusion. It was an object of
great importance to take the right side of the question, and had our government
been once committed on the other, and troops introduced, we should soon have
been so deeply involved that a worse than Candyan war might have been appre-
hended. In a country like Acheen by military operations we had every thing to
lose and nothing to gain.

“ After the conclusion of our mission to Acheen, I joined Lady Raffles at Pe-
nang, and retm-ned to this place on my way to Bencoolen.

I must now give you some account of Singapore, our title to the place, its
present condition and advantages, as well immediate as prospectively. The Dutch

398

LETTER TO SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS.

in occupying Rhio had considered the Sultan of Lingen as the legitimate Sovereign
of Johore. We found, however, that there was an elder brother, who by the laws
and usages of the monarchy laid claim to this distinction, and that in consequence
of these disputed claims, neither of them had been regularly installed, and that con-
sequently since the death of the father, which happened about six years ago, there
had been actually no regular constituted King of Johore. The elder brother’s claims
were admitted to be just, and the cause of his not being regularly crowned attri-
buted to the intrigues of the Vizier or Rajah Moodah of Rhio, who had nearly
usurped all authority, and who of com'se prefeired a nominal superior to a real one.
The empire of Johore was once the most extensive of this part of the world, even in
its most limited extent : it included the southern part of the Peninsula, and all the
Islands which lay off it. The Bandahara of Padang, and the Tumungung of Johore
ai*e the principal officers and hereditary nobles, and the acknowledgment of these
two is essential to the establishment of a new Sovereign. When I amved off Sin-
gapore, I received a visit from the Tumungung, who represented to me the recent
conduct of the Dutch, and stated that as the Dutch had treated with an incompe-
tent authority, it was still left for us to establish ourselves in this division of the
empire, under the sanction of the legitimate Sovereign. This Sovereign soon made
his appearance, and though not yet formally installed, was recognized by us in that
capacity, on his being acknowledged as Sovereign by the Bandahara and Tumungung.
Fortmiately also w^e discovered at Singapore a harbour more convenient, and a port
more commanding than Rhio itself, and as no European authority had ever set foot
on the Island, and the land was the property of the Tumungung, w^e did not hesitate
to treat for the occupation of the port, and to establish ourselves pending the refer-
ence to Bengal. I have just received letters from Lord Hastings, conveying his
entire approval of my proceedings, and an assurance that he is too well awnre of
the importance of the position, and of the necessity of opposing the encroachments
of the Dutch, not be deeply interested in the success of the establishment.

“ Ha\ing succeeded in all the objects wJiich were contemplated by the Su-
preme Government, as within the reach of the authorities in this country, it remains
for me to inform you of the further objects recommended for adoption at home.
The fi'ee and uninterrupted command of the Straits of Malacca having been obtain-
ed, it is conceived that the Dutch Government will readily cede to us the settle-
ment of Malacca, now useless to them, and with it Rhio and the Islands lying off
the southern entrance of the Straits ; and this obtained, our object will be to gain
Banca. The Dutch are indebted to us in nearly a million sterling, for actual pro-
perty and disbursements, and we are willing to forego this claim, and to set every
question at rest between the two governments, provided they will restore Banca.
This would, of course, settle the Palembang question at once ; and as our ministers
can no longer be ignorant of the intrinsic value of Banca to the British Government,

LETTER TO SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS.

399

on account of its mines, and the question is thus one in which not only the national
honour, but the national interests, are deeply concerned, it is to be hoped the best
endeavours will be made,

“ This is the policy recommended by the Supreme Government, and the de-
tailed sentiments of Lord Hastings to this effect were forwarded to Europe by Mr.
Ricketts, who left Bengal in January last.

‘‘ The Penang Government seem inclined to think any settlement further east
as injurious to the interests of that Island ; but this is taking a very narrow view of
the subject, and will not, of course, be hstened to.

“ The ports of Borneo ought to be considered independent, or the Dutch might
be hmited to the southern provinces connected with Banjar Masing. If such an
arrangement as this is made, I should suppose that our principal station on the west
coast of Sumatra should be at Padang, and that all our arrangements should have
in view, the eventual estabhshment of one united and respectable government to the
eastward.

“ I will now conclude this long and irregular history of my public proceedings.
I think you will give me justice for not having been idle in the cause of honour and
humanity since my return to this country. I say humanity, because it is perfectly
clear, that in the proportion that we extend our influence, that cause is promoted,
while it is necessarily checked and perverted under the influence of our rivals. I
have now Borneo on the one side and Sumatra on the other, and were the Dutch not
estabhshed at Pontiana and Sambas on the one, and at Padang and Palembang on
the other, a free intercourse would be estabhshed, and civilization extended. Sambas
and Pontiana command the rich and populous districts of the interior, in which
upwards of 100,000 industrious Chinese are estabhshed, while Padang is the key to
Menangkabu, whence all Sumatra might with facility be brought under control and
regulation. All our hopes are now from England : more cannot be done in this
country, and what has been accomplished, has been almost entirely on my own
anxious responsibility. An additional clause to the convention, declaratory and ex-
planatory of the footing on which the British and Dutch interests in the Archipelago,
both political and commercial, are to stand, is indispensable ; and, of course, the
more favourable this can be made to us the better. We have to expect nothing
short of commercial hostility on the part of the Dutch, and unless we take care
of om-selves, they will impress the natives with a behef that we have not the power
to do so.

“ I did intend, in this letter, to have entered at some length into other subjects,
which have attracted my attention since my return to India, but it is so unreason-
ably long, that I must bring it to a close, with an apology for the extreme haste
and inaccuracy with which it is written, and for taking up so much of your time on
subjects which are probably of little interest to you.

iOO

LETTER TO SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS.

“ You have heard, that shortly after my an'ival at Bencoolen, I had the
satisfaction to establish a Bible Society. This was followed by the estabhshment of
schools, and recently, on the \isit of the Bishop of Calcutta to Penang, we formed
a District Committee of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, entitled the
Prince of Wales’ Island and Fort Marlborough Committee.

“ I have now with me, on board the ship on which I proceed to Bencoolen, a
printing-press, \nth types in the Roman and native characters, and have just gi’anted
permission to the Extra Ganges Mission to estabhsh a college at Singapore, for the
study of the Chinese language, and the extension of Christianity.

“ The state of society, even among the Europeans at Bencoolen, was very bad
on my arrival. I tmst it is improving. An instance has occured which will, I hope,
impress upon the higher authorities the necessity of attending more closely to the
rehsious and moral character of their establishments.

“ I am afi'aid the progi’ess towards improvement will be slow. I hope it will be
sure, and, as soon as I can give you a good account, you may rely upon hearing from
me. I did intend to write to Mr. Wilberforce, but I find I have not time, as the ship
sails to-day. I shall, therefore, defer writing to him till my return to Bencoolen,
when I hope to have much new matter. In the meantime you will oblige me much
hy presenting my respects, and assuring him that w^e are doing all we can in the good
cause. I wish he were fully aware of what might be done here.

“ On the voyage from England, the attention of Lady Raffles and myself w'as
principally devoted to natural history. We had with us Dr. Arnold, an eminent na-
turalist, and an amiable man, and, wdth his assistance, w^e studied most of the elemen-
tary wmrks. Our poor friend. Dr. Arnold, has since fallen a sacrifice to his exertions,
and w e have lost him ; but w^e have supplied his place by Dr. Jack, a young man of
ver}' superior talent, and excellent disposition. His time is almost exclusively de-
voted to botanical pursuits, and our collections are already veiy interesting and exten-
sive. I have also in my family two French naturahsts, one of them step-son to
Cuvier. They undertake the zoological department. We collect a few^ stones wLere-
ever w^e go, and chemistry may be added to the list of our studies.

“ These pursuits w'e selected as the most amusing and usefid w^e could follow.
I was well aw^are that Sumatra afforded nothing in language, literature, science, or
the arts, to interest. The great volume of nature, however, is laid open before us ;
and, in the absence of political objects, w^e foresaw enough to occupy our attention
during the period of our hanishment. We are vain enough to hope, that wdth the
means we at present possess, and continued application for the next five years, w'e
shall be able to do much towards describing the natural history of Sumatra and the
adjoining islands.

“ Thus you will see that we do not depend entirely upon public or political ob-
jects. I have done what I conceive my duty in these ; and if my projects fail, I shall
still have enough to interest me at home.

OPINIONS ON THE ADVANTAGES OF SINGAPORE.

401

“ Lady Raffles unites in the most affectionate regards to Mrs. Inglis and yourself,
and we beg that you will offer our kindest respects to Sir Hugh and Lady Inglis. To
Sir Hugh I would write, had I not already informed you of all that is likely to prove
interesting to him. My next letter shall, however, be to him ; but it must be delayed
until I have more leisure and time to condense what I would wish to say. I should
not feel myself authorized to convey my sentiments in the same loose and unguarded
manner to him that I do to you. I rely upon your friendship and kindness, and
remain always. Most sincerely your’s.

“ It may be satisfactory to Sir Hugh to know that Lord Hastings has made the
amende honorable ; expressed in the handsomest terms his regret that he should ever
have ■viewed my proceedings in Java in another light, and his approbation and ap-
plause of the general principles which regulated my Government, which he is pleased
to say were as creditable to me as honourable to my country.”

The following opinion of two professional men, who had derived much expe-
rience in the trade of the Eastern Islands, evinces the estimation in which Singapore
was held even at this early period.

“ The settlement of Singapore, lately established by Sir Stamford Raffles, being,
in my opinion, of the utmost importance both in a pohtical and commercial point of
view to the British empire, particularly in the event of a war with France, Holland,
or America, the Dutch Government will no doubt strongly remonstrate against that
measure, and endeavour to make us relinquish it ; but I think every possible argu-
ment, founded on truth and experience, should be brought forward in order to secure
to us that valuable settlement.

“ The Bugguese prows from Celebes and other parts of the Eastern Islands, will
resort to the settlement of Singapore with their goods, and barter them for our manu-
factures, in preference to going to Malacca or Batavia, and it will soon become a
depot for the Eastern traders.

“ The Straits of Sunda and Malacca are the two gates or barriers leading into
the China Sea for all the commerce of British India, Europe, and the Eastern coasts
of North and South America, which gates the Dutch fully command, if we do not
retain the settlement of Singapore ; for our settlement of Prince of Wales’ Island
being situated far to the northward and on the coast of an open sea, it affords no
protection to our China trade, nor to ships passing through Malacca Straits, whereas
the possession of Malacca and Rhio by the Dutch, also of Java and Banca, gives them
the complete command of the Straits of Sunda, Banca, and Malacca.

“ If we retain the settlement of Singapore, great security will be afforded to
our China trade in the event of war ; for by possessing a naval station at the en-
trance of' the China Sea, no enemy’s cruizers will ever dare to wait off Puloaor to

3 F

i02

OPINIONS ON THE ADVANTAGES OF SINGAPORE.

intercept oui' ships from China, Avhich Admiral Linois did with the Marengo line-of-
battle ship and two frigates, when he attacked the valuable fleet under the com-
mand of Captain Dance : and it was fortunate for the Company and the commerce
of British India, that Linois had not a larger force.

“ I trust you will excuse the hberty I have taken in addressing you on this
subject ; but considering it of great importance, I thought it right to do so, in case
you deem, it proper to coimnunicate it to Mr. Canning, or any others of those
concerned.

“ J. Horsburgh.”

“ Penang, July 2, 1819.

“ The Bengal Government in January last sent dovii Sir Stamford Rafiies to
see and pick out some good place for a settlement east of Malacca, and after
looking at several, he laid hold of the flne Island of Singapore, near the mouth of
Johore River : from St. John’s Island it bears N.N.E. five miles, in latitude 1“ 16' N.
M e now become again masters of the Malay peninsula, and all the Rajahs up
to Padang consider themselves under our protection, our Sultan is the head of all
the Malay states north of Palembang, being Sultan of Johore. He resides on the
Island of Singapore with Major Farquhar, and the town is on the site of the old
Malay capital of 1550. It is a most capital situation, as the Islands cover the
Archipelago from the N.'NV., S.'NV., and N.E. vinds ; in short, in my opinion it is
much better than Malacca. We have a flag on St. John’s, and in war time, a few
hea\y guns on St. John’s will give us complete command of the Straits of that
place. Sir Stamford Raffles has also made a treaty with the old King of Acheen,
which excludes all other Eiuopeans and Americans.

“ I have a letter from Sir S. Raffles of the 17th ultimo from Singapore, inforai-
ing me that there are now five thousand souls there. Mlien we got possession of it
in the end of January, there were only five hundred; they are the inhabitants from
Malacca and Rhio that are gone there. Our ships of war can ride there in war time,
and run out off Pulo Auro, and see the coast clear, and back again in a week.

“ Carnegie.”

Sir Stamford returned to Bencoolen, and the only event that occurred on the
voyage was, the vessel striking on a bank in the Straits of Rhio during the night.
It was feared she would not be got off, and a small boat was prepared to endea-
vour to caiTy him back to Singapore, uath the Editor and their child, an infant four
months old ; but just as they were leaving the vessel, hopes were entertained that by
throwing all the water overboard to lighten the ship she might be got olf, and before
morning the attempt succeeded. It was then considered fortunate that the accident
occurred so near an Em'opean settlement ; but on stopping at Rhio and sending in a

SCENERY OF THE ARCHIPELAGO.

403

boat, stating what had happened, and requesting a supply of water, the Dutch Resident
refused all intercourse, asserted that Sir Stamford went as a spy, and would not give
the assistance solicited ; it was, therefore, with considerable anxiety that the voyage
was continued ; fortunately in passing through the Straits of Banca, a good Samaritan
appeared in one of the beautifid American vessels, so numerous in these seas,
when the Captain generously, and at considerable risk, for the wind was strong and
in his favour, stopped his course, and \rith gi'eat difficulty, by means of ropes, con-
veyed some casks of water, and went on board himself to inquire into the cause of
distress ; the Captain’s name is forgotten, but his kindness has often been acknow-
ledged with gratitude and praise.

It is difficult to convey an idea of the pleasure of sailing through this beautiful
and unparalleled Archipelago, in which every attraction of nature is combined ;
the smoothness of the sea, the hghtness of the atmosphere, the constant succes-
sion of the most picturesque lake scenery. Islands of every shape and size clustered
together, mountains of the most fanciful forms crowned with verdure to their summit,
rich and luxuriant vegetation extending to the very edge of the water, httle native
boats, often with only one person in them, continually darting out from the deep
shade which concealed them, looking like so many cockle-shells wafted about by the
wind. Altogether it is a fairy scene of enchantment, deserving of a poet’s pen to
describe its beauties.

3 F 2

CHAPTER XIV.

Sir Stamford arrives at Bencoolen — Endeavours to induce the inhabitants to take an interest in the improve-
ment of the country — Irregularities which formerly prevailed — School for the children of the Slaves —
Its success — Missionaries — Religion of the people — Effect of an institution for the Education of the
higher orders — Anxiety for Mr. JVilberforce’s assistance — Bible Society — Schools — Sir Stamford re-
solves to j)roceed again to Calcutta — Billiton — Lord Hastings on the subject of Eastern arrangements
— Leaves Calcutta to return to Bencoolen.

The immediate concerns of Bencoolen engrossed Sir Stamford’s attention on his
return from Singapore. He was anxious to excite an interest in the Europeans for
the improvement of the natives, and to induce them to find occupation and amuse-
ment in a place where they were obliged to pass so many years of their lives. Of
pubhc duty there was little for them to perform; and it was always a subject of regret
to him, that so many young men were doomed to spend their days in idleness, with-
out any stimulant from the hope of future promotion or success, to rouse them to
energy and activity.

Committees were appointed to inquire into various subjects ; societies were
formed for bettering the condition of the people, and for promoting the agiiculture
of the country.

The appearance of the Settlement was gi'eatly changed. On Sir Stamford’s first
aiTival in 1818, he found that every tree and shrub had been cut down (from fear of
the natives) around the residence of the chief authority, which had in consequence a
most desolate appearance : he immediately formed a garden, and surrounded the Go-
vernment-house with plantations. As a proof of the luxuriance of vegetation in these
Islands, it may be stated, that during his absence of eleven montbs, the casuarina
trees had gi'own to the height of thirty and forty feet ; and he had the pleasiwe, on
his retm-n, to see the house encircled by a shrubbery of nutmeg, clove, coco, and
cassia trees, and of dri^ ing through an approach of alternate nutmeg and clove
trees ; the place seemed to have been converted almost by magic from a wilderness
into a garden. The nutmeg tree is exceedingly beautiful ; it bears in profusion,
spreads its branches in a wide circle, and the fruit is perhaps the most beautiful in the

ANXIETY TO IMPROVE THE MANNERS OF THE INHABITANTS.

405

world ; the outside covering, or shell, is of a rich cream colour, and resembles a
peach ; this bursts, and shows the dark nut, encircled and chequered with mace of
the brightest crimson ; and, when contrasted with the deep emerald green leaf, is
dehghtfully grateful to the eye.

Sir Stamford wrote to Mr. Wilberforce at this time on various subjects con-
nected with his plans for the general improvement of the people around him.

To W, Wilberforce, Esq.

“ September, 1819.

My Dear Sir,

I have delayed wiiting to you thus long in the expectation of leisure,
which I have never found ; but I cannot longer dechne the duty of giving you some
information regarding the state of our population, and the means which are in pro-
gress for its amelioration and improvement. My pubhc duties have called me to dif-
ferent and distant countries, and a large portion of my time has necessarily been
devoted to political objects ; but in the course of these, neither the cause of the slave,
nor the improvement of those subjected to our influence, has been forgotten. In
Sumatra I had, in many respects, a new field to tread ; its population, for the most
part, is many centm'ies behind that of Java ; and before any rational plan for general
improvement could be adopted, it was necessary not only that much detailed informa-
tion should be collected, but that the principles and extent of our political authority
and influence should be clearly understood and established.

" I shall not attempt to sketch even the outhne of the picture which presented
itself at Bencoolen, a settlement which has been in our possession upwards of a cen-
tury ; but in which, I am sorry to say, I found as many vices and defects, pohtical as
well as moral, as were usually exhibited in the worst of the Dutch settlements. To
attempt any improvement in the existing order of things, without changing the prin-
ciple, appeared to me more Hkely to increase the evil than remove it, and a thorough
and entire reform became indispensable. This I found it necessary to introduce, and
to effect on my personal responsibility ; but I have since had the satisfaction to receive
the approval of the higher authorities, who have admitted that these changes appear
to have been ‘ founded on sound principles of economy, expediency, and hmnanity.’
Thus encom'aged, I have not hesitated to prosecute my plans with ardour and deci-
sion, and the results, as far as they have yet been seen, have fully answered my expec-
tations. As much has been done as the time and the peculiar circumstances of the
coimtry and people have admitted, and the foundation has at least been laid on which
a better state of society may be estabhshed.

“ Among the more striking irregularities which I found to prevail, was the
encouragement and countenance given to slavery, by the entertainment on the part of
Government of a gang of negroes, in number between two and three hundred. This

406

ESTABLISHES NATIONAL SCHOOLS AT BENCOOLEN.

appeared to me so opposite to the Company’s general practice and principles in India,
and so prejudicial to their character, that I did not hesitate to take upon myself the
measure of emanci})ating the whole, and by this my first act to give an earnest of the
principles on which my future Government would be conducted. A pro^^sion was
continued for the old and infirm, as well as the children ; and as the latter were nu-
merous, no time was lost in affording them the means of obtaining such an education
as might fit them for the new state and condition to which they had been raised. An
institution for the education of the Caffre children was accordingly established, and
placed under the immediate superintendence of our chaplain ; and from this small
beginning, originating in the abolition of slaveiy, may be traced the progress we are
now making on a more extensive and enlarged scale throughout the Archipelago, and
to which I am now to draw your attention.

“ The success of this little institution was soon manifest — an aptness and capa-
city in the children to receive instruction, and the unexpected talent displayed by
some of them, excited general interest ; in the mean time our information and ex-
perience of the native character became more extensive, and it was found that no
serious obstacle stood in the way of generally educating the whole of the rising
generation subjected to our influence. In my visit to Bengal I had obtained the aid
of the Baptist missionaries, and one of these young men, well acquainted with the
principles and practice of our national schools, accompanied me on my return,
bringing with him a small fount of types in the Roman and native character. With
this experience and aid I lost no time in giving effect to a plan I had long contem-
plated, and the unprovement which had already taken place in the tone and taste of
our small European society, seemed to second my efforts. In our chaplain, the
Rev. Charles Winter, I found every disposition to extend the sphere of his useful-
ness, and by associating him in a committee of gentlemen w'ho had formerly been in
my family in Java, and on wdiose principles, zeal, and devotion I could rely, I readily
found the means of effective superintendance. The enclosed printed copy of the
proceedings of this committee will place you in full possession of the principles on
which WT have proceeded, and of the particulars of what has been done tow^ards the
establishment of schools at Bencoolen. In the last report of the committee with
wdiich this paper concludes, you will perceive some interesting observ'ations on the
condition of society, the character and usages of the people, and the facihties wJiich
are afforded for more generally extending the plan of educating the wdiole of the
native population. On this report I shall only observe, that in estimating the cha-
racter of the people, the committee have rather taken a general opinion for granted,
than gone themselves into the investigation of that character, or the causes which
may have tended to deteriorate it. On this subject they are professedly superficial :
in other respects you will find much to interest you, and I am confident they will
have your full support and approbation in the general conclusions and anticipations

APPOINTS COMMITTEES TO ENQUIRE INTO THE STATE OF SOCIETY. 407

which they form. Among the older inlmbitants I found an inveterate prejudice
against the natives, although by their intimacy with them I might have expected a
different opinion. Much of this, however, is already wearing off, and I have at least
introduced into this superintending committee enough of the new leaven of charity
and benevolence to prevent the institution from running aground on the rocks of
illiberality and prejudice.

“ While this committee have confined themselves to things as they are, and to
objects of immediate and practical usefulness, another committee have directed their
undi\dded and particular attention to the causes which may have produced the pre-
sent state of society — to the origin and root of the evil, and the means which in a
more extensive and enlarged view it may be proper to contemplate for its counter-
action. I had myself paid much attention to this subject, and in my different ex-
cursions into the interior of the Island had collected abundant information. The
various reforms and alterations which I have introduced had been adopted on a
thorough knowledge of the state of the country and people ; but as yet I stood
alone. It was on my undivided conviction, and on my personal representations
alone, that the necessity and propriety of these , amendments were upheld ; and as
the interests of some were affected, and the doubts and malignity of others might be
injurious, I thought it advisable that such a body of information should be collected
by an independent committee, as would give weight and security to my own measures,
and at the same time enable a distant authority to form a correct judgment of the
real state of the case. The condition of society at Bencoolen is so peculiar, and it
has been influenced by so many extraordinary and unaccountable circumstances,
that it is difficult to convey any adequate or just idea of it in a few words. The
first report of this committee is therefore of high interest, and I am confident it will
be perused by you with attention. You will find depicted in it a state of society
very different from what is usually met with, but you will observe with pleasure that,
in the character of the people, we still find the rudiments and basis of a better order
of things.

“ It is at present exclusively an official paper, and you must consider its com-
munication as expressly private. Some severe strictures are necessarily passed in it
on the general system of European administration, which it might not be pleasant to
lay before so severe a tribunal as the public, although I am myself of opinion that it
is far better openly to acknowledge our errors, where we know we have done wrong,
and thus to bind ourselves to a different course for the future.

“ I am in a particular manner indebted to a member of my family, Mr. Jack, for
the zeal, ardour, and ability which he has infused into the researches and proceed-
ings of this committee ; and, I think, you will find more information in a small com-
pass, on the subject on which it treats, than is elsewhere to be met with. The
labours of the committee are by no means closed ; they will prosecute their inquiries

408

PROPOSES A COLLEGE FOR THE NATIVES.

into the inmost recesses of Sumatra, and endeavom' to exhibit, in a clear and com-
prehensive \iew, the real resources of the country, and the true character, feelings,
and capacity of its population. Of this large Island, the districts immediately de-
pendent on Bencoolen are, perhaps, the least important ; but, as the seat of oiu*
authority, they have necessarily attracted our first attention. We have opened our
ports to a free and imrestricted commerce, and have foregone all prospect of revenue
from the country, at least in its present impoverished state ; and it is to the improve-
ment of the people in their minds and their morals, that we now alone look for our
pubhc prosperity.

“ I must now carry you to a more extensive field, and endeavour to obtain aU
the aid of your powerful patronage and support for an institution, which is to operate
on a more enlarged and still more important scale, and which is intended to com-
plete the design I had in view : it is the key-stone to the arch, and when once this
is constructed and well cemented, holier and better men may raise upon it such a
superstructure as their duty to God may require. All that I attempt is to pave the
way for better things ; and, although I am far from lukewarm towards higher ends,
I am content to confine all my views to the enlargement of the hmnan mind, and
the general spread of moral principles. In the present state of these coimtries, these
are the first to be attended to — to prepare the mind for rehgious truth and Christian
chscipline. It is true the people of these Islands are distinguished by the absence of
that spirit of intolerance and bigotry, which prevails on the continent of India, and
that they place the fullest confidence in the benevolence and liberality of our govern-
ment and institutions ; but we as yet only see them as the sea in a calm. I write
these remarks to you, my dear Sir, without reserve, knowing that in your kindness
and liberality they will meet udth every indulgence. I am far from opposing mis-
sionaries, and the more that come out the better ; but let them be enhghtened men,
and placed in connection with the schools, and under due control.

“ I must, however, return to my institution, w^hich is intended to be a native
college, for the education of the higher orders of the natives, and to afford the
means of instruction to ourselves in the native languages, and of prosecuting our
researches into the history, literature, and resources of the further East. AVhen I
tell you that the effect of this institution is intended to be felt among a population
of not less than thirty millions, and that its influence may eventually, and perhaps
at no very distant date, extend over ten times that number, it is not necessary to
say more on the extent and importance of the field ; of its natm’e and interest, I
need only refer you to the map of the w^orld, and request you to consider all those
countries lying to the east and south of the Ganges, as included within our range.
It is from the banks of the Ganges to the utmost limits of China and Japan, and to
New Holland, that the influence of our proposed institution is calculated to extend ;
and of these extensive countries, no portion lias a higher and more pecuhar interest

ANXIETY FOR MR. WILBERFORCE’S ASSISTANCE.

409

than the Eastern Islands. I dare not, however, trust myself to descant upon them,
or to enter upon so extensive and important a field at the close of a private letter,
which has already exceeded its proper limits ; but I regret this the less, as I am
enabled to forward to you, in a more connected form, a copy of the leading argu-
ments and reasoning which have weighed with me on the occasion.

“ This paper has been drawn up to be submitted to the Marquis of Hastings,
in the hope of obtaining his Lordship’s powerful support ; but if it can be rendered
in any way useful in your hands in aid of the objects contemplated, or in furtherance
of the enlightened views which are always present to your philanthropic mind, you
are at liberty to circulate it as you may think proper. We shall require all the aid
of powerful support at home ; and as you were kind enough to take so warm an in-
terest in the fate of our Java Benevolent Society, I am inclined to hope that the views
and principles of the African Institution will not be considered to have been less
attended to in our present proceedings, which promise to have a far more immediate
and extensive operation.

“ I am particularly anxious that the lamp we have lighted should not be
allowed to shine with a dim or imperfect lustre ; the spark has been struck with
enthusiasm, and while I remain in this countiy, the flame shall be fanned with
ardour and perseverance ; but we must look to a higher Power for the oil which is
to feed and support it, and, above all, to the protecting and encouraging influence
of tme principles and British philanthropy, to shield it, not only against the blasts
of adversity, but the no less destructive vapours of indifference and neglect.

“ However anxious I may feel to devote the best portion of my life, and how-
ever much my fortune might justify a longer residence in this country, I have reason
to feel that my health is not likely to carry me through more than five or six years’
continuance in these Islands : and it is, therefore, necessary that I should look for-
ward to a period when the influence of my personal presence and exertions will be
withdrawn. I am now endeavouring to lay the foundation as broad as possible, and
have already selected fit instruments for the furtherance of my plans in several of
the most important stations ; but that I may raise more labourers for the field, it is
of importance that they should have a high and steady superintending and encou-
raging authority to look to ; such an authority and support at home as the labourers
in the African cause at aU times found. Can you not take us under your parental
wings, or coidd you not make the Eastern Islands a branch of the African Institution
under some other designation ? If our objects and our principles are the same, and
the field for improvement is at least as wide and important, why should this fair and
interesting portion of the globe, superior by far in the extent of its population, and
equal in its resom'ces, and so pecuhar in its character, be left to slumber in igno-
rance, while the wilder shores of Africa, and the more distant isles of the South Sea
alone invite the attention of the philanthropist? Hitherto it has been left at the

3 G

ilO

ANXIETY FOR MR. WILBERFORCE’S ASSISTANCE.

mercy of the jVIoor and the Dutchman, and it might be difficult to decide which has
been the most injurious ; for my own part, I am inchned to prefer the fonner, but
perhaps my prejudices against the Dutch may caiTy me too far. Be this as it may,
we are now independent of both ; the station which has been estabhshed at Singa-
pore, at the southern extremity of the ISlalayan Peninsula, has given us the com-
mand of the Archipelago as well in peace as in war : our commerce will extend to
every part, and British principles will be knomi and felt throughout.

“ I ought to apologize for the length of this letter, knowing how much your
time is occupied, and how httle of it can possibly be devoted to an object which
appears to me so important as the present. I w ill not say I en\7' the mifortunate
Afilcan because he enjoys so much larger a portion of your thoughts and attention,
but I cannot help adding that I wish they were, even for a short time, directed to the
Malay, the Javan, the Sumatran, the Bornean, the Avanese, the Siamese, the
Chinese, the Japanese, and the miUions of others with whom I am in daily commu-
nication, and to w'hom the name of William Wilberforce, if not entirely unknowm, is
only coupled with that of Afilca. I know, my dear Sir, that the boundless goodness
of your heart, and the noble stretch of your mind embraces at once the good of all
mankind; but perhaps from an impression that individual exertions are best
directed to one particular focus or object, or more probably from the absence of
correct information of the importance and necessity of your influence in these seas,
the subject may not have sufficiently attracted your attention.

“ I have observed it noticed in a late pubhcation, ^ that it is upon Asiatic soil
only that the advocates of the slave abolition are to gain their final victory — that
upon the British Asiatic pohcy in the development of the mibomided resources of
Asia depends the ascendancy of the British character.’ The wilter most probably
drew his conclusions from very different premises, and they are so strikingly illus-
trative of what I would impress upon you, that I could not omit noticing them.
You must remember also that we have many of the woolly-headed race scattered
over these Islands from the Andamans to New Guinea, and that there have not
been wanting persons who consider them as the aborigines of the country — that the
Malay language extends w^estward as far as Madagascar, and that, however remote
these Islands may be from Africa geographically, and distinct from it politically in
the present condition of the world, there are traces of a more intimate connection
in former times. I mention this to shew that we have even claims upon you as
the friend of Africa — for I am far from concuning in the opinion regarding the
aborigines of these Islands, and rather consider the Caffres w^e now find in them to
have been brought by traders in remote periods as slaves — as such they are generally
considered and treated w^henever entrapped.

“ The same political objection which might be started to the interference of your
Society in Bengal, and where we have an extensive dominion, and an efficient Govern-

BIBLE SOCIETY.

411

ment to pro\dde for all its wants, does not apply to the countries beyond the Ganges.
With these our intercourse is entirely commercial, and our object is to raise the na-
tive Governments into consideration and importance ; the stronger and more enlight-
ened these are, the safer our communication, the more extensive our commerce, and
the more important the connexion. There is hardly one of these states whose his-
tory, resources, and population, is knoAvn to the European world. A part of my plan
is to encourage the collection of all interesting details on these subjects, and I could
wish that the persons who devote their time to these objects should possess the means
of communicating the information to the pubhc. An annual report to the African
Institution, or to you individually, with such occasional tracts as may be interesting,
might be forwarded. But I leave to you to point out what had best be done. You
wiU perceive that we are not idle, and that the spirit which has gone forth only requires
to be properly directed and supported to lead to results of the most promising
nature.

I must now conclude with my kindest regards to Mrs. Wilberforce, in which
Lady Raffles unites most cordially, as well as in every assurance of respect, esteem,
and veneration, with which I am, very obediently,

T. S. R.

I should mention that I caused your present of a seal to be duly dehvered to
the Penambahan of Samunap *, and that I have in return received his acknowledg-
ments through the Governor General of Bata\ia, together with a handsome crees,
which I am requested to forward to you as a mark of respect and attention on the
part of that Chief.”

Extract from a Letter to Sir R. H. Inglis, Bart.

“ Bencoolen, October 5, 1819.

* iif ^

“ I have much to communicate to you on the subject of our Bible Society
and Schools, of the latter particularly ; but as our proceedings will probably be

* A native Chief, who had inherited in his family domestic slaves. When it was proposed that all the
slaves on the Island should be registered, he proudly said, “ I will not register my slaves ; they shall be
free : hitherto they have been kept such, because it was the custom, and the Dutch liked to be attended by
slaves when they visited the palace ; but as that is not the case with the British, they shall cease to be
slaves ; for long have I felt shame, and my blood has run cold, when I have reflected on what I once saw
at Batavia and Samarang, where human beings were ex])osed for public sale, placed on a table, and exa-
mined like sheep and oxen !” The slaves in Java were the property of the Europeans and Chinese alone :
the native Chiefs never required the services of slaves, nor engaged in the traffic of slavery. Whilst in
England Sir Stamford had a seal made, and Mr. Wilberforce’s name engraved on it, which he took out,
and sent to this Chief as a token of acknowledgment for this liberal act.

3 G 2

412

DEATH OF COLONEL BANNERMAN.

printed, a communication of them in that form will perhaps be sufficient until I can
write you more at length. My attention during the last two months has been very
closely directed to the moral conchtion of our population. Schools on the Lancas-
trian plan have been adopted with success, and I am now proposing the establish-
ment of a native college at Singapore. I mean to submit my plans, in the first
instance, to the Government of Bengal, and, if possible, to carry Lord Hastings with
me. Some aid from the Company is indispensable, and his Lordship has e\inced a
general desire to support similar institutions.

I can assure you w'e are not idle, and if w^e do not make more noise about what
we are doing, it is because we are more intent on the real object, than the acquisition
of credit for what w^e do ; it is for the pleasure and satisfaction w'hich the labour itself
affords, and the gi-atification a favourable result may ensure, that we w'ork, and not
for the uncertain praise and applause of the day. I enclose the first Report of our
Bible Society ; it says little, but to the purpose, and it may be interesting as the first
production of a small press, which I have established at Bencoolen.

“ Lady Raffles unites with me in kindest respects.

“ I remain,

“ T. S. Raffles.”

“ October 7, 1819.

“ Sophia enjoys the best health, and our two children are of course prodigies.
The boy even excels his sister in beauty and expression, and our only anxiety is to
take them to England before the climate makes an inroad on their constitution. Till
they ai’e six, seven, or eight years old, they may remain with safety ; but after that
period both mind and body will be injured by a longer residence within the tropics.

“ Such portion of my time as is not taken up in public business, is principally
devoted to natural history. We are making very extensive collections in all depart-
ments ; and as Sophia takes her full share in these pursuits, the children will, no
doubt, easily imbibe a taste for these amusing and interesting occupations. Char-
lotte has her lap full of shells, and the boy is usually denominated ‘ le jeune AristoteJ

“ T. S. R.”

Whilst happily employed in these more domestic but not less interesting occu-
pations, intelligence was brought of the death of Colonel Bannennan. This event,
melancholy in itself. Sir Stamford thought likely to afford an opportunity for urging
upon the consideration of the Supreme Government, his Hews for the general admi-
nistration of the Eastern Islands. He therefore resolved to proceed again to Calcutta.
The season was far advanced, the vessel w'hich brought the report was the only one
likely to touch at Bencoolen for many months; and he w'as obliged to separate

SIR STAMFORD’S COMMERCIAL VIEWS.

113

himself from his family on account of its total want of accommodation, as the
captain when offered any sum he would name to make room for the Editor, proposed
to aiTange a part of the hold of the vessel ; public duty seemed to require his pre-
sence in Calcutta, and therefore Sir Stamford determined to proceed there, and be
contented with part of the only cabin.

The following are extracts from the letters written during the voyage, or during
his residence in Calcutta.

To .

“ On hoard the brig Favourite, October 20, 1819.

“ I am once more at sea, on my way to Calcutta. On deliberate consideration
I resolved to proceed to Bengal for the advantage of personal communication, the
object at stake being important. The size of the vessel, and the season of the year,
about the change of the monsoon, have weighed with me in leaving Sophia at Ben-
coolen ; and distressing as the separation must be, I do not regret that I am alone,
for we have experienced very bad weather, and it is as much as I can do to stand
up against all the privations and annoyances of the vessel.

“ My views regarding the Eastern Islands are extensive, and, I think, important
to our commercial and political interests. The field is large, new, and interesting ; and,
in spite of all your advice. Self, I can assure you, is never viewed or reflected upon by
me with any other feelings than those of patriotism, benevolence, and duty. Hitherto
you have not had a word of my commercial plans ; these I have kept back, as they
did not require the immediate attention that those of a political nature did ; but they
are not less important, for they include the whole trade of the Archipelago. I will,
how^ever, give you some account of what we have been doing at Bencoolen. Here,
at any rate, my measures have met with general approbation. They are admitted
by the Supreme Government to be founded on sound principles of economy, good
government, and humanity.

“ My absence from the seat of government, with little or no communication
for upwards of eleven months, during which the charge of the place necessarily de-
volved on a person who did not comprehend the principles on which I acted, has
afforded the means of proving that there was nothing in the nature of those prin-
ciples calculated to create commotion, or to occasion dangerous consequences ; that,
in fact, such an apprehension was a mere bugbear, created in the confused noddles
of those who w^ere ignorant or afraid of their advantage, and supported by those
who knew no better ; that innovation and reform are attended with difficulties and
dangers, no one will deny, but it is for him who carries them into effect to be pre-
pared to meet and subdue them as they arise. I wish, however, those who were so
ready to declare the impossibility of the change would now admit they were mis-
taken, and state the grounds of their misconception. They could not resist giving

414

MEASURES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF NATIVES.

me at least, credit for overcoming what they conceived impossible. I would then
simply ask their opinion on the contrast betw'een what is, and what was?

“ You will recollect a conversation we had previous to my embarkation, on
a very serious subject. To prove to you that I am not inattentive to those im-
portant interests on the hrgest scale, I refer you to what we have done towards the
amehoration, ci^'ilization, and improvement of our popidation, the only rational steps
which can be taken for eventually spreading advantages of a higher nature, which we
derive from the comforts of revelation and rehgion.

* « * » *

“ Of the more immediate and practicable measures, however, I must refer you
to the recent estabhshment of schools on the Lancastrian principle. A parent school
has been established at Bencoolen, w'hence I hope to supply each \'illage with a
tutor, and gradually extend the spread of knowledge throughout the whole Island.
The march wdU be slow but sure, and while we are doing all we can to amend the
present race, w*e are preparing to supply their place, in the rising generation, by a

people in whom improvement and civilization may be more readily extended.

But still a more important and interesting report deseiv'es your attention, as
containing a true pictme of the present state of society at Bencoolen, on the subject
of the recent changes which have been effected. It has occured to me that this
mode of exhibiting our real condition was adrisable. My indiridual opinion might
be doubted, or supposed to be interested or biassed ; I have, therefore, availed myself
of the support of others, and by placmg our clergyman at the head of the committee,
given a degree of weight which could not attach to the same arguments used by me
alone. As I have no council at Bencoolen, I make committees supply their place.
Reflect that Bencoolen is the oldest estabhshment we have in India. It is folly to say
I am doing the Company an injmy in exposing the rices of the system : they must
be exposed in order to produce a thorough repentance, without wMch we cannot
amend our w^ays ; or to use a more appropriate phrase, turn over a new leaf. No
man, and no body of men, were ever condemned for acknowledging their errors,
prorided they were resolved to depart from them ; it is by a perseverance in w'hat is
bad, by an endeavour to conceal from ourselves and the w’orld, that things are as bad

as they really are, that we do mischief.

* » » » *

“ I feel so satisfied that all I have done, and am doing at Bencoolen, is right,
that I am only apprehensive on one point, and that is, the authorities in Europe
crying out prematurely. The obstacles in my way, in the point of economy, are
great ; while there is so large an estabhshment of ci\ilians for whom there is no em-
plojTnent, and so many dependants on the Company’s bounty, what can be done ?
Remove the former, and let the latter die off, and we shall get on.

FINANCIAL REFORMS.

415

My health and constitution will not admit of my remaining many years in India,
and I must endeavour, by an increased acti\ity, to make up for want of time. When
do you think I shall get home ? Will seven years’ banishment be enough for all my
sins ? or must I linger till I can sin no more ?

“ You will be happy to hear that I have the advantage of a highly scientific friend
in Dr. Jack, who supphes poor Arnold’s place. I have also two Frenchmen employed,
and my collections are very considerable ; and both Sophia and myself pass many

happy hours among the flowers, the birds, and the beasts, &c.

* » « *

“ I have revised the custom-house and port regulations, which was absolutely
necessary, and declared the port free of all duties.”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ At sea, in the Bay of Bengal, Nov. 9, 1820.

“ Behold me again at sea in my passage to Bengal. I had hardly arrived at
Bencoolen, when events occurred which rendered this voyage indispensable ; but I
have undertaken it alone, the smallness of the vessel and the adverse season of the
year inducing me to insist on Lady Raffles remaining quietly at home. An opening
seems now to be afforded for extending my views and plans to the Eastward, and this
shall be the last effbrt I will make. If I succeed I shall have enough to occupy my
attention while I remain in the East ; and if I do not, I can only retm’n to Ben-
coolen, and enjoy domestic retirement in the bosom of my family.

“ In this country, you will be happy to hear that we have completely turned the
tables on the Dutch. The occupation of Singapore has been the death-blow to all
their plans ; and I trust that our political and commercial interests will be adequately
secured, notwithstanding the unhandsome and ungenerous manner in which ministers
have treated me individually, or the indifference they have shewn to the subject. I
was perfectly aware that they would not hke the agitation of the question ; but they
ought to have been aware that it could not be avoided, and that however easy it may
be in the Cabinet to sacrifice the best interests of the nation, there are spirits and
voices engendered by the principles of our constitution that will not remain quiet
under it. * * * * ^

‘‘ But a truce to politics ; a few words on our domestic arrangements and plans
wiU, I doubt not, be far more interesting than all my public speculations. You are
already informed that Lady Raffles presented me with a son and heir while at Penang ;
he is now a fine stout boy, and as bold as a lion ; the reverse of your god-daughter
in almost every thing. She is the most gentle timid being in existence. It is now
above a month since I left them, and two more will elapse before I see them again.

416

BIBLE SOCIETY.

“ I have endeavoured to supply the place of Dr. Arnold by another botanical
friend, and when other objects do not distract us, we always find abundant employ-
ment among our plants and animals. The two French naturalists are indefatigable,
and their collection is already very extensive. I am now preparing for transmission
to Sir Joseph a full description of the Duyong, or mermaid of these seas. I am afi*aid,
however, that the particulars will but ill accord with the accounts of fonner travellers,
and that in this, as in many other cases, when we descend from imagination to simple
facts, there ^nll be a wonderful falling off; were it not so in the present instance, I
don’t know how I could detail to you the relish wth which I dined off the fiesh of
one of these seducing animals.

“ I intended to have sent your Grace a detailed account of my mission to
Acheen, where I had to put the croum on the proper head ; but the subject is so
mixed uith pohtical matter, that I fear it would have but httle interest ; for what can
you care about a kingdom at the other end of the world, and where the people have
no peculiar virtues to recommend them ? I was detained in the country for nearly
two months, and to give you an idea of my employment, it may be sufficient to state,
that our proceedings filled upwards of a thousand pages of the Company’s largest
sized paper. This is the laborious way in which we are sometimes obliged to do busi-
ness in India, and will perhaps account for my unwillingness to enlarge farther on a
subject of which I must be pretty well tired.

^ ^ ^ ^ ^

To the Rev. Dr. Raffles.

At sea, November 9, 1819, within three days sail of Calcutta,

“ My Dear Cousin,

“ As I know the w'arm interest you feel in our plans of improvement, I
lose no time in enclosing, under a separate cover, a copy of the first proceedings
which have been printed of our Bible Society, and a still more interesting account
of our schools : the latter fonns but a part of a more general and extensive plan that I
have set on foot for the spread of knowiedge, and the gi'owth of moral principles
throughout the Archipelago. Much of my time has lately been devoted to these
objects, and if I am able to cany my plan for the estabhshment of a native college
at Singapore, the system will be complete. If you refer to the map, and observe
the commanding position of Singapore, situated at the extremity of the Malay
Peninsula, you will at once see what a field is opened for our operations. It is very
probable that I shall print a few copies of a paper which I have di'awn up on this
subject, in which case I shall not fail to send you a copy.

“ The Baptist Missionary' Establishment have lately written to me on the sub-
ject of sending out missionaries. My answ'er is encom*aging, and I have accom-

NATIVE COLLEGE.

417

panied it by some general observations on the plan of conversion. We have already
one young man, and a small printing press ; but we require active zeal, and I shall
find enough to do for all you can send out ; but let them make haste — years roll on
very fast. Two years have now elapsed since I left England, and in five or six more
I hope to be thinking of returning. There is no political objection whatever to
missionaries in this part of the East, and so far from obstructing, they may be ex-
pected to hasten and assist, the plans which are already in operation.”

To the same.

“ Off the Sand Heads, Bengal, November 10, 1819.

“ My Dear Cousin,

* *

“ I wish to bespeak your good offices, and the exertion of all your energies,
in support of an institution I am about to form for generally educating the higher
class of natives. The enclosed paper will place you in full possession of my views,
plans, and anticipations in this respect, and I shall not detain you here by a repeti-
tion of them.

“ I have written to Mr. Wilberforce on the subject, and am anxious that he
should take us under the parental wing of the African Institution. I promise glo-
rious results, and all I ask is support and encouragement, not so much for myself,
but to aid and foster a proper spirit in those who must practically assist, and on
whom the immediate superintendance and labour must fall, when I am over the
seas, and far away. All improvements of this nature must be slow and gradual, and
we should look a good way forward. The short time that I may remain in India
will only serve to set the machine in motion — and how uncertain after all is life !
Unless some permanent support is found in England, an accident to me might de-
stroy aU my highest anticipations.

“ I am now on my way to Calcutta, in the hope of forwarding all my plans —
and if I am successful, you shall soon hear further from me. In the mean time,
and always, beheve me, most affectionately,

“ T. S. Raffles.”

Referring to this subject in a letter to another friend, of the same date, he says,
“ The field is certainly extensive and interesting, and among so many good men at
home, it is hard if we cannot find some friends to the Eastern Isles. If Mr. Wilber-
force vnW take them up all will go right.”

To the same friend he wrote again in the same month another letter, from
which the following is an extract.

3 H

418

ISLAND OF BILLITON.

* * * ife *

“ I wish to di’aw your attention to an Island which has not hitherto attracted

much notice.

The Island of Billiton holds a remarkably commanding position between the
China and Java Seas : it is situated nearly mid- way from the Malay Peninsula to
the Island of Java, and is equi-distant from Sumatra and Borneo. It forms with
Banca, and the numerous small Islands lying between, that passage into the China
Seas known by the name of the Straits of Caspar, and has the Caramata passage on
the east.

“ Billiton contains an area of not less than four or five hundi’ed square miles ;
it is for the most part mountainous and covered with forests ; and the native settle-
ments which have been formed are mostly situated on the coast, and near the prin-
cipal rivers. Its most valuable export is a particular kind of iron, in great request
among the Malay countries ; but it furnishes tin, and most of the other raw products
which are peculiar to these Islands. Cultivation does not appear to have been car-
ried to any considerable extent ; but the soil is understood to be fertile, and the
country throughout abmidantly watered. From the geological specimens which
have been obtained, and the consideration of its position between Banca and Borneo,
with both of which it is connected by chains of smaller Islands, it may be inferred to
be of similar constitution, and when fidly examined, will probably be found equally
rich in mineral productions. The pro\dnces of Borneo, to the southward of Succa-
dana, and immediately opposite to Billiton, form part of the ancient kingdom of
Mattan, still independent of Dutch authority or claims, and are considered particu-
larly valuable, on account of the abundant produce of gold and diamonds, and the
extent of native agricultural population in the interior. The restrictive policy of the
Dutch has induced the Chiefs to close their ports, in a great measure, against general
intercourse and trade ; but the mission lately sent to Singapore fi*om these states,
sufficiently shews the desire of the Chiefs to re-open them, if assured of our affiance
and the non-interference of the Dutch.

Of the population of Billiton it is not easy, in the present state of our informa-
tion, to form an estimate. It is composed of several small and independent esta-
blishments, which have latterly considerably increased, particularly since the transfer
of Java. It has been considered a place of refuge for those who were unwilling to
submit to the severity of the Dutch restrictions, and has naturally become the resort
of pirates and smugglers. The opinion generally entertained by the natives, that
this is a British Island, and that they cannot be interfered with by the Dutch, has
tended to increase the resort, particidarly of the smugglers.

The opinion of the authorities in Europe is decisive in favour of our sove-
reign right to this Island not having been affected by the convention with the
Netherlands.

ISLAND OF BILLITON.

419

“ Billiton lies in the direct track of the trade between Europe and China, pass-
ing through the Straits of Sunda, and would afford a convenient port of refreshment
for our China ships, and might be expected to become a most extensive entrepot
between Europe and China.

“ When the Islands of Banca and Billiton were obtained in cession to the East
India Company, it was considered that a line drawn between Sumatra and Borneo,
in the latitude of Billiton, woidd form a most advantageous boundary between the
French and English authorities, in the possible event of the restoration of Java.
This arrangement woidd still have left to the power in possession of Java, the
unbroken and uninterrupted empire of that and the more eastern Islands.

‘‘ An establishment of the same nature as that at Singapore, would be sufficient
for every immediate pm-pose. In connection ivith that settlement, it would form a
most valuable and important link in our series of stations, and would always ensure
to us every fair advantage in the trade of the Archipelago.

“ Of the comparative view of Billiton and Singapore it may be observed, that
the latter settlement was made solely with a riew to command the Straits of Malacca,
and the protection of our trade passing to and from China in that direction. It has
no influence or command whatever over the Straits of Sunda, an advantage which is
possessed by Billiton.

“ The two stations would mutually assist each other, and answer almost every
object we have in riew, and the loss of either would not be easily supplied.

“ The above observations are necessarily general, and it is much to be wished
that more information should be obtained as to its harbours, population, &c., and
what changes have taken place since it was considered to have fallen under the
British rule, — what port offers the greatest advantages for a station, and what the
immediate local facilities or difficulties of estabhshing the same.

“ I send you a copy of Lord Hastings’ reply to a letter from me on the subject
of our eastern arrangements. His Lordship is ready enough to act as soon as he
possesses authority, and I know that the other members of Council concur in and
approve of the plan I have proposed. His Lordship would perhaps incline more to
the acquisition of territory, and a disposition towards Ava and Acheen is discernible ;
but in this, I presume, he wiU be checked from home. Mihtary men and Bengal
civilians are more favom-able to temtorial extension than the Court of Directors are
likely to be, and, therefore, I calculate that some plan on the principle of that I have
suggested, will be adopted.

“ I hope the authorities at home will not be induced to give up Billiton, under
an idea that it is of no value to us. If my proceedings have only saved this one
spot from the \iTeck, I shall have done some good. I am just drawing up a memo-
randum on the subject for this government, and will send you a copy of it.

“ This appears to be the moment for a grand push. You may, in good con-

3 H 2

420

LETTER FROM LORD HASTINGS.

science, put my personal interest out of the question, and believe that I am solely
actuated by public ambition, to place our Eastern possessions on a respectable and
permanent footing.”

Letter from Lord Hastings.

“ Calcutta, November 27th, 1819.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ The consolidation of our Eastern possessions into one government, subor-
dinate to the supreme authority, would unquestionably be a desirable arrangement.
I think it likely to strike the Court of Directors, in consequence of the various do-
cuments which have within the last two years been transmitted to them. Their
judgment possibly may not determine the point, for the consideration of the subject
will be complicated with the result of discussions between the Com’ts of London and
Brussels. I fear we shall have but a patched determination. Till a decision shall be
signified to us, it would be premature to fashion, even pro\fisionally, any plan ; but it
is always expedient to scrutinize, in the interval, all particulars, so as to be prepared
to act upon the principle which may be dictated to us.

“ I am, &c.”

The state of Sir Stamford’s mind, in private as well as in pubhc, may be collected
from the following letters written about this time.

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Caleutta, December \7th, 1819.

^ ^ ^ ^

“ I do all I can to raise myself above these feelings, in the hope that there is,
even in this world, more happiness than we weak mortals can comprehend. I have
had enough of sorrow in my short career ; and it still comes too ready a guest without
my bidding ; but I drive it from my door, and do my best to preserve my health and
spirits, that I may last out a few years longer, and contribute, as far as I can, to the
happiness of others.

“ But away with this melancholy strain. I fear I am getting almost as bad as
those to whom I would preach, and in truth, I am at this moment heavy and sick at
heart. I could lay me down and cry, and weep for hours together, and yet I know
not why, except that I am unhappy. But for my dear sister’s arrival, I should still
have been a solitary wretch in this busy capital. I left Lady Raffles and my dear
children at Bencoolen three months ago ; and I have no one here of congenial feelings
with whom I can communicate.

DIPLOMATIC AGENT AT BATAVIA.

421

Of my public views and plans I have not much to say ; we remain quite neutral
pending the reference to Europe.

^ vpT t|c

“ It is said that Captain Canning will be appointed to reside in some diplomatic
capacity at Batavia ; an accredited agent with the Batavian Government will be the
surest means of preventing serious disputes.

^& * * * * *

“ If there is time, I will endeavour to send your Grace a paper, which will
explain to you more fully what my present views and wishes are. I do not, however,
set my heart on them, or, indeed, on any thing else, except returning to England
as soon as possible. I am almost tempted to say that this is becoming every day
more and more the sole object of my desires, and I do yet hope that ere the fifth
repetition of Christmas, we may be within reach of one of the Duke’s parks. On
my return to Bencoolen, I shall probably be able to speak more decidedly on this
point, and in the mean time, what I have now said will, I hope, convince you that I
am beginning to turn my thoughts homewards. I must look out for some cottage
or farm, and profiting by the distresses of the great landholders, endeavour to sell
butter and cheese to advantage — do you think this would do ?”

*****

To W. Marsden, Esq.

'^Calcutta, December 28, 1819.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ I have the pleasure to forward to iyou, under separate covers, two or
three papers connected with my views and plans to the eastward, which may, per-
haps, be interesting to you. One of these is a paper suggesting the advantage of
consolidating our eastern establishments under one government ; another, which is
printed, suggests the advantage of affording the means of education to the native
Chiefs of the Archipelago ; and a third is the copy of a report of a committee
appointed to inquire into the state of society at Bencoolen, &c. I should he happy
to receive your opinion, generally, on the arrangements proposed.

“ The paper on the policy of uniting our establishments to the eastward, was
of course drawn up for the meridian of Calcutta, where I have reason to believe the
principles are most fully concurred in. In a more lengthened official report on
the commercial resources of the Archipelago, which goes home in the present
packet, I have of course not alluded to the abohtion of the present form of govern-
ment at Penang. I believe it is the wash of Lord Hastings to establish Captain
Canning as a resident Agent at Batavia, and that this forms part of the plan sug-
gested for the consideration of the authorities in Europe. The idea is, I think.

422

APPROVAL OF SIR STAMFORD’S PLANS.

good ; but I hope the duties of this Agent uill be strictly confined to communications
with the Dutch, and that this appointment is not in any way intended to interfere
with the government of the British settlements, in their connection and intercourse
with the native states.”

“ Diamond Harbour, January, 1820.

“ I have been delayed in Calcutta for a month longer than I expected, on
account of a severe and trying illness, which has long confined me to my bed and room.
I am happy, however, to say, that I am again convalescent, and in a fair way of
recovery. I embarked yesterday. Sophia and the childi'en were well the beginning
of December, but I have not heard from them since I sailed.

“ Singapore, I am happy to say, continues to rise most rapidly in importance
and resources. It is already one of the first ports in the East, and I doubt not you
will receive very favom'able reports by every homeward-bound ship. I could write
volumes in its favom*, but it may suffice to say, that it has in every respect answered
beyond my most sanguine expectations.

“ On leartng Calcutta, you will expect some opinion from me on the state of
my interests, and generally of the opinions entertained respecting my views and
plans to the eastward. Here, as in England, I find that my presence has served to
dissipate many a cloud, and that opposition has receded as I approached. There is a
very favourable disposition to me personally, but, I believe, still more so to my plans,
which are now approved of, and upheld by all descriptions of persons, high and low.
The followng extract from a note I have received from a very high and influencing
authority, will speak for itself : — ' Your very interesting report, regarding the com-
mercial relations of the Eastern Islands, is still in circulation with the members of
government. It ^rtll not, probably, lead to any practical result in this country, but
will, of course, be brought to the notice of the authorities at home. I should sin-
cerely rejoice to see adopted the admirable scheme which you have sketched for the
organization and management of our eastern possessions. I am surprised that the
commercial men of Calcutta have not more distinctly marked their sense of the
great advantages likely to accme to the commercial interests of India and England,
from the successful prosecution of your plan.’

“ With regard to the commercial men, nothing can exceed the attention I have
received fi*om them ; they gave me a public dinner, and made eveiy demonstration
to me personally during my stay in Calcutta ; but they wait till I have left it to send
in a \n-itten representation to Government, which, for many reasons, it is better
should be done during my absence.

“ I hope the Supreme Government will also forward, by the present ship, their

APPROVAL OF SIR STAMFORD’S PLANS.

423

sentiments upon my administration and proceedings at Bencoolen ; they fully approve
and applaud all I have done, and their communications to me on the subject are most
flattering.

" Report says, the Dutch have been driven out and massacred at Padang. No-
thing is more hkely, for their conduct was abominable. Oh that our politicians at
home would act with a little common sense and firmness ; it is folly for them to
procrastinate ; and unless they do what is just and fair, nature and circumstances
will involve them in the eventual necessity of a still more unpleasant interference
hereafter.

“ It is my intention to write a defence of my conduct against the charge of Lord
Bathurst, (of having exceeded my powers), and this will be forwarded through the
Supreme Government. The public authorities at home seem never to have adverted
to my being furnished with a commission as Lieutenant Governor ; and that it was
by virtue of this commission, that I protested against the Dutch, and not as a sepa-
rate or political agent. I maintain, and shall continue to maintain, that I was per-
fectly authorized to make that protest ; and consequently, that however it may be
condemned, it cannot be annulled. I had full right to make it, and my commission
is my warrant.”

CHAPTER XV.

Sir Stamford did not succeed in introducing a more economical and simple mode of government for the Eas-
tern Islands — Difficulties of altering established forms — Illness — Sight of Sumatra — Tappanooly —
Battas — Population — Language — Manners — Civilized cannibals— Eating their prisoners in mar, cri-
minals, and parents, alive — Description of eating a person as a punishment — Padries — Cholera Mor-
bus— Camphor tree — Laws of the Battas — Succession of nephews — Mr. Ward’s opinion.

Sir Stamford Raffles failed in his endeavour to prevail upon the Supreme Go-
vernment to introduce a more simple mode of management for the Eastern Islands.
It is, perhaps, not easy to break up large and old establishments, or to check the
progi'ess of patronage and power. The government of Penang was admitted to be
a cumbrous, useless machine ; for which no employment could be found. A Re-
sident with two or three assistants at each, were acknowledged to be sufficient for
all the duties at each of the three stations of Penang, Malacca, and Singapore, — the
latter was so fixed by Sir Stamford ; but when Bencoolen was given up to the
Dutch in 1824, the East India Company transferred all the civil servants from that
estabhshment to these places, in two of which there were already more than it was
possible to find employment for; and even since that event more young men have
been sent out to Penang ; under such arrangements it is impossible to keep down
expenditure ; and Singapore has in consequence gi'eatly increased in expense since
Sir Stamford relinquished his control over it.

In the month of February, 1820, Sir Stamford prepared to leave Calcutta and
return to Sumatra, uith the consciousness of having, to the utmost of his ability,
endeavoured to prevail upon those who had the power, to reform what was acknow-
ledged to require reformation, and to lessen expense, where it was confessed that
useless expenditure existed.

The nature of his feelings, and of his occupations on his return to the scene
of his public duties in Sumatra, is well described by himself in his letters to different
friends, from which the following are extracts. They contain a curious and almost
original account of some of the inhabitants of that great Island.

DESCRIPTION OF THE BATTAS.

425

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Off Smnatra, February 12, 1820.

“ You will, perhaps, have condemned me for so long a silence, yet when you
know the cause, I am satisfied you will cease to think unkindly.

I have been ill — very ill — so much so, that for the last month of my stay in
Calcutta, I was confined to my bed and forbidden to write or even to think. I was
removed from my room to the ship with veiy little strength, but I am happy to say,
that I am already nearly recovered ; the sight of Sumatra, and the health-inspiring
breezes of the Malayan Islands, have effected a wonderful change, and though I
still feel weak, and am as thin as a scare-crow, I may fairly say that I am in good
health and spirits.

“ I am beginning to turn my thoughts homew'ards, and shall very soon ask
your advice on a thousand pursuits. * ^ *

“ I have just left Tappanooly, situated in the very heart of the Batta country,
abounding in Camphor and Benjamin, and full of interest for the natmahst and
philosopher. If you have occasionally looked into Mr. Marsden’s History of
Sumatra, you wll recollect that the Battas are cannibals. Now do not be sur-
prised at what I shall tell you regarding them, for I tell the truth, and nothing
but the truth.

“ To prepare you a little, I must premise that the Battas are an extensive and
populous nation of Smnatra, occupying the whole of that part of the Island lying be-
tween Acheen and Menangkabu, reaching to both the shores. The coast is but thinly
inhabited, but in the interior the people are said to be ‘ as thick as the leaves of the
forest perhaps the whole nation may amount to between one or two milhons of souls.
They have a regular government, deliberative assemblies, and are great orators ;
nearly the whole of them write, and they possess a language and written character
pecidiar to themselves. In their language and terms, as well as in some of their laws
and usages, the influence of Hinduism may be traced, but they have also a religion
pecuhar to themselves ; they acknowdedge the one and only great God, under the title
Dihata Assl Assi, and they have a Trinity of great gods, supposed to have been created
by him. They are warlike, extremely fair and honourable in all their dealings, most
deliberate in all their proceedings ; their country is highly cultivated, and crimes
are few.

“ The evidence adduced by Mr. Marsden must have removed all doubt from
every unprejudiced mind, that, notwithstanding all this in their favour, the Battas are
strictly cannibals ; but he has not gone half far enough. He seems to consider that
it is only in cases of prisoners taken in war, or in extreme cases of adultery, that the

3 I

426

DESCRIPTION OF EATING A CRIMINAL.

practice of man-eating is resorted to, and then that it is only in a fit of revenge. He
tells us that, not satisfied with cutting off pieces and eating them raw, instances have
been known where some of the people present have run up to the \dctim, and actually
torn the flesh from the bones uith their teeth. He also tell us, that one of om' Resi-
dents found the remains of an English soldier, who had been only half eaten, and
afterwards' discovered his finger sticking on a fork, laid by, but first taken wann from
the fire : but I had rather refer your Grace to the book ; and if you have not got it,
pray send for it, and read all that is said about the Battas.

“ In a small pamphlet, lately addi'essed to the Court of Directors, respecting the
coast, an instance still more horrible than any thing related by Mr. Marsden is intro-
duced ; and as this pamphlet was written by a high authority, and the fact is not dis-
puted, there can be no question as to its coiTectness ; it is nearly as follows.

“ A few years ago, a man had been found guilty of a very common crime, and
was sentenced to be eaten according to the law of the land ; this took place close to
Tappanooly ; the Resident was invited to attend ; he declined, but his assistant and a
native officer were present. As soon as they reached the spot, they found a large
assemblage of people, and the criminal tied to a tree, with his hands extended. The
minister of justice, who was himself a Chief of some rank, then came forward nith a
large knife in his hand, which he brandished as he approached the \ictim. He was
followed by a man carrying a dish, in which was a preparation or condiment, com-
posed of limes, chillies, and salt, called by the Malays SamhuL He then called aloud
for the injured husband, and demanded what part he chose ; he replied the right ear,
which was immediately cut off with one stroke, and delivered to the party, who, turn-
ing round to the man behind, dehberately dipped it into the Sambul, and devoured
it ; the rest of the party then fell upon the body, each taking and eating the part most
to his hking. After they had cut off a considerable part of the flesh, one man stabbed
him to the heart ; but this was rather out of compliment to the foreign visitors, as it
is by no means the custom to give the coup de grace.

“ It was with a knowledge of all these facts regarding the Battas that I paid a
\dsit to Tappanooly, with a determination to satisfy my mind most fully in everything
concerning cannibalism. I had previously set on foot extensive enquiries, and so
managed matters as to concentrate the information, and to bring the point within a
narrow compass. You shall now hear the result ; but, before I proceed, I must beg
of you to have a little more patience than you had with Mr. Mariner. I recollect that
W'hen you came to the story of eating the aunt, you threw the book down. Now I
can assure yom' Grace that I have fen times more to report, and you must
believe me.

“ I have said the Battas are not a bad people, and I still think so, nohvith-
standing they eat one another, and relish the flesh of a man better than that of an

EATING PARENTS.

427

ox or a pig. You must merely consider that I am giving you an account of a novel
state of society. The Battas are not savages, for they write and read, and think full
as much, and more than those who are brought up at our Lancastrian and National
Schools. They have also codes of laws of great antiquity, and it is from a regard
for these laws, and a veneration for the institutions of their ancestors, that they eat
each other ; the law declares that for certain crimes, four in number, the criminals
shall be eaten alive. The same law declares also, that in gi’eat wars, that is to say,
one district with another, it shall be lawful to eat the prisoners, whether taken ahve,
dead, or in then' gi'aves.

“ In the four great cases of crimes the criminal is also duly tried and con-
demned by a competent tribunal. When the e\idence is heard sentence is pro-
nounced, when the Chiefs drink a dram each, which last ceremony is equivalent to
signing and seahng with us.

“ Two or three days then elapse to give time for assembhng the people, and in
cases of adultery it is not allowed to carry the sentence into effect, unless the rela-
tions of the wife appear and partake of the feast. The prisoner is then brought
forward on the day appointed, and fixed to a stake with his hands extended. The
husband or party injured comes up and takes the first choice, generally the ears ;
the rest then, according to their rank, take the choice pieces, each helping himself
according to his liking. After all have partaken, the chief person goes up and cuts
off the head, which he carries home as a trophy. The head is hung up in front of
the house, and the brains are carefully preserved in a bottle for purposes of witch-
craft, &c. In devouring the flesh, it is sometimes eaten raw, and sometimes gi'illed,
but it must be eaten upon the spot. Limes, salt, and pepper are always in readi-
ness, and they sometimes eat rice with the flesh, but never drink toddy or spirits ;
many carry bamboos with them, and filling them with blood drink it off. The
assembly consists of men alone, as the flesh of man is prohibited to the females : it
is said, however, that they get a bit by stealth now and then.

“ I am assured, and really do believe, that many of the people prefer human
flesh to any other, but norivithstanding this penchant they never indulge the appetite
except on lawiiil occasions. The palms of the hands, and the soles of the feet, are the
dehcacies of epicures!

‘‘ On expressing my surprise at the continuance of such extraordinary practices,
I was informed that formerly it was usual for the people to eat their parents when
too old for work. The old people selected the horizontal branch of a tree, and
quietly suspended themselves by their hands, while their children and neighbours,
forming a circle, danced round them, crying out, ^ When the fmit is ripe, then it
will fall.’ This practice took place during the season of hmes, when salt and pepper
w'ere plenty, and as soon as the rictims became fatigued, and could hold on no
longer, they fell down, when all hands cut them up, and made a hearty meal of

3 I 2

128

DESCRIPTION OF THE BATTAS.

them. This practice, however, of eating the old people has been abandoned, and
thus a step in civilization has been attained, and, therefore, there are hopes of future
improvement.

“ This state of society you will admit to be very peculiar. It is calculated, that
certainly not less than from sixty to one hmidi'ed Battas are thus eaten in a year in
times of peace.

I was going on to tell your Grace much about the treatment of the females
and children, but I find that I have already filled several sheets, and that I am called
away from the cabin ; I will therefore conclude, with entreating you not to think the
worse of me for this horrible relation. You know that I am far from wishing to
paint any of the Malay race in the worst colours, but yet I must tell the truth. Not-
withstanding the practices I have related, it is my determination to take Lady Raffles
into the interior, and to spend a month or two in the midst of these Battas. Should
any accident occur to us, or should we never be heard of more, you may conclude w^e
have been eaten.

“ I am half afraid to send this scrawl, and yet it may amuse you, if it does not,
throw it into the fire ; and still believe that, though half a cannibal, and living among
cannibals, I am not less warm in heart and soul. In the deepest recesses of the
forest, and among the most savage of all tribes, my heart still clings to those afar
off, and I do believe that even w'ere I present at a Batta feast, I should be think-
ing of kind friends at Maiden Bradly. What an association ! God forgive me, and
bless you all.

“ I am forming a collection of skulls ; some from bodies that have been eaten.
Will your Grace allow them room among the curiosities ? ”

To W. Marsden, Esq.

“At sea off Anulaha, February \3th, 1820.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ Owing to my long absence from Bencoolen, and frequent change of
residence, my Europe letters have seldom reached me without considerable delay,
and then en masse. I have now before me your letters of the * *

“ After thanking you generally for these kind proofs of your attention and
friendship, allow me to express my particular obligations to you for Marco Polo,
which I am happy to say has reached me in excellent condition. I have not had
time to read it through, but I have devoted all my spare hours to it, and mean to go
through it de suite as soon as I am once more settled at home.

I am looking with anxiety for Crawdiu’d’s work, fr'om the time he has taken to
arrange and pohsh, I feel no doubt of its value. I expect from him a somewhat
new view of the lit^ratm'e, history, and antiquities of Java, as he appears in his

ACCOUNT OF THE PADRIES.

429

review of my work in the Edinburgh to have thrown a cloud over that part of my
story. I shall be happy to stand corrected where I am wrong, and to acknowledge
my error ; but I hope he will give something more than assertion as to the dates
which he disputed. I have obtained some new lights on these since my return to
this country.

“ I observe what you say in your last letter regarding the publication of my
late journeys in the interior. Dr. Horsfield has sufficient materials. Should he not
undertake it, I shall have no objection to draw up the account myself; but I con-
fess I would prefer its being undertaken by some other hand than mine. I shall be
most happy to receive your suggestions as to the best mode of giving the public an
account of the kind. I have a good deal to say about the interior of Moco Moco,
and Sambi-Acheen, and Palembang ; and if you purpose another edition of Su-
matra, perhaps some of the information may be useful to you. I am not desirous of
pubhshing, and yet I should be sorry if the information were lost for want of it.

“ From the map you will receive, you will perceive an essential difference in
the situation of Pageruyong. It is about thirty miles east of the west coast. From
the distracted state of the Menangkabu country, it was difficult to obtain extensive
infonnation. The question regarding the communication between the rivers of Siak
and Indragiri, must still rest on the authority on which you received it ; as far as I
could infer, and calculate distances and probabihties, I conceive it most hkely that
no such communication exists. The Indragiri river appears to be narigable for
sloops of fifty and seventy tons, as high as the Falls, and it is even said that boats
of considerable burthen are to be found above them. These are situated in that part
of the country usually called K’uantan, near which the Sultan of Pageruyong has
recently fixed his residence.

“ It occurs to me, that an account of the Orang Putis, or Padries, might be well
introduced into the account of our journey to Menangkabu, and I have already col-
lected some very interesting information respecting these people, who, in many par-
ticidars, seem to resemble the Wahabees of the desert. They have proved them-
selves most unrelenting and tyrannical ; but their rule seems calculated to reform
and improve, inasmuch as it introduces something hke authority, so much wanted
over aU Sumatra.”

The following is an extract from the paper of information collected on the occa-
sions to which Sir Stamford here alluded :

“ The Padries are causing great alarm at om* northern stations, and seem to be
rapidly increasing in power. The natives say, at first one of the Chiefs of the
country, who was well-read in most rehgious books, had great sense and cunning,
and much wealth and influence, consulted with some of his friends of the neigh-

430

ACCOUNT OF THE PADRIES.

bouring districts, to endeavour to introduce some improvements among the people ;
^ for,’ he observed, ‘ not one-tenth of the population prayed, or seemed to have any
fear of God, but, on the contrary, were totally addicted to cock-fighting and
inebriety he was therefore determined to abohsh gambling, and to forbid the use
of all intoxicating beverages.

His friends wished him to go further ; they alleged that it was written, ‘ that
he who did not pray, and refused to embrace the tenets of the Koran, merited death
and confiscation it was then determined to enforce the tenets of the Mahomedan
rehgion throughout the pro\'ince.

The Chief then proclaimed that the religion of Mahomet consisted in four
principal doctrines : faith, circumcision, seclusion, and the knowledge of God, and
that prayer was the proof of religion ; and he entreated all people to unite with him
m establishing these doctrines amongst themselves, and in every other country within
their means ; that the tokens of union in the cause of God should be a beard for the
males, and that the w’omen should conceal their faces ; that neither sex should
bathe naked ; that the selling of strong drinks should be unlawful, and the use of
tobacco for smoking or eating should be abolished.

“ The people generally, as may be supposed, were not inchned to practise so
much self-denial, and war w'as soon declared against all wiio refused to pray and
receive the new tenets. The country was devastated, the people plundered, and
fines levied upon the conquered. A council w^as appointed to see that prayers were
regular, and that drinking, and eating tobacco were no longer practised. A man
who shaved away his beard was to be fined. The filing of teeth w^as to be punished
by the forfeit of a buffalo. If the faces of females were uncovered ; if w^omen quar-
relled ; if a child W'as beaten, fines w^ere imposed : long nails on the fingers were
reduced by cutting them and the flesh together, besides a fine. Repeated neglect of
fast and prayers w^as punished with death.”

“ I intended to have wiitten you very fully from Bengal, but I was attacked by
a severe fever, and not allowed to use my pen for ten minutes together. I, however,
forwarded to you from thence several papers, wiiich I hope may prove of some in-
terest. One of these is the report of a committee appointed to assist in forming
something like a statistical account of Sumatra. You are fully awm'e of my senti-
ments respecting Bencoolen, and will not, therefore, be surprised to find them con-
firmed in the report. Not having a council, I avail myself of the assistance and
advice of committees whenever I find it necessary that my opinions should be ex-
amined or confirmed, and I have already found considerable advantage from the
plan. In a small place like Bencoolen, it is likely that such committees will gene-
rally feel the influence of the superior authority ; but yet they may possess inde-
pendence and talent sufficient to assist and protect that authority very essentially.

CHOLERA MORBUS.

431

“ Of my plan for a college at Singapore, I feel no doubt you will approve
generally. The success of the undertaking will depend on the estimate I have
formed of the character of the people ; if I am right, they are a very different people
from those on the continent of India, and it is in this difference that the advantage
exists. On this subject also, I hope, when you are at leisure, you will favour me
with your sentiments.

“ Of my own circumstances, plans, and expectations, I have not much to say
at present. The result of my visit to Bengal has been a more intimate connection
with that government, and a strong recommendation home from them in favour of
all my plans, whether at Bencoolen, Singapore, or Penang, or of the whole collec-
tively.

“ You will be pleased to hear that Singapore has again become a great and flou-
rishing city. The population is already more than three times that of Bencoolen,
and is rapidly augmenting. I do not like to say much on the subject, because it is
something like praising one’s own child ; but I may fairly say that it has in every re-
spect exceeded even my most sanguine expectation, and this, you will admit, is saying
not a little.

With respect to the Dutch, every thing remains in great suspense pending the
references made to Europe by both parties. The Governor General in council has
declared his sentiments of their proceedings in much less qualified terms than I had
previously done, and does not hesitate to tell the authorities of Batavia, that they have
been actuated throughout by views of unbounded ambition, and an unfair and dis-
honourable attempt to injure and degrade the English.

“ I will not, however, detain you * * * *

“ The cholera morbus has latterly committed dreadful ravages at Acheen, Penang,
and Quedah ; it is now raging at Malacca, and I have great apprehensions for Singa-
pore. From Bencoolen I have not heard for some months, but I am in hopes that
the inhospitable natiwe of our coast, and the poverty of our inhabitants, may for once
be in our favour, and that we shall neither receive so unwelcome a guest, or, if he
does effect his landing, afford him sufficient subsistence for his support. We fell in
with a brig yesterday from the Isle of France, where this fatal disease appears also to
have arrived : God knows where it will go next ; whether eastward to Siam and China,
or westward to Africa and Em'ope.”

To William Marsden, Esq.

“ Off Nattal, February 27, 1820,

“ My Dear Sir,

“ As I shall find an arrear of five months to get through at Bencoolen, it
may be as well that I communicate to you, without loss of time, some of the particulars
which I have ascertained in my late visit to Tappanooly.

“ We had a fine view of the waterfall at Mansular, and I did not fail to approach

432

CANNIBALISM OF THE BATTAS.

it in a boat near enough to ascertain that it does not fall into a great Danu, but into
the sea. We landed on the Island, and collected a few plants of undescribed species.
The rock of which the Island is composed is trap or basalt.

“ A subject of greater interest was the camphor tree, and, as might be expected,
I tried my luck, and was fortunate in procming a small quantity of camphor from the
tree felled on the occasion. My friend. Dr. Jack, has now satisfied himself on all
points, and a detailed description is in progress. You are already informed that the
flowers have been examined, and found to be monadelphous ( monadelphia pohjgamia );
specimens have been sent home to Mr. Brown and Mr. Lambert.

“ But my attention was still more attracted by the people of the country ; and
though our stay was short, I was enabled to satisfy myself ftdly on several very inte-
resting points. I have found all you say on the subject of cannibalism more than con-
firmed. I do not think you have even gone far enough. You might have broadly
stated, that it is the practice not only to eat the victim, but to eat him ahve. I shall
pass over the particulars of all previous information which I have received, and endea-
vour to give you, in a few words, the result of a dehberate inquiry from the Batta
Chiefs of Tappanooly. I caused the most intelligent to be assembled; and, in the
presence of Mr. Prince and Dr. Jack, obtained the following information, of the truth
of which none of us have the least doubt.

“ It is the universal and standing law of the Battas, that death by eating shall be
inflicted in the following cases.

“ 1st. For adultery.

2d. For midnight robbery; and,

“ 3d. In wars of importance, that is to say, one district against another, the pri-
soners are sacrificed.

“ 4th. For intermanying in the same tribe, which is forbidden from the circum-
stance of their having ancestors in common ; and,

“ 5th. For treacherous attack on a house, \illage, or person.

“ In all the above cases it is lawful for the victims to be eaten, and they are eaten
alive, that is to say, they are not previously put to death. The \ictim is tied to a
stake, with his arms extended, the party collect in a circle around him, and the Chief
gives the order to commence eating. The chief enemy, when it is a prisoner, or the
chief party injured in other cases, has the first selection ; and after he has cut off his
slice, others cut off pieces according to their taste and fancy, until all the flesh is
devoured.

“ It is either eaten raw or grilled, and generally dipped in Sambul (a preparation
of Chili pepper and salt), which is always in readiness. Rajah Bandahara, a Batta,
and one of the Chiefs of Tappanooly, asserted that he was present at a festival of
this kind about eight years ago, at the village of Subluan on the other side of the
bay, not nine miles distant, where the heads may still be seen.

When the party is a prisoner taken in war, he is eaten immediately, and on

CANNIBALISM OF THE BATTAS.

433

the spot. Whether dead or alive he is equally eaten, and it is usual even to drag
the bodies from the graves, and after disinterring them, to eat the flesh. This only
in cases of war.

“ From the clear and concurring testimony of all parties, it is certain that it is
the practice not to kill the victims till the whole of the flesh cut off by the party is
eaten, should he live so long ; the Chief or party injured then comes forward and
cuts off the head, which he carries home as a trophy. Within the last three years
there have been two instances of this kind of punishment within ten miles of Tap-
panooly, and the heads are still preserved.

“ In cases of adultery the injured party usually takes the ear or ears; but the
ceremony is not allowed to take place except the wife’s relations are present and
partake of it.

“ In these and other cases where the criminal is directed to be eaten, he is
seciu'ed and kept for two or three days, till every person (that is to say males) is
assembled. He is then eaten quietly, and in cold blood, with as much ceremony,
and perhaps more, than attends the execution of a capital sentence in Europe.

“ The bones are scattered abroad after the flesh has been eaten, and the head
alone preserved. The brains belong to the Chief, or injured party, who usually
preserves them in a bottle, for pmposes of witchcraft, &c. They do not eat the
bowels, but like the heart ; and many drink the blood from bamboos. The palms
of the hands and the soles of the feet are the delicacies of epicures.

“ Horrid and diabolical as these practices may appear, it is no less true, that
they are the result of much deliberation among the parties, and seldom, except in
the case of prisoners in war, the effect of immediate and private revenge. In all
cases of crimes, the party has a regular trial, and no punishment can be inflicted
until sentence is regularly and formally passed in the public fair. Here the Chiefs
of the neighbouring kampong assemble, hear the evidence, and deliberate upon the
crime and probable guilt of the party ; when condemned, the sentence is ratified by
the Chiefs drinking the tuah, or toddy, which is final, and may be considered equi-
valent to signing and sealing with us.

“ I was very particular in my enquiries whether the assembly were intoxicated
on occasions of these punishments. I was assured it was never the case. The
people take rice with them, and eat it with the meat, but no tuah is allowed.
The punishment is always inflicted in public. The men alone are allowed to par-
take, as the flesh of man is prohibited to the women (probably from an apprehen-
sion they might become too fond of it). The flesh is not allowed to be carried
away from the spot, but must be consumed at the time.

I am assured that the Battas are more attached to these laws than the Ma-
homedans are to their Koran, and that the number of the punishments is very con-
siderable. My informants considered that there could not be less than fifty or sixty

3 K

434-

CANNIBALISM OF THE BATTAS.

men eaten in a year, and this in times of peace ; but they were imable to estimate
the true extent, considering the gi-eat population of the country ; they were confident,
however, that these laws were strictly enforced, wherever the name of Batta was
known, and that it was only in the immediate vicinity of om* settlements that they
were modified and neglected. For proof, they referred me to every Batta in the
vicinity, and to the number of skulls to be seen in every village, each of which was
from a victiih of the kind.

“ With regard to the relish with which the parties devour the flesh, it appeared
that, independent of the desire of revenge which may be supposed to exist among
the principals, about one half of the people eat it with a rehsh, and speak of it with
delight ; the other half, though present, may not partake. Human flesh is, how-
ever, generally considered preferable to cow or buffalo beef, or hog, and was ad-
mitted to be so even by my informants.

“ Adverting to the possible origin of this practice, it was observed that formerly
they ate their parents when too old for work ; this, however, is no longer the case,
and thus a step has been gained in civihzation.

“ It is admitted that the parties may be redeemed for a pecuniary compensation,
but this is entirely at the option of the chief enemy or injured party, who after his
sentence is passed may either have his \dctim eaten, or he may sell him for a slave ;
but the law is that he shall be eaten, and the prisoner is entirely at the mercy of
his prosecutor.

“ The law's by which these sentences are inflicted, are too well known to re-
quire reference to books, but I am promised some MS. accounts which relate to the
subject. These laws are called huhum pinang an, from depang an to eat — law or
sentence to eat.

“ I could give you many more details, but the above may be sufficient to shew
that our friends the Battas are even worse than you have represented them, and
that those who are still sceptical have yet more to learn. I have also a gi'eat deal
to say on the other side of the character, for the Battas have many \'ii’tues. I prize
them highly. However horrible eating a man may sound in Em'opean ears, I ques-
tion whether the party suffers so much, or the punishment itself is worse than the
European tortures of two centuries ago. I have always doubted the poficy, and
even the right of capital punishment among cirilized nations ; but this once ad-
mitted, and torture allowed, I see nothing more cruel in eating a man alive than in
torturing him for days with mangled fimbs and the like. Here they certainly eat
him up at once, and the party seldom suffers more than a few minutes. It is pro-
bable that he suffers more pain from the loss of his ear than from what follows ;
indeed he is said to give one shriek w'hen that is taken off, and then to continue
silent till death.

“ These severe punishments certainly tend to prevent crimes. The Battas are

LAWS OF INHERITANCE.

435

honest and honourable, and possess many more virtues than I have time to put
down.

‘‘ I have arranged to pay a visit to Tobah, and the banks of the great lake, in
the course of next year, and my plan is to go into the interior by the way of Bams,
and to return by way of Nattal, taking the longest sweep where our influence will
be most felt. Lady Raffles will, I hope, accompany me, and I shall endeavour to
give up full six weeks for the trip. I am perfectly satisfied we shall be safe, and I
hardly know any people on whom I would sooner rely than the Battas. In exa-
mining your map it appears to me that you have carried the places mentioned in
Miller’s journey much too far to the eastward ; for instance, Batangenan, which is
inserted near the eastern coast. He certainly never penetrated half across the Island,
and in my opinion hardly beyond the first range of low hills.

It may be interesting to you to know, that it is not among the Battas that
the nephew inherits the rank and title ; they invariably marry by jujur, and the
eldest son succeeds. Personal property is divided, two-thirds to the eldest son, and
one-third among the rest, boys and girls alike. Where there are more wives than
one, the eldest son of the first wife succeeds.

“ It is among the Malays that the succession of the nephew takes place. The
Malays, as you are aware, trace their descent from Pati sa Batang and Kai Tu-
mungung of Menangkabu. With the descendants of the former the nephew or
kammanakan always succeeds. With the descendants of Kai Tumungung the
eldest son or anak succeeds. The people of the Bander su Pulu, and nearly of all
Padang, are of the tribe or division of Pati sa Batang, and this will account for the
nephew succeeding with them.

“ At Nattal the grandson inherits, unless the persons are married by jujur, when
the son succeeds in preference.

“ In my enquiries after books Rajah Bandara gave me the names and contents
that foUow.

“ 1. Dha’un. On medicine.

‘‘ 2. Pehi on Balangkahan Malay. On Astrology.

3. Tandong. On the Aii; of War.

“ 4. Rumba. On Ditto, and which is referred to in cases of the last extremity.

“ 5. Pangram bui. Rules for taking up proper positions, &c. in war, (Quarter-
Master-General’s department.)

“ The great god of the Battas is styled Debatta Assi Assi ; and he it is who is
supposed to have created Batara Guru, Seri Pada, and Mangala Bulan, the inferior
Trinity of their worship.

It would also appear that they have also something like an ecclesiastical Em-
peror or Chief, who is universally acknowledged, and referred to in aU cases of public
calamity, &c. His title is Sa SingaJi Maha Rajah, and he resides at Bakara in the

3 E 2

i36

EXCURSION INTO THE BATTA COUNTRY.

Toba district. He is descended from the Menangkabu race, and is of an antiquity
which none disputes. My informants say certainly above thirty descents, or 900
years. He does not live in any very great state, but is particular in his observances ;
he neither eats hog nor drinks tuah. They believe him possessed of supernatural
powers. He can blight the paddy, or restore the luxuriance of a faded crop.

Writing is said to have been first introduced among the Battas by two persons
named Datu Dalu and Datu Labi.

“ At Selindong is a stone image of a man, of great antiquity, supposed to have
been brought from Pageruyong.

“ Mr. Prince has recently discovered the mins of a temple, with an inscription
on stone, in unknown characters, inland of Nattal. People are at present employed
in obtaining fac similes, but it is at some distance, and until I can Hsit the spot
myself, I do not calculate on much. The inscriptions obtained at Menangkabu have
been translated by the Panambahan of Samanap into Javanese.”

The following is an extract fmm a letter of Mr. Ward, a missionary, wLo after-
wards made an excursion into the Batta coimtry. It is introduced here as a corro-
boration of the truth of this extraordinary practice.

“ Four days after my arrival at Tappanooly, I commenced an excursion into the
Batta country with Mr. Burton. We entered at the old settlement of Tappanooly,
and pursued a north-w^esterly course, with the \iew of penetrating as far as the great
lake of Toba. The hills w^ere clothed with their native woods, and but thinly. At the
distance of about tw^enty miles from the w^estern coast, wLere the country assumed a
more even surface, the forests entirely disappeared, and gave place to cultivation and
an extensive body of people. The district of Silindang so highly gratified us, that
we were tempted to remain a few days preHously to prosecuting our journey to the
Lake, a couple of days in advance. Three thousand people, who had never beheld a
white face, received us in a manner perhaps similar to wLat we read of respecting the
first appearance of the Spaniards in America. We w^ere kept for four hours, on an
elevation of tw’elve feet, exhibiting our persons ; and not an hour passed for several
days, during which we w^ere not surrounded with crow^ds fi'om various parts of the
country. Some venerated us as gods ; all paid us much respect ; and in point of
treatment, we had nothing to complain of. To an assembly of the Chiefs the objects
of our mission w^ere explained ; several tracts were read, and the future introduction
of books was proposed, to all of which they listened with interest and pleasm*e, and
frankly invited Mr. Bmton to take up his abode with them ; and we may view the
result as a pleasing prospect for his future labours. Our notions relative to the Batta
character and habits have been much corrected. We found them quiet and harm-
less, and much more under the influence of ciHl order than had been supposed.

MISSIONARY ESTABLISHED AMONG THE BATTAS.

487

although their government appeared of a singular nature. The practice of canni-
balism was general and frequent. Mr. Burton had soon an attack of dysentery, in
which he exhausted his little store of medicine, and we were compelled to return
without actually seeing the Lake. We gained some interesting particulars of it,
which shall be duly mentioned. We discovered a hot mineral spring, depositing
large quantities of lime. On the whole, I may say the Batta country, with regard to
scenery, surpasses every thing I have yet beheld : it possesses a delightful climate, an
extensive population, and extreme fertihty.

“ At Sibolga I procured specimens for Batta types, and made arrangements for
two native schools.”

Mr. Burton, the Missionary who is named in the foregoing letter, had requested
permission to leave Bencoolen, and settle in the Batta country, with his wife and chil-
dren, for the purpose of estabhshing schools, and devoting his life to the education and
improvement of a people whose character and barbarous customs excited general horror
and detestation. He was exceedingly well received, and the people gladly availed
themselves of the means of instruction thus offered them : but after having laboured
dihgently for several years, and succeeded in establishing schools, both himself and
his wife fell a sacrifice to the climate ; and the Editor cannot but bear her testimony
to the brightness of faith, the humble trust in God alone, the total sacrifice of all per-
sonal comfort, which they evinced when they went with their infant children amongst
these people, with the determination there to live and die ; there to devote them-
selves to their labour of love, in the hope of conveying the glad tidings of the Gospel
to those who had yet to learn that the Son of God died for them.

CHAPTER XVI.

Sir Stamford devotes himself to his favourite pursuits, builds a house in the country — Collections in natural
history sent home — Correspondence of Captain Flint with the Java Government — Colonel Far quhar's
account of Singapore — Extract from Mr. Grant's letter — Improvement inBencoolen — PuloNias — Easy
communication with Palembang across the Island — Sir Stamford's description of his children — His
confidence that he has pursued a right course — His defence of his conduct — His opinion of the powers
he was invested with — Arrival of missionaries — Mr. Burton settles in the Batta country — Sir Stamford
not supported by the ministry — Introduction of British manufactures into China — Agricultural Society —
Expense of Singapore — Manufacture of sugar — Colonization — Lake of Korinbie — Cultivation of rice —
Nutmeg-trees — Malayan plants — Political speculation — Death of the Editor's brother.

On his return to Bencoolen (March, 1820) Sir Stamford felt that, pohtically, he had
done aU in his power to promote the best general and national interests of his coun-
try in the Eastern Seas ; and from this time he devoted himself to the improvement
of the Httle settlement, the more immediate scene of his residence and government ;
and indulged in pursuits to which he was always passionately attached. He resolved
to build a house in the comitry ; and as soon as one room was finished, took a part
of his family, and occupied himself in cultivating the ground. He formed spice plan-
tations to a large extent, and succeeded in introducing the cultivation of coffee.
The labom' was performed by convicts, who were settled in a ^dllage, and soon became
a useful community. The beauty, the retirement, the quiet domestic fife, which he
led in this happy retreat, soon restored his health ; he rose at four in the morning,
worked in his garden (in which he always planted all the seeds himself) until break-
fast ; then wrote and studied till dinner ; after which he examined his plantations,
always accompanied by his children ; and often walked about until a late hour of the
night. But his manner of life at this period may be best known by a reference to
the following selections and extracts from his coirespondence.

“ Bencoolen, March 12, 1820.

“ You wiU be happy to hear that I am once more in the bosom of my family,
and in the enjoyment of every possible domestic fehcity. We arrived here a few days

SENDS HOME HIS COLLECTIONS IN NATURAL HISTORY.

439

ago, and found every thing going on well, and as it should do. The country is per-
fectly quiet, the people satisfied, and Bencoolen, on the whole, improving ; so much
so, that as far as our personal comforts are concerned, we shall regret whenever the
order arrives that we must quit it.

“ Charlotte and Leopold are in high health and spirits ; and in the course of two
or three months, we hope to make up the trio. Sophia is quite well ; and, as you
may well conceive, quite happy at my return, after an absence of five months : for
myself, I never was in better health.

“We are doing wonders in natm'al history, notwithstanding the want of support
on the part of the Government.

“ We have hterally nothing for the civil servants to do at Bencoolen, and idle-
ness is the root of all evils ; they ought to be transferred to some other settlement,
and not to be obfiged to waste their time, life, and health, here.

“ The Sultan of Palembang stiU maintains his independence, having driven the
Dutch out of the river with the loss of many ships and lives.

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Bencoolen, March 14, 1820.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ I shall have the opportunity of writing you very fully by the Mary in the
com'se of a few days ; in the meantime it may be interesting to you to know that I
purpose sending by her the whole of our zoological collection, among which are beau-
tiful specimens of the tapir, rhinoceros, kijangs, &c. stuffed, in skeleton, and in spirits.
It will, I think, be as important and interesting a consignment as was ever sent home.
I have had, as you may suppose, a great deal of trouble.

The term of their engagement is now concluded with my French naturahsts ;
and they are pledged by duty and honour not to publish until the collections arrive
and are noticed in England.

“ I find the krabut, or great flower, to be much more general and more exten-
sively known than I expected ; in some districts it is simply called ambem amhem, and
it seems to spring from the horizontal roots of those immense climbers or limes which
are attached like cables to the largest trees of the forest. It takes three months from
the first appearance of the bud to the full expansion of the flower ; and the flower
appears but once a year, at the conclusion of the rainy season.

“ Further enquiries respecting the tunnu and babi-ala, induce me to believe that
there is still some large animal in our forests not inferior in size to the tapir, marked
with a narrow riband of white around the belly and back. The tapir having remained
so long undiscovered, affords at least some grounds for concluding it possible that
others may exist. The natives who describe this animal simply say, that the white

440

ANIMALS OF SUMATRA.

band is naiTow, the feet three-toed, head truncated, and tail long. The chungkor of
Palembang may be a third animal.

“ I have a long list of animals, of which nothing yet is known beyond the name
and native description.

“ I have recently heard of several interesting remains of antiquity in the
interior.

" As the French gentlemen decline giving me the Linnaean descriptions I require,
I shall set to work directly in framing a kind of catalogue raisonne, which shall be
sent by the Mary, or the first ship that follows. In this I shall give a short descrip-
tion of the most remarkable subjects, without reference to what the French artists
may say on availing myself of their papers.

“ The Duyong, which I sent to Sir Joseph Banks, will, I hope, have arrived safe.
I have the skin and another complete skeleton here ; also one about four and a half
feet long, preserved in spirits. In consequence of Sir Everard Home’s notice, I
immediately tm'ned my attention towards it, and procured two specimens in a few
months.

“ With respect to the tapir, I am not sui’prised that an account was first pub-
lished in France. IMajor Farquhar had sent a stuffed specimen and a head to the
Asiatic Society, >\dth a paper descriptive of the animal, and ghing an account of the
discovery. About the same time a HHng animal was sent from Bencoolen to the
menagerie at Calcutta.

“ It w^as fi-om the examination of these in Calcutta that the Frenchmen prepared
their accounts ; and the omission on our part is attributable, in a gi’eat measure, to
the dilatoriness in the pubhcations of the Asiatic Society.

“ I have now several specimens, two male and female dried and stuffed, four
in spirits, and four in skeleton.

“ The Frenchmen maintain that the babi ala is one and the same animal vvth the
tunnu : I suspect, however, that they are mistaken. The true babi ala is represented
to be a very different animal : it is the chungkor of Palembang, and abounds parti-
cularly in the district of Banguasin : the bones are preserved for medicinal purposes.

“ If the description is correct, and you know how far reliance is to be placed on
the unvarnished tale of the Sumatrans, this must be either a new' animal altogether,
or the babi rusa.

“ I should here mention, that I do not find the babi rusa to be know n as a native
of Sumatra, and unless it should turn out to be the babi ala, which is at least doubtful,
it cannot, I think, be yet considered as part of our fauna. What our future disco-
veries may lead to, I will not say.

Of the deer we have several specimens.

“ The skins of our rhinoceroses are aU soft. As yet I can only trace the tw’o-

CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE DUTCH GOVERNMENT OF BATAVIA.

441

horned animal in Sumatra. The white-handed animal, which I have provisionally
termfed a rhinoceros, on account of the horn, must be an entirely new animal.

“ I break off to give audience to no less than three Sultans, who have been wait-
ing for me for the last hour, and a man this moment appears with a cobra capella
winding round his arm ; it is not so large as the serpent of India, but has exactly the
same description of hood.

My tunjong segara expands rapidly, and is by far the brightest flowret of our
Eastern Isle ; and my little boy Leopold is following quickly in her steps : in a few
weeks Lady Raffles promises me a continuation of the series.

To .

“ Bencoolen.

“ By the ship Mary I have sent a most valuable collection in natural his-
tory. The greatest possible care has been taken to render the collection valuable,
and an appropriate accompaniment to that from Java. All I ask is, that you will not
be lukewarm in promoting the interests of science and general knowledge.

I have thrown politics far away ; and since I must have nothing more to do with
men, have taken to the wilder but less sophisticated animals of our woods. Our house
is on one side a perfect menagerie, on another a perfect flora ; here, a pile of stones ;
there, a collection of sea-weeds, shells, &c. I enclose you a curious correspondence,
which has taken place between the authorities in Java, and my brother-in-law. Cap-
tain Flint, who touched at Batavia on his way to Singapore : it will shew you the
degree of personal feeling that still exists on the part of the Dutch.

Frojn Mr. Brand, Resident of Batavia, to Captain Flint, R. N.

Batavia, March 29, 1820.

“ Sir,

“ The Resident of Batavia having laid before his Excellency the Governor
General your application for leave to proceed to Samarang, I am directed to inform
you that, under existing circumstances, no person who may any ways be supposed to
be connected with Sir Stamford Raffles and his views, either avowed or concealed, can
be allowed a free ingress into the Island of Java, and that your request to be per-
mitted to proceed to the eastern districts cannot therefore be acquiesced in.

“ In regretting that public grounds should lead to a refusal which may, per-
haps, be productive of individual hardships, it is, however, satisfactory to reflect,
that the alleged object of your voyage to Samarang, viz. the adjustment of private
concerns with Messrs. Deans, Scott, and Co., may be obtained with equal facility at
Batavia, where a branch of that house is established.

3 L

442 CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE DUTCH GOVERNMENT OF BATAVIA.

“ I retain the passport under which you proceeded to this place, and have the
honoui* to be. Sir, your obedient servant,

(Signed) J. E. Brand.”

To J. E. Brand, Esq. Secretary to Government.

“ Batavia, April Qth, 1820.

“ Sir,

“ In adverting to the general tenor of your letter of the 29th of iSIarch,
I cannot but express my astonishment at so unexpected a commmiication ; and I
should be wanting in duty to myself and to the rank I have the honour to hold in
the seixdce of my country, did I allow it to pass unnoticed.

“ The cause of my ^isit to Java was entirely of a private nature, which I con-
ceive is sufficiently proved by my having brought out a passport from his Excellency
the Dutch Ambassador in London, which I had the honour to enclose in my letter to
the Resident, for the information of his Excellency the Governor General, and there-
fore cannot, by liberal minds, be construed as in any w ay connected with the situation
or Aiews of Sir Stamford Raffles : and allow me here to observe, that it is not con-
sistent with the knoivn character of a Captain in the British na^y, to act so degrad-
ing a part as that of a spy — a teiTn not absolutely expressed, but most distinctly
implied by the whole tenor of your letter.

“ My conduct, from the moment of my amval, will bear the strictest scrutiny.
I landed in my uniform, and immediately called at the Government-house. The
following day I had the honour to dine with his Excellency, in the same di'ess. I
took that opportunity to mention my wish to proceed to Samarang.

“ At that time the Governor General made no objection whatever, but, on the
contrary, inquired if I wished to proceed over-land. This I declined in the most
respectful manner, and on my quitting the Government-house, his Excellency referred
me to the Resident, as the channel through which all public communications are
made. I have wiitten my name in full on the cover of every letter I have sent
through the post-office, or otherwise.

“ This does not savour of concealment. That part of your letter negativing my
being allowed, therefore, a free ingi'ess into the Island of Java, must have been
written in total misconception of mine to the Governor General ; and my subse-
quent letter to the Resident, if proof be w'anting, is sufficient of itself to show I had
no wish or inclination to visit the interior of the Island.

“ I have the honour to be. Sir,

“ Your obedient servant,

(Signed) “ Wm. Flint.”

CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE DUTCH GOVERNMENT OF BATAVIA.

To W. Flint, Esq.

“ Batavia, April Sth, 1820.

“ Sir,

" Ha\ing laid your letter of the 30th March and 6th instant before his
Excellency the Governor General, I am now directed to give the following reply
thereto :

“ The communication which I had the honour to address to you on the 29th
cannot, but by a studious misconstruction, be made subservient to inferences of the
natiue alluded to by you. The tenor of that letter was frank and unequivocal, and
sprung from no other motive but the very natural desire to restrain the admittance
of all persons, who might be supposed to possess that same eagerness of disseminat-
ing a hostile spirit towards the Dutch authorities, of which the late acts and attempts
of Sir Stamford Raffles bear such decided and irrefragable testimony ; for although
the aspersions here alluded to, in whatever form thrown out, have been met by the
Government with the only feeling which they are calculated to excite, yet it cannot
be a matter of astonishment, that the Government should be unwilling to admit,
without restraint, persons in whom the same tendency to indiscreet and ungenerous
censure may be expected.

“ The tenor, however, of your last letter to my address has induced the
Governor General not to apply to you personally, a measure in which, at first view,
you appeared from a general consideration of your private and pubhc connexions
wath Sir Stamford Raffles, to be included ; and relyingj therefore, in the most unre-
served manner, and with all confidence due to the rank you occupy in the British
navy, a corps so eminently distinguished for honom’able principles, on the assurance
given by you as to the object of your \dsit to this Island, his Excellency is pleased
to permit you to proceed to Samarang, for which purpose the necessary passport
\\ill be issued to you on application to the Resident of Batavia.

“ I have the honour to be. Sir,

“ Your most obedient humble servant,

(Signed) “J. E. Brand.”

The following letter from Colonel Farquhar to Sir Stamford Raffles, describes
the state of Singapore at this period.

“ My Dear Raffles,

Fro?n Colonel Farquhar.

“ Singapore, March 31, 1820.

“ As a vessel sails from hence this morning, bound for Batavia, touching
at Rhio, I avail myself of the opportunity of sending these few lines to Mr. Skelton

3 L 2

444

RAPID IMPROVEMENT OF SINGAPORE.

at Batavia, to be forwarded on to Bencoolen by any opportunity that may offer.
The public accounts from January are all ready to be despatched, and I should hav'e
sent them on by the Betsy, but as that vessel is quite at the disposal of the Com-
mander, who may alter his voyage at Rhio or elsewhere, I have deemed it most
expedient to wait a more certain conveyance, which we may daily expect from
Bengal.

We have now been nearly seven weeks without news of any kind from Cal-
cutta. Your letters of the 3d of January are the latest that have come to hand.
I hav^e written to you frequently by way of Java, Penang, and lastly via Palembang.

" Nothing can possibly exceed the rising trade and general prosperity of this
infant colony ; indeed, to look at our harbour just now, where upwards of twenty
junks, three of which are from China, and two from Cochin China, the rest from
Siam and other quarters, are at anchor, besides ships, brigs, prows, &c. &c., a per-
son would naturally exclaim, smely this cannot be an estabhshment of only a twelve-
month standing! One of the principal Chinese merchants here told me, in the
course of conversation, that he would be very glad to give five hundred thousand
dollars for the revenues of Singapore five years hence. Merchants of all descrip-
tions are collecting here so fast, that nothing is heard in the shape of complaint,
but the want of more ground to build on. The swampy ground on the opposite
side of the riv'er is now almost covered with Chinese houses, and the Bugguese
village is become an extensive town. Settlements are forming up the different rivers,
and from the public roads which have been made, the communication to various
parts of the country is now quite open and convenient.

“ A trade direct with Japan will, I have no doubt, be opened very soon, and
the advantages that are likely to result from such a commerce you are well aware
of ; in short, this settlement bids fair to become the emporium of Eastern trade, and
in time may surpass even Batavia itself.

“ The Dutch Admiral has been at Rhio for some time, as has Mr. Timmerman,
Dutch Resident at Malacca. They have been holding a consultation on various
points : amongst others, how a reconciliation with the Bugguese can be best effected.
This, I fancy, they will have a difficult measure to bring about, as the Bugguese
appear to have lost all confidence in their system of government.

“ Here we may expect a gi*eat accession of strength from the natives. I have
transmitted to you Mr. Timmennan’s protest respecting Rajah Bellavva, who sought
an asylum here with his family and followers, after being driven out of Rhio by the
Dutch. I have likewise forwarded copies of the same to the Supreme Government.

“ I have most reluctantly been obliged to assume charge of the military pay
department, but sincerely hope that you may have succeeded in establishing some
other arrangement than what was last received from Bengal.

“ Our treasury is at present at a low ehb — the troops are now nearly two

RAPID IMPROVEMENT OF SINGAPORE.

445

months in arrears. I have wTitten to Penang for cash, but as trade increases, we
shall have now frequent opportunities of getting supplies fi'om the merchants for
bills on Bengal. The httle capital at present here is employed on the spot. We
are, as you may suppose, most anxious to hear from you again. I hope you have,
long ere this, reached Bencoolen in safety. Pray present my best wishes to Lady
Raffles, and give your dear httle ones a kiss each on my account.

“ Beheve me, ever your’s, &c.

“ W. Farquhar.”

“Bencoolen, April 3, 1820.

" Singapore, I am happy to say, continues to thrive beyond all calculation, not-
withstanding the *******
and the uncertainty of possession. The exports and imports even by native boats
alone exceed four millions of dollars in the year.

“ Sophia and our httle ones are quite well. I enclose you an extract from a
letter I have just received from Mr. Grant : (the late Charles Grant, Esq. one of
the Directors of the East India Company), his favourable opinion of what I have
done is very satisfactory.”

“ London, July 19, 1820.

“ You will easily conceive that it has not been possible for me to enter fully
with you into the various subjects of the letters and papers you have sent me. I
have, however, done all that I beheve you expected from me, that is to uphold your
view's of what our national pohcy ought to be with respect to the Eastern Archipe-
lago— views, the leading principles of which I entertained before your return to
India, as favouring not only the fair commercial interests of our country, and of a
vast region of Asia, but the moral and political benefit of its immense population.

“ You are probably aware of the obstacles which have been opposed to the
adoption of your measures, and even threatened your position in the service. Your
zeal considerably outstepped your prudence, and the first operations of it became
known at an unfavourable juncture. It was thought that the state of affairs in
Europe required that they should be discountenanced.

“ The acquisition of Singapore has grown in importance. The stir made here
lately for the further enlargement of the eastern trade fortified that impression. It
is now accredited in the India House. Of late, in an examination before a com-
mittee of the House of Lords, I gave my opinion of the value, in a moral, pohtical,
and commercial \dew, of a British estabhshment in the locahty of Singapore, under
the auspices of the Company. From all these circmnstances and others, I augur

446

EXPENSES OF THE GOVERNMENT OF SINGAPORE.

well as to the retention and encom*agement of the station your rapidity has pre-
occupied, Accept of these few hints instead of an elaborate letter.

“ I have heard of your efforts for introducing religious improvement into Ben-
coolen. I hope that disposition will follow you wherever you go.

(Signed) C. Grant.”

Bcncoolen, April 7, 1820.

“ The unexpected amval of the Borneo enables me to send you a few lines.

“ Singapore continues to thrive and prosper beyond my most sanguine expecta-
tions. Once permanently settled, it wll give advantages in commerce far beyond
your contemplation. Major F'arquhar being anxious to return home, I have ap-
pointed Travers to relieve him, and he sailed from hence for that purpose about ten
days ago. The whole of the establishments at Singapore — civil, military, and poli-
tical— do not exceed 5000 dollars, <£1200, a month. Of Bencoolen I have little to
add, except that the place is improving. I should be sorry to find the place given
to the Dutch, but if it must be so, I hope we shall have an equivalent.

“ I hear the Dutch place all their hopes on being able to remove me from the
Eastward. I have become so much identified wdth the question now pending be-
tween the two governments, that they conceive their interests Avill be best secured
by getting me out of the way.

“ I have just received accounts of the Dutch left at Rhio and Banca. They
must now regret the uild ambition which induced them to aim at such extensive
sovereignty ; their empire is literally crumbling to pieces.

“ The only loss in our family has been in the death of my favourite bear,
whose demise I shall not fail to notice with due honour when treating on natural
history.”

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Bencoolen, April \ Mh, 1820.

“ My Dear Sir,

I cannot allow a direct opportunity to pass without again thanking you
for the kind interest you continue to take in oim welfare, and letting you know that
we continue in excellent health, with as fair prospects as political circumstances at
present admit. My two children expand daily, and are all and every thing
we could wish them. Lady Raffles bears the climate better than I expected.

“ In the political world I have nothing to communicate. In Java all remains
cjuiet. The Dutch have wisely followed up the revenue system I established, and
though I could say a gi-eat deal against particulars, I am on the whole tolerably satis-
fied with what they have done in this respect.

SIR STAMFORD’S OCCUPATIONS.

447

“ We are anxiously awaiting the final arrangements from home. My last
ad\ices were in August, at which date the subject had been taken up. Java, and the
Moluccas, with Macassar, or Celebes, is all that strictly ought to be left to the Dutch.
Banca is of no further value to them.

* iif * *

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Bencoolen, April \ ^th, 1820.

I wrote you very fully about three weeks ago by the Mary, by which ship I
sent Sir Joseph Banks a large consignment of prepared animals. I hope they have
arrived safe, and proved that we are not idle. I have just now so little to do with
politics, that I am able to devote a good deal of time to natural history ; and I think
you would be amused to see the extensive collection I am making. I intend to
send you a large consignment by the first favourable conveyance, of which I shall
request your Grace’s kind care, until my retmai to England. This may serve as an
indication that I am looking forward to the day when we may again meet. Two
years have rolled away already ; three or four more will, I hope, accomplish all the

objects I have in view in this country ; and then we shall I hope meet again,

all parties a few years older, but in other respects neither colder nor less happy than
before we parted. We must now begin to forget those hateful words, ‘ Good bye’
and to think of ' how do you do ; ’ — time flies fast, — where are the years that are
past — and how short may those which are to come appear when once we have again
met, and look back upon them !

Your Grace will, I doubt not, be happy to hear, that our prospects, even at
Bencoolen, are improving ; the place no longer has that gloomy and desolate appear-
ance of which I first complained. Population and industry are increasing ; the inland
merchants begin to bring down the gold and cassia from the interior, and a stranger
would hardly know the place again, so much is it changed from what it was two years
ago. We have a good many comforts about us, and shall really regret any political ne-
cessity which obliges us to remove from what has now become our second home. We
have a delightful garden, and so many living pets, children tame and wild ; monkeys,
dogs, birds, &c. that we have a perfect regne animale within our own walls, to say
nothing of the surrounding forests now under contribution. I have one of the most
beautiful little men of the woods that can be conceived ; he is not much above two
feet high, wears a beautiful surtout of fine white woollen, and in his disposition and
habits the kindest and most correct creature imaginable ; his face is jet black, and
his features most expressive ; he has not the slightest rudiments of a tail, always
walks erect, and would I am sure become a favourite in Park Lane.

Not long ago I gave your Grace a short account of my Batta friends. I am

448

ACCOUNT OF THE PULO NIAS.

now much engaged in obtaining particulars of a very extensive and interesting popu-
lation in one of the larger Islands lying off Sumatra, Pulo Nias.

“ The Nias people believe in one Supreme God, Lora Langi, but they do not
pay him any kind of public worship. Below him is another God, called Batu Ba
Danaw, who has charge of the earth, which they say is suspended from a stalk, or
string, as an orange from the branch of a tree. This is, perhaps, as happy an idea
as the double-headed shot of Lord Erskine, and perhaps his Lordship may avail
himself of the hint in the next volume of Armata. The world they suppose to have
seven stages, or gradations, inhabited by as many different orders of beings. The
stage immediately under us is possessed by dwarfs. The heavens, or sky above us,
(Hob Yawa,) are peopled by a superior order of men, (Bamcki,) of a most beautiful
form and appearance. These are gifted 'v\dth mngs, and are imisible at pleasure,
and they take an interest in all that passes on earth ; they are governed by kings of
their oum : the one at present reigning is called Luo Mehuhana ; there were four
kings who ruled before him, and from whom he is descended.

“ ‘ The people of the earth,’ they say, ' had for a length of time continued in a
state of the grossest ignorance and barbarism ; they neither hved in houses nor
tilled the gi'omid, but wandered about, subsisting on what the earth spontaneously
produced. At last, the wife of Luo Mehuhana took pity upon their miserable con-
dition, and ordered one of her subjects to descend to the earth, and teach its inhabit-
ants the arts of chilization. He accordingly descended on Pulo Nias, and instructed
them how to till the ground, to live in houses, to cook their "victuals, and to form
in societies. He taught them also to speak, for hitherto they had not possessed even
this means of communication.’

“ Their laws are remarkably severe. It is death to touch any part, even the
finger, of an mimarried woman, or the wife of another man ; but, notwithstanding
this, I do not learn that they are particularly chaste. The wives are bought fr'om
the parents, as in Sumatra ; and a man may have as many as he can afford to
pay for.

“ I will not, at present, trouble you with further particulars ; the above will be
sufficient to shew that they are at least very original in their ideas ; and on this
account, if on no other, they must excite an interest.

“ I must not close my letter without a few words on the politics of this part of
the w’orld, in which I hope your Grace still continues to take some interest.

“ It will be satisfactory to you to know that the Dutch authorities in this coun-
tiy have at length been brought to their senses ; and if wiiat has been done here is
only supported and followed up with common pmdence and decision, w'e may at
least save our commercial interests from the ruin w hich so lately impended. Singa-
pore continues to rise as rapidly as all the out-stations of the Dutch dechne.”

IMPROVEMENT AT BENCOOLEN,

449

The following extract of a letter from Sir Joseph Banks to Dr. Horsfield, will
shew the high opinion he entertained of Sir Stamford, as well as of the botanical
collections made in Java, and the encouragement he so liberally and generously
extended to all those in pursuit of scientific objects ; it was written in the year 1817,
when Sir Stamford was in England :

“ The collections are interesting in the extreme, and will, when published, make
very valuable additions to the science of botany. Your industry. Sir, in collecting
them is praise-worthy in the extreme ; and the talent you have shewn in arranging
them encourages a well-founded hope of much advantage to science being derived
from your arrangement and observations on them.

“ We are all here delighted with the acquaintance of Governor Raffles ; he is
certainly among the best informed of men, and possesses a larger stock of useful
talent than any other individual of my acquaintance.

“ I beg. Sir, that you will be assured that I shall always be ready and happy
to give you every assistance in my power, and that you will have no scruple in
addressing questions to me. Gentlemen who, hke you, cultivate science in the
wilderness of nature, where books are not to be found, have a right to call upon us
inhabitants of hbraries for every assistance you stand in need of, which we have the
power of affording.

“ I beg, Sir, that you will believe me your obliged and obedient servant,

Joseph Banks.”

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Bencoolen, April 20, 1820.

As you may not possess a correct vocabulary in the Nias language, I send
you a few words ; and you may, perhaps, be glad to learn, that I am at present
directing my attention a good deal to that Island.

I hope hereafter to give you a comparative vocabulary in the Nias and Batta
languages, of not less than three thousand words. My object is to compare them
particularly with the Malay and Buggis. I shall follow the same arrangement as
adopted in the Appendix to my History of Java, in order to render it more con-
venient for reference.

“ My small establishment in the interior at Bukit Kabut has been of the greatest
service in attracting traders and settlers from the interior ; and were the affairs of
Palembang once settled to our satisfaction, the interior would soon be as well known
as the coast. There is a very good horse-road from Marlborough to Muara Billiti,
on the Palembang river, whence the passage by water to Palembang can be accom-
phshed in less than three days. Were Palembang free from the Dutch, I should
make it the usual route between this place and Singapore.

3 M

450

IMPROVEMENT AT BENCOOLEN.

“ I have the pleasure to send Mrs. Marsden three boxes of spices, the produce
of our own garden. We are now commencing plantations in the interior.”

* *

" Bencoolen, May 26, 1820.
* *

“ At Singapore our interests and influence are rapidly extending; all goes on
just as I could wish ; and I think that you will be happy to hear that even Ben-
cool en has assumed a new interest in my eyes, and that I really feel a satisfaction in
the progressive improvement of the place. The last few months’ leisure has enabled
me to investigate the ancient tenure and history of the place and people, and the
causes which have retarded the improvement of both ; and to apply remedies which
are hkely to be effective : the old system may be now considered as destroyed, root
and branch ; and although a few of the decayed branches, and some noxious weeds
may here and there appear, the country has generally assumed a new aspect, cultiva-
tion is quite the order of the day, and commenced upon with a spirit I hardly
expected.

*****

“ Under these circumstances I should be sorry if any thing removed me from
the place for the next year — and it will certainly require attentive management for
a few years subsequent — the country and people are, in many respects, so different
from what I fomid them, that a stranger would hardly know them again. It some-
times occurs to me as possible, that Bencoolen may be given to the Dutch, in ex-
change for some other place. Sooner than we should lose our footing in the Archi-
pelago I would wiUingly resign it ; but, under any circumstances, it would be heart-
breaking to give up the place just as the fruits of my system, and the returns for my
labour, are about to be seen.”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

Bencoolen, June 2, 1820.

It is almost an age since I heard from England. Your last letters were dated
nearly a twelvemonth ago ! — what a lapse ! — and what may not have occurred in
the interim? I dread to think of it; and yet, after all, I believe it is these cares
and anxieties that are the chief source of all our earthly bliss, for wthout them we
could not appreciate their reverse, or know what real happiness is. Had I not re-
turned to India I should never have contemplated the delight which I now anticipate
of once more meetmg a long absent friend. You see w^hat a philosopher I am.

“ Nothing very particular has occurred since my last, except the birth of
another boy. My dear little Charlotte is, of all creatures, the most angelic I ever

SIR STAMFORD’S OCCUPATIONS.

451

beheld. She has those inborn graces which, as she expands, must attract the ad-
miration of every one — but she has a soft heart, and is so full of mildness and
gentleness, that I fear she will have many trials to go through in this unfeeling
world. Her brother Leopold, however, will take her part, for he has the spirit of a
lion, and is absolutely beautiful ; but I will not tire you with any more family
details, it will be sufficient to add, that we are all well, and as happy as absence
from dear and relative friends will admit. My life is at present rather monotonous,
not however unpleasantly so, for I have all the regular and substantial employment
of domestic comfort in the bosom of a happy and thriving family; and in the daily
pursuits of agriculture and magisterial duty I find abundance to interest and amuse
— but I am no longer striding from one side of India to another, overleaping moun-
tains, or forming new countries — I am trying to do the best I can with a very old
and nearly worn-out one, in which I hope, by infusing a new spirit, and encouraging
habits of industry, and motives of enterprize, much may be done. I am busily en-
gaged in taking a census of the population, and inquiring into the processes of
husbandry, and the village institutions, and I think you would be amused to see me
amid my mde and untutored mountaineers, collecting the details, and entering into
all the particulars, as if they were the peasants of my own estate. I am becoming
so attached to these pursuits, and find them so much more satisfactory than poli-
tical discussion, that I believe I shall be sorry to change this mode of life. Allow
me, therefore, to indulge my whim for a short time longer, and then I shall be able
to carry home such a weight of experience, as may perhaps bring all yom* barren
lands into cultivation. If I am not rich enough to have a farm of my own, I shall
wish to become a farmer on your lands, and then * ^ *

“ This is a veiy hmried letter, written at a moment when the ship is under
weigh ”

* * * * *

Perhaps this was one of the most happy periods in Sir Stamford’s life ; politically
he had attained the object which he felt so necessary for the good of his country (the
establishment of Singapore). He w^as beloved by all those under his immediate
controul, who united in showing him every mark of respect and attachment, and
many were bound to him by ties of gratitude for offices of kindness, for private acts
of benevolence and assistance which he delighted to exercise towards them. The
settlement, like many other small societies, was divided into almost as many parties
as there were famihes on his first arrival ; but these differences were soon healed
and quieted, and a general interchange of good offices had succeeded. The natives
and Chiefs appreciated the interest which he took in their improvement, and placed
implicit reliance upon his opinion and counsel.

The consciousness of being beloved is a delightful, happy feeling, and Sir Stam-

3 M 2

452

SIR STAMFORD’S DOMESTIC HABITS.

ford acknowledged with thankfulness at this time that every wish of his heart was
gratified. UninteiTupted health had prevailed in his family, his children were his
pride and delight, and they had already imbibed from him those tastes it was his
pleasure to cultivate; this will not be wondered at, even at their early age, when it
is added, that two young tigers and a bear were for some time in the children’s
apartments, under the charge of their attendant, without being confined in cages,
and it was rather a curious scene to see the children, the bear, the tigers, a blue
mountain bird, and a favourite cat, all playing together, the parrot’s beak being the
only object of awe to all the party.

Perhaps few people in a public station led so simple a fife ; his mode of passing
his time in the country has been already described. When he was in Bencoolen he
rose early and delighted in driving into the villages, inspecting the plantations, and
encom-aging the industry of the people; at nine a party assembled at breakfast,
which separated immediately afterwards ; and he WTOte, read, studied natural his-
tory, chemistry, and geology, superintended the draftsmen, of whom he had con-
stantly five or six employed in a verandah, and always had his children with him as
he went from one pursuit to another, visiting his beautiful and extensive aviary, as
well as the extraordinary collection of animals which were always domesticating in
the house. At four he dined, and seldom alone, as he considered the settlement
but as a family of which he was the head ; immediately after dinner all the party
drove out, and the evening was spent in reading and music and conversation. He
never had any game of amusement in his house. After the party had dispersed, he
was fond of walking out with the Editor, and enjoying the delicious coolness of the
night land-wind, and a moon whose beauty those only who have been in tropical
climates can judge of, so clear and penetrating are its rays that many fear them as
much as the glare of the sun. Though scarcely a day passed without reptiles of all
kinds being brought in, and the Cobra de Capello in numbers, the Editor never
remembers these pleasm’es being intermpted by any alarm.

Amidst these numerous sources of enjoyment, however. Sir Stamford never
forgot that the scene was too bright to continue unclouded, and often gently warned
the Editor not to expect to retain all the blessings God in his bounty had heaped
upon them at this time, but to feel that such happiness once enjoyed ought to shed
a bright ray over the future, however dark and trying it might become.

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Bencoolen, June 9,1th, 1820.

“ As the notice given of the present opportunity of sending letters has been
unexpected and short, I am not able to enter so fully as I could wish into the affairs
and prospects of Bencoolen. This deficiency, however, I shall endeavour to sup-
ply by forwarding to you herewith copies of my recent letters on the subject, toge-

SIR STAMFORD’S ATTENTION TO NATURAL HISTORY.

453

ther with the regulations which I have recently established. It will, I am sure,
afford you satisfaction to find that I am at length enabled to make a favourable
report. I am very confident of success, but all depends on a perseverance in the
plans commenced, and some liberality on the part of Government.

“ I shall feel much indebted for your advice and opinion on any points which
may strike you. I am perfectly open to conviction wherever I may have been
wrong, and shall not be offended with the freedom of your remarks.

" The London arrived here on the 9th instant, and is now taking in a cargo of
pepper at Tappanooly. By her I had the pleasure of receiving your letter of De-
cember. Pray tell Mrs. Marsden that I will endeavour to make amends by sending
her a volume of details on all family matters the moment I can obtain an hour’s
leisure ; in the mean time it will be satisfactory to her to know that we are all well
and happy. My three children, Charlotte, Leopold, and Marco Polo, for so he is
still called, although he was christened Stamford Marsden, are certainly the finest
children that were ever seen ; and if we can manage to take them home in about
four or five years, we hope to prove that the climate of Bencoolen is not so
very bad.

“ As there was no chance of a direct opportunity, I have sent by the London
duphcates, and even more complete sets of the quadrupeds and birds than those
sent by the Mary, numbered, named, and ticketed, so as to correspond with my
catalogues.

I am at this moment superintending a complete set of the drawings, to be
forwarded by the present opportunity, via Calcutta.

“ I fear there will hardly be time for completing the duphcates of the catalogue
of birds. My writers are now engaged upon it, and I will do my best to send it by
the present conveyance.

“ I find the natives in the interior consider the Ungka Puti as the Rajah Bina-
tang, on account of the extreme hghtness and celerity of his movements ; they say
that in the morning he swings from tree to tree, and runs along the branches with-
out shaking the dew from the leaves.

“ From the reports received from Batavia, it would seem the Dutch hesitate
with regard to another attack on Palembang ; in this I think they are wise — they
seem to be in sad confusion, quarrelhng among themselves, and without confidence
in any of their subjects. About a fortnight ago they shot seven Frenchmen for
deserting, and attempting to go over to Palembang — it is not, however, true that
the Sultan has any foreign aid whatever. Singapore continues to prosper more and
more.

“ We are now busy in arranging the reptiles and crabs, of which we have a
very large collection.”

454.

EXERTIONS TO IMPROVE BENCOOLEN.

“ Bencoolen, June 27th, 1820.

“ You will find that I am not at a loss for useful employment and amusement
at Bencoolen ; it is a small place, but I wiU make the most of it I can. I no more
trouble my head about the Dutch. I have turned farmer, and as President of the
Agi'icultural Society, find more real satisfaction than is to be derived from all the
success that could attend a pohtical life. We are all quite well; Sophia will write
to this point.”

To the same.

“ Bencoolen, July 7, 1820.

“ We are all quite well, and shall be very well content to remain so. Singa-
pore goes on progressively, and even Bencoolen is assuming a new and interesting
character. My time and attention are at present devoted chiefly to agricultm*al
pursuits, and I am determined, if possible, to make the place raise its own supphes.
I am taking a general census of the population of the country, and of its agricultural
resources ; and I hope soon to send you home some reports of interest and import-
ance. The field is not very extensive, but it is new and untried, and energy and
zeal shall not be wanting to make the most of it.

“ Sophia and our three children are quite well; Charlotte and Leopold are
every thing we could wish, and the most intelligent children I ever met with, and
young Marco Polo promises well. Leopold is by far the finest child of the three ;
he is handsome, bold, and intelhgent, and struts about the house with an air of the
most complete independence. We are all busy cultivating potatoes and plucking
nutmegs. I hear that the Government of Batavia have dechned sending the pro-
jected expedition to Palembang this year, and I think they are wise for so doing :
the Sultan holds out nobly. The Dutch still complain of me. God knows I have
shewn them courtesy enough on this coast, and since the fate of Padang has been
decided, I have felt but httle interest in any other possession to the northward.”

To the same.

“ Bencoolen, July 14, 1820.

“ Since the establishment of the factory of Singapore, I have bid adieu to all
political responsibility. My time has been exclusively devoted to the pursuits of
natural history, and the immediate interests of Bencoolen, which I am endeavouring
to advance with all my might.

“ Should Mr. Grant come into the chair, there is still a hope that all may be
right. I am not, however, very sanguine, and shall be prepared for whatever igno-
rance, injustice, or party-spirit may dictate.

ANSWERS TO THE CHARGES BROUGHT AGAINST HIM.

455

“ I have lived long enough in the world to appreciate what is valuable in it ;
and the favour of ministers or courts never appeared to me equal to the conscien-
tious conviction of ha\ing done one’s duty — even the loss of fortune, honours, or, I
might add, health. I have more satisfaction in what I have done since my return to
India, than with all my former endeavours ; and the more I am opposed, the more
my views are thwarted, destroyed, and counteracted, the firmer do I stand in my
own opinion ; for I am confident that I am right, and that when I appear at home,
even those who are most opposed to me will be the first to acknowledge this. They
do not, and will not, look at the question in its fair and true hght ; and such appears
to be the spirit of 'persecution, that it would be idle to oppose it at this distance. I
shall, therefore, bend with the blast, and endeavour to let the hurricane blow over
me ; the more violent it becomes, the sooner will it expend itself, and then it will
be time for me to raise my head, to shew the injury and devastation which has been
spread abroad, and the folly of the course which has been pursued.

“ The only mischief in this line of policy is this, that it will force me to become
a more pubhc and prominent character than I would wish. My ambition is to end
my days in domestic peace and comfort and hterary leisure. A busy scene will
oppose this, and though I may become a greater man, I perhaps may not become a
happier one.

“ This brings me to my defence against the charges for which I am arraigned.
It is certainly no trifling accusation against a man, to say that he acted against
positive orders — that he is impetuous, injudicious, and untrustworthy ; and I could
fill a volume in refutation of all that has been said against me in this respect. Let
us see how the case stands.

“ I never was instructed to consider my office as purely commercial, so much
for my Lord Bathurst’s assertion ; this is a question of fact, and if disputed, the
onus prohandi must remain with his Lordship. It is true, I was first appointed
Resident ; and afterwards informed, that I was allowed the same rank I had enjoyed
in Java, but expressly that it was to occasion no additional expense to the Company —
this was the only reservation, the only condition. I afterwards received a commis-
sion fi'om Government giving me full authority as Lieutenant-Governor to do all acts
of government, the words being the same as in the commissions to Penang, Madras,
and Bombay, with the single exception of what related to a council being struck out,
thereby giving me more power than either of those Governors. For this commission
I paid <£150, and the Deputy Chairman informed me that it had been drawn out
with the advice of a sohcitor. No condition whatever was required ; but that I
should enter into covenants and a bond with an immense security to fulfil them.
All these things virtually made me Lieutenant-Governor, with all the powers at-
tached thereto, or they were a fi*aud, and I have been cheated.

“ It seems improbable that grave and experienced persons should practise a

456

ANSWERS TO THE CHARGES BROUGHT AGAINST HIM.

deliberate impostui'e, such as giving a man a title and >vithholding from him pri-
vately the privilege of which that title imphes the possession : one has a difficulty to
suppose they would have been so very childish. To me it was an affront to make me
a party to such an imposture. To a gentleman the carrying of false colours is surely
a most humihating office, and it is clear that no more invidious trap can be laid for
a man than to make him hold himself out as something more than he is. My first
feeling w'as to get this humihating condition put an end to — to step down from the
title of Lieutenant-Governor to that of Resident : the humiliation might have af-
fected the vanity of other men, but the bearing a false title is what affects a man’s
honour. I actually had made some progress in sending my commission to England,
but prudence whispered this might give offence. I therefore retain it until the
storm is past, when it will be returned from me with such an appeal as shall de-
mand attention.

“ But after all, what has this to do with the question about the Dutch? the
commission only makes you Governor of Bencoolen, and as Governor of Bencoolen
you can only act within the jurisdiction of Bencoolen. The affairs of Samanka
arose out of the affairs of Bencoolen — a boundary was disputed, and whether I w^as
Resident or Governor, I must have pursued the same course. Nearly similar was
the case with Padang, and as for Palembang, it was a case of emergency in which
the British faith and honour were concerned ; and I interfered and protested not as
British agent, as it is said, but as the nearest British authority to the scene of ac-
tion. Had I been Resident, it w'ould have been the same, and you wall find my
protest signed as Lieutenant-Governor.

“ Now to the third point. Was I not in fact British agent over the whole of
the Archipelago — my commission as Lieutenant-Governor only applied to Ben-
coolen ; but 1 had separate instructions from the Court ‘ to w’atch the motions of
foreign nations and particularly the Dutch in the Archipelago generally, and to
write to the Court and the secret committee.’ However vague these orders might
be, they conveyed to me an authority to inquire into the state of the further East ;
they required of me to busy myself in political inquiries. How w^as I to gain the
information required, but through the means of agents? and as this duty w^as al-
together distinct from, and gave me a jurisdiction far heijond the limits of the autho-
rity of Bencoolen, what was I but an agent — a political agent to all intents and
pui*poses ? As such I certainly considered myself ; but it will, I fancy, puzzle my
enemies to find any act or deed in wiiich I so designate myself — this I carefully
avoided, and to all papers I signed my name as Lieutenant-Governor. In fact, I
never did assume the title of British agent for the Archipelago, though I un-
doubtedly did, and do act as such, as these orders have never been repealed.

“ These are points of fact which w ill form prominent items in my defence ; in
which I propose to take a review' of the whole course of measures, commencing from

EXPENSE OF SINGAPORE.

457

my appointment as agent to the Governor General, Lord Minto, in 1810, down to
the present time. The longer I delay it, the more complete it will be, and it will,
perhaps, in the end form a tolerably sized volume. I fear that the points are so
strong, that, at the present moment, it might perhaps excite angry feelings ; and
without my personal presence it might not have all its effect. I have informed the
Supreme Government that I mean to appeal, in justice to my own character, and that
of the East India Company whom I serv'e.

“ After all, it is not impossible the ministry may be weak enough to abandon
Singapore, and to sacrifice me, honour, and the Eastern Archipelago, to the out-
rageous pretensions of the Dutch. In this case, I may be recalled sooner than I
expect, perhaps immediately. This I am aware of, but I should be best contented
with things remaining even as they are for two or three years to come ; I should then
be better prepared for the contest ; for a contest it must come to, sooner or later, and
the longer the adjustment of our differences with the Dutch, on a broad and just
footing, is delayed, the better must it be for our interests.

“ I shall not fail to look forward, and to be prepared for this contest, come
when it will ; and if I cannot carry my plans here, they must prevail in England
eventually.

“ So much for pohtics and the Dutch. I shall now turn to more pleasing, and,
at the same time, more safe subjects for discussion — what I am doing at Bencoolen,
and the state of our domestic circle.

In all your letters, you do not ask a question about Bencoolen. Is it because
it is too insignificant ? Here, at any rate, I am supported and upheld by the Bengal
Government ; they have hitherto approved, unconditionally, of all my arrangements,
and they have not been trifling. I have had to upset every thing, and have had
every possible difficulty to oppose in surmounting the prejudices and abolishing the
corruptions of a hundred years’ standing. The place is at last thriving, the remedy
applied has been efficient, the turn has been taken, and a few years’ perseverance will
make this a new and prosperous country — great it can never be. I must, however,
be prepared for an attack on the score of expense. The charges of the settlement
have, I fear, rather been increased than otherwise, and this, with many, will tell
against it ; but it ought to be considered that we have abolished all revenues, conse-
quently have no receipts to meet the charge — this was ordered by the Bengal
Government — and that at the present moment we have a double establishment,
ci\il and military. All changes and reforms are, besides, expensive ; and although
all my plans lead to real and practical economy, some hberality in effecting them
is indispensible in the nature of things. I am endeavouring to cultivate the soil, and
to civilize the people ; and, I am happy to say, that some progress is making in both,
notwithstanding the stubbornness with which both have been charged. It is a poor

3 N

458

ARRIVAL OF MISSIONARIES.

place, and much can never be made of it ; but as it now nearly comprises my whole
jurisdiction, and to act well our part, as far as our means extend, is all that is required,
I do not deem its improvement unworthy my attention. It has become a beautiful
place ; the spice gardens are rapidly increasing ; and, as a place of retirement, I hardly
know one which I would prefer to it. It is now my place of confinement ; and as it
is far superior to St. Helena, I ought not to complain. The Dutch \vish me to be
confined at Engano.

“ Sophia and my dear children enjoy excellent health and spirits. We are now
spending a few weeks in the midst of groves of nutmegs, cloves, and mangosteens.”

* * * *

To the Rev. Dr. Raffles.

'' Bencoolen, July\lth, 1820.

“ IMy Dear Cousin,

“ I have now before me your letters of the 18th December, delivered to
me by Messrs. Burton and Evans, who arrived here early in last month, and are
both likely to do well for themselves and the good cause in which they are em-
barked. I hke them much, and they seem disposed to meet all my wishes. If any
thing, they are rather above than below the standard I would have fixed ; and I am
fearful they are hardly prepared for the difficulties and privations of a missionary
life in such a barbarous country as this ; they do not, however, appear to want zeal ;
they are scholars and gentlemen ; and their wives are well calculated to aid their
endeavours. Mr. Evans and his wife remain at Bencoolen, where they purpose
opening a school on the 15th of next month. I have assisted them by placing the
children of our free school under their superintendence, and advancing them funds
to commence the undertaking. Mr. Bmdon proposes fixing himself at Tappanooly
or Natal, in the northern part of Sumatra, with a view to the conversion of the
Battas and people of Pulo Nias. The field for his exertions is new and interesting,
and I hope he will have energy and courage enough to explore it. The world knows
so little of these people, and their habits and customs are so peculiar, that all the
information which he collects will be useful. You are of course aware that they are
cannibals. The population of the Batta country does not fall short of a million ;
and throughout the country it is the invariable law not only that prisoners taken in
war should be eaten, but that capital punishment should also be inflicted by eating
the -prisoners alive for the five great crimes. You may rely on the fiict, and that
eating alive is as common with them as hanging in England. I have lately passed
some part of my time in this part of the country, and can vouch for the correctness
of what I state. The Island of Nias lies off the coast of Sumatra, nearly opposite
Natal, and contains a population of above a hundred thousand souls ; they have no

IMPORTANCE OF SINGAPORE.

459

religion whatever, and I am con\inced that an active government and a zealous mis-
sionary may do wonders among them.

“ Of our progi'ess at Bencoolen I can now speak with more confidence than
when I last wrote to you. The native school has fi.dly answered my expectation,
and upwards of seventy children distinguished themselves at the last annual exami-
nation. I am now extenchng the plan so as to include a school of industry, in
which the children will be instructed in the useful arts. The arrival of the mis-
sionaries is most fortunate, and I hope they -will in time complete what we have so
successMly begun — the progress, however, must necessarily be slow.

I have lately made a very long stride towards the general civilization of the
country, by the establishment of a property in the land, and the introduction of
order and regulation on the principles of a fixed and steady government. You
would I am sure be gi-atified with the details had I time to send them, but my
health has not been very good for some weeks, and I dare not wiite much. Here-
after you shall have all the particulars, and it is not improbable some of them will
find their way to the press. My attention is chiefly directed to agriculture, and I
am endeavouring to improve the grain produce of the country. This is the basis of
all national prosperity, and in countries hke Sumatra constitutes and comprises all
that is important. We have an agricultural Society, of which I am President, in
which we discuss, without restraint or reserv’e, all questions concerning the produce
of the land and the condition of society. The latter is most pecidiar, and not to
be explained in few words. You have probably read Bowditch’s Mission to Ashantee,
I think I could give you a picture as striking, novel, and interesting ; but this must
be reserved for a future period.

“ My settlement (Singapore) continues to thrive most wonderfidly ; it is all and
every thing I could wish, and if no untimely fate awaits it, promises to become the
emporium and the pride of the East. I learn with much regret the prejudice and
malignity by which I am attacked at home, for the desperate struggle I have main-
tained against the Dutch. Instead of being supported by my own Government,
I find them deserting me, and gi^dng way in every instance to the unscrupulous and
enormous assertions of the Dutch. All however is safe so far, and if matters are
only allowed to remain as they are all will go well. The great blow has been struck,
and though I may personally suffer in the scuffle the nation must be benefited — and
I should not be surprised were the ministers to recall me, though I should on many
accounts regret it at the present moment.

“ Were the value of Singapore properly appreciated, I am confident that all
England would be in its favour ; it positively takes nothing from the Dutch and is
to us every thing ; it gives us the command of China and Japan, with Siam and
Cambodia, Cochin China, &c. to say nothing of the Islands themselves. What you
observe with regard to British cottons through this port to China is a most import-

3 N 2

460

IMPORTANCE OF SINGAPORE.

ant question — the affair is perfectly practicable and nothing more easy. I had
framed a plan and am still bent upon the object, but until I know from England
how I am to be supported in what I have so far done, it would be premature to
suggest any speculation — confirm Singapore, and establish my authority in the
Archipelago on the principle I have suggested, and it will not be long before there
is abundant demand for this description of our manufactures at least. Upwards of
ten thousand tons of raw cotton are annually sent to China from our territories in
India — why should we send our raw produce to encourage the industry of a foreign
nation, at the expense of our own manufactures ? If India cannot manufacture
sufficiently cheap, England can ; and it is idle to talk of the cheapness of our goods
unless Ave can bring them into fair competition. I see no reason why China may
not be, in a gi'eat measure, clothed from England — no people study cheapness so
much ; and if we can undersell them we have only to find the way of introducing
the article. The monopoly of the East India Company in England, and of the
Hong merchants in China, precludes the idea of any thing like fair competition in
our own ships, or at the port of Canton — not but the East India Company can and
perhaps will assist as far as in them lies ; but their ships are too expensive — the
articles would also pass through the Hong merchants before they reached the gene-
ral trade and commerce ; and their intermediate profits would form another barrier.

“ At Singapore, however, every object may be obtained. Let the commercial
interests for the present drop eveiy idea of a direct trade to China, and let them
concentrate their influence in supporting Singapore, and they will do ten times
better. As a free port, it is as much to them as the possession of Macao ; and it is
here their voyages should finish. The Chinese themselves coming to Singapore and
purchasing, they have the means of importing into the different ports of Canton,
without the restraints and peculations of the Hong merchants. Many of the Chinese
viceroys are themselves engaged clandestinely in extensive trade ; and Singapore
may, as a free port, thus become the connecting link and grand entrepot between
Europe, Asia, and China ; it is, in fact, fast becoming so. Vessels come from China to
Singapore in five days. All will, however, depend on its remaining under good go-
vernment, and the port being regulated on the principles I have laid down ; what
these are, you may learn from * * * * is fully apprised of all my

views and plans. These once confinned from home, I shall lose no time in for-
warding musters of the cloths required, and the most detailed information as to the
extent and nature of the speculation.

‘‘ You ask again respecting the Brata Yudha, and I must return you the same
answer as before. I have as little to do with Java now as you have ; and were I to
communicate with any one on that Island, it would be considered as treason : such
is the hatred or dread which the present rulers of that country feel towards me.

God knows they treat me unjustly ; for although I have disputed and opposed

APPOINTMENT OF A COMMITTEE ON EASTERN AFFAIRS.

461

their enormous designs in the Archipelago generally, I have never interfered with

Java, or any of their lawful possessions ; but their fears magnify the danger.”
*****

“ Believe me, &c.”

“ Bencoolen, July 26tk, 1820.

“ I have just received from Bengal some of your letters, down to the 23d of
January ; this last informs me of the appointment of a deputation from Holland, and
a committee from the Court, to discuss all points respecting the Eastern Islands.
This is as it should be, and augurs well : it looks as if, at last, the subject were about
to be taken up seriously and comprehensively. I feel that I have done aU and every
thing in my power to enable the authorities at home to act with justice, advantage,
and decision.

“ From Bengal my accounts, as late as June, are favourable. At Bencoolen I
have not been inactive ; all my energies are now centred in this bttle spot, and I am
improving it rapidly ; much can never be made of it, but it may, and ought to be
better. Agricultm'e is what I most attend to, and no stone is left unturned to
advance it.

“ Sophia and my dear children are all well and happy.”

To Mr. Thomas Murdoch.

“ Bencoolen, July 22, 1820.

My Dear Sir,

“ I have been so bad a con-espondent, that I fear it is too late to make
apologies for my silence : the truth is, so few opportunities offer of writing direct
to Europe, and so many urgent calls always press on my time at the moment
of a despatch, that I am too apt to defer, sine die, what may be put off till the
morrow.

“ You will, I am sure, be happy to hear that we continue in excellent health,
and as yet unaffected by climate, and other drawbacks. Lady Raffles looks better
at present than I ever knew her, and my three children are every thing that the
fondest parent could wish. Charlotte and Leopold (your god-son) are both running
about, and are as blessed in intelligence as disposition. Charlotte is all mildness,
Leo aU boldness ; the youngest, who is usually called Marco Polo, after his god-
father, Marsden, bids fair to follow in the same steps ; and we are as happy a family
as you can well conceive. One of Lady Raffles’ brothers, from the Bengal army, is
now with us on a visit, and we are daily expecting another to remain with us per-
manently. My sister and her little boy also form part of our family at present.

“ Having, by the establishment of Singapore, done all that rested with me for

i62

ENDEAVOURS TO IMPROVE SUMATRA.

the protection of our interests in the Archipelago, I have long given over all discus-
sions v’ith the Dutch authorities, and have now been for several months enjoying the
quiet of home ; so comfortable, indeed, have we managed to make oiuselves, that we
shall feel regi’et whenever the day comes that we are to leave Bencoolen, whether for
better or worse. I know not how it is, but I have latterly become so much attached
to the place, that it is daily becoming more interesting. The changes which I have
been able to work have been so satisfactory, and the attachment of the people is so
great, that I have determined to make a strong effort for the improvement of the
place. My early measures will, I fear, have hardly met the approval of our fiiend
Marsden, as the principles on w'hich I proceeded were different to those supported
by him in his history ; but, I think, w^re he to see the different face which the coun-
try has since put on, that he would be more inclined to admit their propriety. He
reasons upon the state of the country before the destructive effects which have fol-
lowed since the abolition of the Government ; I put the state of things as I found
them. How'ever bad in principle the old system may have been, I am ready to admit
that its effects w'ere good, when contrasted with those which ensued from the intro-
duction of what is generally considered to have been a more pure system. The fact
is, the country has gone rapidly to min ever since it has been under the Bengal Go-
vernment, and that from the most obvious causes of misgovernment and neglect ; the
affection of the people has been ahenated, and the contempt with which they have
been treated has produced its natural effects. I have had the task of restoring con-
fidence, and recovering the country from a state of wilderness and disorder into w^hich
it had mn, to one of agricultm-al industry and subordination ; the task has been diffi-
cult, and in some respects hazardous ; but I have, at all events, carried the hearts of
the people along with me, and, in directing their energies into proper channels, I
find enough to occupy and amuse me. I have assmned a new character among them,
that of lord paramount : the Chiefs are my barons bold, and the people their vassals.
Under this constitution, and by the establishment of a right of property in the soil, I
am enabled to do w onders, and if time is only given to persevere in the same course
for a few years, I think I shall be able to lay the foundation of a new order of things
on a basis that shall not easily be shaken. My attention is, at present, principally
directed to agiiculture : an agricultural society has been established, of w'hich I am
President, in wdiich we discuss, without reserve, all questions which relate to the pro-
duce of the soil and the people who cultivate it. Agiiculture is every where the only
solid basis of national prosperity ; and in countries like Sumatra, it constitutes and
comprises nearly all that is valuable and interesting.

“ We are very anxiously awaiting the decision of the higher powers on the
numerous questions referred to them. It appears to me impossible that Singapore
should be given up, and yet the indecisive manner in which the ministers express
themselves, and the unjust and harsli terms they use tow^ards me, render it doubtful

ENDEAVOURS TO IMPROVE SUMATRA.

463

what course they will adopt. If they do not appoint me to Penang, it is probable
that they will confine me to Bencoolen as a place of punishment — banishment it cer-
tainly is : but if even here they will leave me alone, I will make a paradise for
myself.

“ Bencoolen is certainly the veiy worst selection that could have been made for
a settlement ; it is completely shut out of doors ; the soil is, comparatively with the
other Malay countries, inferior, the population scanty ; neighbourhood, or passing
trade, it has none ; and, further, it wants a harbour, to say nothing of its long re-
puted unhealthiness, and the miserable state of ruin into which it has latterly been
allowed to run. Against all these drawbacks I yet think something can be done, and
I am attempting it ; the greater the difficulties to be encountered, and the greater the
exertion required, the gi'eater is the satisfaction to be obtained. I have never yet
found any which repressed my energies ; on the contrary, they have always increased
in proportion to the occasion.

“ I have found in the Smnatrans a very different people to the inhabitants of
Java : they are, perhaps, a thousand years behind them in civilization, and, conse-
quently, require a very different kind of government. In Java I advocated the
doctrine of the liberty of the subject, and the indiridual rights of man— here I am
the advocate for despotism. The strong arm of power is necessary to bring men
together, and to concentrate them in societies, and there is a certain stage in which
despotic authority seems the only means of promoting civilization. Sumatra is, in a
great measure, peopled by innumerable petty tribes, subject to no general govern-
ment, haring little or no intercourse \rith each other, and man still remains inactive,
sullen, and partaking of the gloom which pervades the forests by which he is sm-
rounded. No Em'opean power seems to think it worth its while to subdue the
country by conquest, the shortest and best way of civilizing it, and, therefore, all
that can be done is, to raise the importance of the Chiefs, and to assist in promot-
ing the advance of feudal authority ; this once established, and government being
once firmly introduced, let the people be enhghtened, and the energies wliich will
be then called forth in regaining a portion of their liberties, will be the best pledge
of their future character as a nation. At present the people are as wandering in
their habits as the birds of the air, and until they are congregated and organized
under something like authority, nothing can be done with them. I have, fortu-
nately, become very popular among them ; all classes seem persuaded that I want
to make a country, and there is nothing which I wish or suggest which they are not
anxious to do ; they have already submitted to alterations and innovations which, in
former times, it would have been dangerous to mention, and if ever any thing is to
be made of them, this is the time for the effort — the opportunity neglected will
never recur.

“ I fear I have troubled you with a very dull discussion on a very uninteresting

i64

LETTER TO THE DUKE OF SOMERSET.

subject, but I am anxious to prove to you that, however limited my field of action,
I still contrive to find something within it w^orthy of my attention. Bencoolen will
never become a place of great commercial or political importance, but it is the place
where, at present, I can be most practically useful, and instead of repining and re-
senting the slights and injuries of the higher powers, I shall, for the next few years,
content myself, if fixed here, with leaving a garden where I have found a wilderness.

Lady Raffles unites with me in kindest regards to Mrs. Murdoch, and all the
members of your family. I need not tell you of the esteem in which we hold you,
and how often W'e anticipate the pleasure of once more meeting under the same
roof, and in that same country where, spite of all its faults, the best of enjoyments
are to be found.

“ Politically, I have done all that could be expected from me in this countrj\
If the authorities at home still demur, and are not only opposed to my plans but to
my personal interests, it is clear that I can do no good to the cause here. I am at
present bound and chained to Bencoolen, almost as closely as Napoleon is to Saint
Helena.

******

“ I have now the satisfaction to state that Bencoolen and Singapore together,
are not as expensive as Bencoolen was before the change.”

To the Duke of Somerset.

“ Bencoolen, August 20, 1820.

“ The best excuse I can offer for having allowed your letters to remain so
long without acknowledgment, is that I have had nothing to communicate in reply,
to justify the intrusion on your time and notice, and I have been ashamed to dwell
on the never-failing subject of self, after troubling the Duchess with so many unin-
teresting details on this particular.

*****

“ In the present alarming and important crisis, I fear the public attention \vill
be too much occupied with affairs nearer home, to trouble itself much with what is
going on in this part of the world ; and yet I cannot help thinking that more exten-
sive views, and a more enlarged policy with regard to the colonies, particularly in the
East, would tend greatly to remove some of the burdens by which England seems to
be at present overwhelmed.

“ I am at present awaiting with much anxiety the result of the deliberations at
home regarding the Eastern Islands. By the last accounts, commissioners had been
appointed to adjust the differences with the Dutch Government, and a few months
must decide whether we succumb to the daring and unqualified pretensions of
our rivals, and hide our diminished heads, or still preserve our footing in the
Islands.

LETTER TO THE DUKE OF SOMERSET.

465

“ It is not necessary for me to detail to your Grace the dangers to which our
commerce was exposed, or the disabilities under which it laboured previously to the
occupation of Singapore. The Dutch, by reviving the principle on which their esta-
blishments in the East were originally founded, and acting upon the same with the
increased power and means which their improved condition and rank among the
nations of Europe gave them, had nearly succeeded in bringing under their control
every native state within the Archipelago, and in excluding the British Indian trader
from every port eastward of the Straits of Malacca and Sunda, while they secured
to themselves the commerce of those important passes, through which the trade to
and from China must necessarily be carried on. It is not a little remarkable, that
the establishment of this system of exclusion on the part of the Dutch was
much facilitated by the improved local resources of the colonies actually restored to
them ; and that it is to our having conquered and occupied Java, that they are
mainly indebted for the means of obstructing and destroying our commerce, for
had not that event taken place, they would not have had the pretext or the means
of establishing anew an empire and system so diametrically opposed to our com-
mercial interests, and which the policy of our Government, and the enterprize of our
merchants, had so successfully combated and destroyed in the preceding century.

“ The commerce, therefore, for which I have been again contending, and
which I have endeavoured to secure by the occupation of Singapore, is no less im-
portant to us than it is our legitimate right. Within its narrowest limits, it embraces
a fair participation in the general trade of the Archipelago and Siam, and in a more
extensive view, is intimately connected with that of China and Japan. We should
not forget that it was to the Eastern Islands that the attention of Europeans was
first directed, and that it was in these seas the contest for the commerce of the East
was carried on and decided — that it was this trade which contributed to the power
and splendour of Portugal, and at a later date raised Holland from insignificance
and obscurity to power and rank among the nations of Europe.

“ The occupation of Singapore involves an expense of about ^£20,000 per
annum, which sum covers all the expense of its estabhshment — and if permanently
retained, this amount will of course be paid out of a local revenue. So that the
possession of this important station cannot be considered as adding one fraction to
our pecuniary burdens, while it secures to us all the objects, both political and com-
mercial, which we can require in these seas.

“ Notwithstanding the uncertainty which must prevail pending the decision of
the higher powers in Europe, and the circumstances of its being still held solely on
my'personal responsibility, against all the efforts of our own government as well as
that of the Dutch, the settlement has advanced in the most rapid manner. From
an insignificant fishing village, the port is now surrounded by an extensive town,
and the population does not fall short of ten or twelve thousand souls, principally

3 o

466

LETTER TO THE DUKE OF SOMERSET.

Chinese. The number is daily increasing, and the trade of the place has already in-
duced the establishment of several mercantile houses of respectabihty.

“ Should the decision from home prove favom'able, I hope to proceed there in
the course of next year, for the pm’pose of estabhshing such municipal and port re-
giUations as may pronde for the increasing population and trade. Should it be
otherwise, I shall probably remain quietly at Bencoolen, where I am not without
employment, and where, though the field will be less extensive, and the immediate
object somewhat different, there is much to be done. Bencoolen being in a great
measure shut out from the general trade of the Eastern Islands, and ha\’ing no trade
of its own, the first and main point to be attended to is its agi'icultm*e ; and I am
now busily engaged in clearing forests, di’aining morasses, and cultivating the soil.

I hope the present year the grain produce will be increased at least two-fold,
and go on in a geometrical proportion for many years to come, until we become an
exporting rather than an importing comitry. Every man is obliged to cultivate
sufficient grain for his own subsistence, either with his own hands or his proper
funds, and I have already had the satisfaction of seeing a large portion of the people
turn from habits of idleness to those of industry and activity. By establishing a
right of property in the soil, and ghing the preference to the actual cultivator, an
extraordinary competition has been excited, and my time is now engaged for many
hours in the day, in settling boundaries and claims to land, w'hich a year ago may
be said to have been without owner or claimant.

“ But it is not to the grain cultivation alone that I am directing my attention ;
I am attempting to introduce the cultivation and manufacture of sugar on the same
principle as in the West Indies, and to extend the coffee, pepper, and other plan-
tations.

“ I find that a sugar-work may be estabhshed here at less than one-sixth of the
expense which must be incurred at Jamaica ; that our soil is superior, our climate
better, and, as we are neither troubled with hurricanes nor yellow fever, that our
advantages are almost beyond comparison greater. For instance, in an estate cal-
culated to afford tw'o hundred or two hundred and fifty tons of sugar annually, the
land alone Vv^ould cost eight thousand or ten thousand pounds in Jamaica, while
here it may be had for nothing. The negroes would there cost ten or twelve thou-
sand pounds more, while here labourers may be obtained on contract, or by the
month, with a very moderate advance, at wages not higher than necessary for their
subsistence. The other expenses of a West India plantation are estimated at ten
thousand pounds more ; so that before any return can be received, an outlay of at
least thirty thousand pounds must be made. Here about five thousand pounds may
be considered to cover every expense, including thirteen hundred pounds for ma-
chinery fi-om England, and every outlay before the sugar is made. A gentleman
has come over from Jamaica, and is establishing a very extensive plantation. He is

LETTER TO THE DUKE OF SOMERSET.

467

now engaged in planting the cane, and, in about a year hence, he will commence
his sugar. Water-mills, &c. have been applied for from Liverpool, and if the under-
taking should turn out favourably, as I have no doubt it will, I trust it will not be
long before his example is generally followed. Coffee and other tropical productions
may of course be cultivated here with equal advantages ; and, considering the pre-
sent state of capital and labour in England, I cannot help regretting that the public
attention is not turned to the advantages which might result from colonizing this
part of Sumatra, Our advantages over the West Indies are not only in soil, climate,
and labour, but also in constant markets. The West Indies always look to the
European market, and that alone : here we have the India and China markets,
besides an extensive local demand. The only thing against us is the freight, which is
of course somewhat higher, on account of the greater distance ; but if from the West
Indies the planter could afford to send his sugar home at ten pounds per ton, war-
freight, he may surely pay five pounds per ton, peace-freight, which is the present
rate. In consequence of the advantages of this Island being unknown, many British
subjects have established sugar and coffee plantations in Java, and are, in conse-
quence, now enriching a foreign colony by their labour and capital, while we are
suffering from the want of both.

“ The present regulations of the East India Company are adverse to coloniza-
tion ; but under the existing circumstances of the country, I should think that body
would not oppose any feasible plan which could be devised for affording relief. The
Eastern Islands are so differently circumstanced to the continent of India, that the
principle which is considered to apply against colonization in the latter, does not
hold good in the former. It is here by colonization, by European talents and Chi-
nese labour alone, that the resources of the country can be brought forward, whereas
in India the country is for the most part cultivated to the highest pitch, and occu-
pied by an industrious race of inhabitants.

“ I much fear the expectations of advantageous colonization at the Cape will be
disappointed. It is sending poverty to feed on poverty ; and the most that can be
expected by the settlers, after a life of toil and misery, is a bare subsistence. The
climate, it is true, is more congenial to an European constitution, but this is all ; in
every other respect we have the advantage not only over the Cape, but over the West
Indies, America, New Holland, or any other place that could be named — Java always
excepted. The climate is certainly warm and unfavourable to Europeans, but I be-
heve I may safely affirm, that it is the most pleasant, if not the most healthy within
the tropics. In the mountainous districts the heat is by no means great, and I have
already estabhshed a regular supply of potatoes, which are extensively cultivated in
the interior district, and which previous to our arrival were always imported. Wheat
also grows, and Indian corn may be cultivated with great advantage : our cattle may

3 o 2

468

LETTER TO THE DUKE OF SOMERSET.

easily be increased, and the breed improved ; and water-carriage is to be found in
almost every direction, in the numerous rivers which descend from the central moun-
tains to the sea.

The principle, however, on which colonists settle here must be very different
to what it appears to be at the Cape ; here nothing can be done without capital, every
thing with it. Capitalists in England must either send out their relatives, or lend
their money on mortgage to some active and intelligent planter. Any young man
of steady habits and common sense, whose father cannot obtain emplojnnent for him
at home, but who can advance him from four to five thousand pounds, may thus
establish himself, and create an estate of three or four thousand pounds a year for
his descendants. These principals in the concern would require under-surveyors,
coopers, distillers, miters, &c., and each estate would give employment to several
Europeans. The Chinese and natives would be the manual labourers, as the negroes
are in the West Inches.

Politically, the colonization of that part of Sumatra which belongs to the Bri-
tish Government would be very important, as it would enable us to make a stand
against the Dutch encroachments. They are colonizing Java very fast ; and, not-
withstanding om* power on the continent of India, they might easily overrun and
occupy, to our exclusion, every possession between the Straits of Sunda and Chma.

“ I have to apologize to your Grace for these hasty remarks, but they are ch'awn
forth by the regret that the forty thousand paupers sent to the Cape had not, on a
different principle and more enlightened plan, found their way here, w'here, indepen-
dent of the advantages I have already pointed out, they might have assisted in
extending our spice gardens, and dragging the golden ore from our mines.

“ Whatever may be done towards paying off the national debt, or reducing the
interest, we must still have recourse to extensive emigration, and the sooner we open
our colonies to the settler the better. If w^e delay too long, much of the capital and
industry will have found their way into foreign countries, and, by assisting our rivals,
check our own speculations.

“ The West Incha merchants and proprietors might at one time have inveighed
against colonization in the East, and I know they w^ere decidedly opposed to the re-
tention of Java on this account : but the progress in Sumatra will be slow, and the
abolition of the slave trade has so effectually destroyed their prospects, that they
must necessarily retrograde, so that their opposition will be of less w^eight. At all
events, what is done in Sumatra will take nothing from them direct ; and, as far as I
can judge, they would find it more to their advantage to embark themselves and their
machinery, and change their residence to the East. The superior advantages there
would soon repay the expenses of transport.”

LAKES IN SUMATRA.

469

To W. Marsden, Esq.

Bencoolen, August 27th, 1820.

We are now thinking of delaying the publication of the plants until a more
general view of the natural history of these Islands can be taken, and we think they
might form an advantageous appendix to a work which we purpose to entitle ‘ An
Introduction to the Natural History of the Eastern Islands ; ’ the frame-work of
which has been completed, but which will require perhaps a year or two for the
details.

‘‘ I have just been closing a large consignment of subjects in spirits and
skeletons.

You will have learned that the cassowary is not a native of Java; it is not
found west of the Moluccas, and in them I believe is confined exclusively to one
of the large Islands, either Halhambipa or Ceram, I forget which.

I have written to you so fully lately, that I am not aware that I have any
thing of moment left to communicate, except the discovery of the lake in the Lam-
pung country, at the back of Croee, which has been visited and examined in the
last four months. The length of the lake is about twelve miles, the breadth eight ;
the population is thin upon its banks, and but few boats. None of these carry
sails : the people have a superstitious aversion to hoisting them, under an apprehen-
sion that the sails will in\ite the wind, upset the boat, or in other words, that they
will raise the devil by it.

“ I have made a sketch of the shape and position of this lake, and have sent
another party with compasses, &c. to correct our former observations, and also to
collect minerals in its vicinity, and the best information attainable of the country
beyond it.

“ I have had an opportunity of examining the third lake, namely, that of
Koiintki.

“ The only important lake not yet ascertained is that of Toba, in the Batta
country. The moment I can well leave Marlborough, I piu'pose making an incur-
sion into the Batta country to ascertain this and many other interesting points, and
if I am not eaten on the journey I have no doubt the results will repay the labour.

I am at present confined to Marlborough, on account of the positive orders of the
Court of Directors, who would seem inclined to limit my perambulations as much
as possible, lest they should excite the jealousy of our friendly allies the Dutch ; but
for this, you should long before this time have had an account of the sources of
most of the principal rivers. I do not think the source of the Siak river can be
correctly laid down, and with respect to the Tulang Bawang river I am still more
puzzled, and am much in want of scientific and even practical assistance.

I have applied to the Bengal government respecting the want of surveys on

470

POPULATION OF SUMATRA.

this coast above Tappanooly, and I hope that authority will be inclined to attend to
the subject. In the mean time I am collecting all the information I can.

“ I am at present deeply engaged in the details of Bencoolen, taking statistical
accounts of our population, &c. I propose printing them, as the only means of
securing the safety of the record, and turning the pubhc attention of the place to
the further prosecution of similar inquiries hereafter. They will furnish excellent
data a hundred years hence to judge of the advance or decline of the place. Our
first agi'icultural report is finished, and I think you will not only admit the facts but
concur in the reasoning.

Lady Raffles and the children continue to enjoy excellent health. She desires
to be most kindly remembered to Mrs. Marsden. I am obliged to insist on her
avoiding writing. Your godson is now three months old, and does credit to Ben-
coolen.

“ I fear I shall have often been very tedious in my repetitions ; the fact is, that
I have always so much public business in hand on the departure of a ship, and the
notice is generally so short, that I have no time to write a connected letter, or keep
copies of what I do write.

The population of the Batta country far surpasses my expectation ; it can
hardly be less than a million and a half.

“ The progress of the Padries, as they are called, has been surprising, and the
countries they have ravaged will excite your astonishment. I am collecting details
for a full account of their progress.

The population of the town of Marlborough, including Old Bencoolen and
Tengha Padang, is nearly 10,000 souls ; more than one-half more than I was led to
expect, when first I arrived here ; and there may be 5000 more in the Duablas and
Selapan districts, and the same in Soongy Lamou. The quantity of rice yet culti-
vated bears a very small proportion to the consumption. I have imported paddy and
other seed from Java, and I trust a few years will make a change in the face of the
country. I have induced a private individual to re-estabhsh the sugar-works at
Benterin, and I am in hopes my labours will not be thrown away.

“ The spice plantations have done wonders.

The statistical returns confirm your opinion of the infecundity of the people,
as they shew an uncommon dearth of children ; but they, at the same time, attest
the healthiness of the country by the very small number of deaths.

“ I have not been very well lately, and am rather apprehensive I am not
doomed to last much longer in a tropical climate. Unless, therefore, the public
authorities at home turn a more favourable eye towards me, I shall think of return-
ing at the close of my five years.”

ENDEAVOURS TO IMPROVE AGRICULTURE.

471

“ August 28, 182Q.

“ The total population here being 15,000, and the total quantity of rice raised
in the year only two months’ consumption, you are already informed of the measures
in progress for extending the rice-cultivation. Every man must now have his sawah,
and I make a point to set a good example, by raising fully sufficient for all my per-
sonal establishment.

“ The statistical returns have been taken with great accuracy ; every village
has been \dsited, &c.

“ Out of the number of 100,000 nutmeg-trees, one-fourth are in full bearing ;
and although their culture may be more expensive, their luxuriance and produce are
considered fully equal to those of the Moluccas. Captain Mackenzie, my second
assistant, having been seven years Resident in the Moluccas, we are able to form a
very fair comparative estimate. As you may wish to know the sort of arguments
which I use in inducing an agi'icultm’al spirit, I shall conclude this letter with the
concluding part of my address on the establishment of an agricultural society.

“ ‘ The first point for consideration is the limits we should prescribe to our-
selves for future operations ; on this I would recommend that we should on no
account extend them beyond the immediate vicinity of Bencoolen, or beyond the
reach of our personal observation. However ill-judged may have been the selection
of Bencoolen for our principal settlement, let us recollect that it is the place where
w^e can be most practically useful, and that the greater the difficulties, the greater
will be the merit of overcoming them.

“ ‘ The spice cultivation has been established against almost every possible
obstacle. This will be sufficient to prove what can be done by the zeal and per-
severance of a few individuals, and should encourage your future exertions.

“ ‘ I think there is much to condemn in the choice you have made of the soil,
and in the mode of manuring ; but I trust your intelligence, when concentrated by
the means of this society, will lead to the correction of these errors, and render the
returns of the gardens more commensurate with the zeal and industry bestowed upon
them. I cannot help thinking that, had you selected an allurial soil instead of the
barren and unproductive hills on which your plantations now stand, you would have
saved yourself much unnecessary expense and labour, and succeeded more effectu-
ally in spreading the plants over the country.

* * * * ^ ^ ^

“ ‘ The recent orders of government AviU go far towards the improvement of
yom* plantations, by directing your attention to the necessity of supplying your
people and cattle ^vith food, and I should hope it would not be long before each
plantation has its farm, and raises its supplies within itself.

472

ENDEAVOURS TO IMPROVE AGRICULTURE.

“ ' I am more anxious however to impress on yom' minds the greater importance
of the gi'ain cultivation of the country, as generally carried on by the native inhabi-
tants. It is on this that every thing must depend, for until a sufficient quantity of
rice is raised for the consumption of the country, it would be wild to talk of pros-
perity. All om- efforts must be directed to the attainment of this one great object,
and this once attained, all others will I trust follow easily. ^\'e must quit the high
lands, and abandon the forest cultivation, ^^'e must descend into the plain, and
form sawahs or irrigated rice-fields. We must assist the poprdation by our superior
intelligence, and endeavoiu* to prove to them their true interests. We must make
om'selves more intimately acquainted with their character and feehngs, rouse them
to exertion, and point out the means by which their happiness and prosperity may
be best augmented. We must go hand-in-hand with government in the introduction
of order and regulation, as far as our influence extends, and finally determine on
success, and persevere in om* exertions until we attain it.

“ ‘ I recommend you to abandon all former opinions on the incorrigible laziness
of the people and unproductiveness of the soil, and to allow time for the complete
operation of the change of system which has taken place, before you form a judg-
ment on these important points.’

* * Jie Jje * *

“ One word more before I say farewell. That you may not misunderstand me
as to my opinion with regard to the changes which have taken place since the re-
duction of the estabhshment in 1801, and the good old system which pre\dously
prevailed, the following extracts from our first agi'icultural report will be the best
elucidation of my sentiments on the subject ; and I think we shall in the end come
to pretty nearly the same point, though we may have gone a different way about.

“ ‘ There appears little doubt that the population in the neighbourhood has
greatly decreased, and that the country was once in a more flourishing condition.
The diminution of the population has been estimated by some at fully one-half ; the
extensive tracts of now abandoned lands to be seen in various places, particularly in
the neighbourhood of the Sellibar River, attest the fact of the deterioration. This
unfavom'ahle alteration is unanimously dated from the period of the change of go-
vernment and system in 1801 ; and it deserves inquiry, how the introduction of an
administration acknowledgedly purer and more enlightened, operated to produce
this effect. It will be particularly interesting at the present moment, in order that
by observing the errors of the past we may learn how to avoid the same dangers for
the future » * * * * *

“ ‘ Previously to that time affairs were conducted by a Governor and Council,
who were in fact the chief managers of a great mercantile concern, and held in their
hands the whole trade of the country. Being merchants on private account as well
as agents of the Company, their own interests were intimately connected with its

REPORT OF THE SUMATRAN AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

473

prosperity ; and though they exercised the monoj>oly, and required the services of
the people in the cultivation of the pepper, they could not but see their own ad-
vantage in promoting their industry. In supplying them with every article of import
a mutual intercourse of good offices took place, and a close connexion was main-
tained between the Government and the people. An order then existed that every
individual should sow not less than five bamboos of rice, and that article was conse-
quently but little imported from abroad. Foreign settlers, both Chinese and Euro-
pean, were encouraged and protected. Sixty Germans were at one time sent from
Europe, and settled in the neighbourhood of Bencoolen. Sugar was extensively
cultivated, and a considerable trade centred in the port. A commercial government
might not in principle have been a very pure one, or very conducive to the ultimate
interests of the people, but the mutual dependence on each other engendered a kind
of parental consideration on the one hand, and respect on the other, that gave it
somewhat of an amiable character. The connection which subsisted between them
bore some resemblance to that which prevailed in the times of feudalism. Whatever
was the distance between the vassal and his lord, whatever might be the poverty of
the former, and the arbitrary disposition of the latter, there was a species of mutual
dependence, a reciprocity of services, that softened its darker features, and almost
atoned for its evil.’

“ This, you will admit, is saying enough on one side of the question ; now for
the other.

“ ‘ From the period above mentioned, when Bencoolen became a dependency
on Bengal, these men were succeeded by others, who had acquired their ideas of na-
tive character among a very different race of people ; and who, considering this as a
temporary residence, and entering into no commercial speculations, had little induce-
ment to become acquainted with the language and people, and but little sympathy
with their local interests. Many of the subsequent measures have been already
noticed.

^ ^ *

“ ‘ The mutual distrust to which these occurrences gave rise, had gone on in-
creasing of late years, and contributed to the further deterioration of the country.
Little intercourse was held with the Chiefs, and scarcely any communication with
the interior or with the people. Neither Chiefs nor people could place confidence in
an authority to which they were, in a gi’eat measure, denied access ; nor could that
authority place confidence in men, with whose character and sentiments it was, from
want of communication, necessarily unacquainted. It appears latterly to have been
the object of Government to make this settlement dependent in every thing upon
Bengal, and to keep as distinct and remote as possible from tbe natives of the
country.

474

REPORT OF THE SUMATRAN AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

“ ‘ In reviewing the train of circumstances that have conducted to the present
state of the country and people, we are forced to admit there has been much mis-
government ; and if we now find the people poor, lazy, avaricious, and intractable,
we must pause to consider how much of those vices may not be owing to the circum-
stances in which they have been placed, and the treatment they have experienced.
We have seen, on the one hand, inattention to the character and habits of the people,
and an arbitrary tone of proceeding lead to serious and fatal en'ors ; and, on the
other, we have seen contracted and partial views, and the bias communicated to the
mind by local habits and prejudices, prove still more certainly ruinous and destruc-
tive. The one brought destruction on the individual (Mr. Parr), the other brought
ruin on the settlement. Temper and address may be requisite to effect improvement
with safety and success, but temporizing measures can only perpetuate misery and
desolation.

“ ‘ I will not detain you with the catalogue of causes which have contributed,
since 1801, to the ruin and declension of the settlement ; you know them gene-
rally.’

“ The following conclusion to the Report will, I doubt not, be satisfactory to

you

“ ‘ In the view now taken of the condition of this settlement, if the picture of
the past and present is not veiy bright and flattering, it will be admitted that there
is nothing discouraging in the prospect before us. Much remains to be done, and
success will not be attained without exertion ; but of the ultimate result there seems
no reason to despair. In the consideration of the past, we think there is sufficient
eridence of mismanagement fully to account for the settlement having not only failed
to advance, but having actually retrograded. The experience of all ages and times
has showm that monopoly and slavery are utterly inconsistent with the prosperity of
a country. Under both these evils has Bencoolen laboured. Under the old govern-
ment there were concomitant circumstances that softened many of the harsher fea-
tures of the system, and counteracted some of its ruinous tendencies. On the change
in 1801, though a considerable reform wus effected, enough of the old leaven re-
mained to vitiate and taint the whole. The former fabric was overthrown, but the
new one was erected on the same foundations of monopoly and forced serrices. It
was purer, perhaps, in as far as regards the Company ; hut to the people it brought
no benefit whatever, while it took aw^ay all that reconciled them to the former govern-
ment.

* * ^ ^ *

“ ‘ Our interests are inseparably connected with those of the native inhabitants,
and there cannot be a greater error than to suppose them distinct or opposed to
each other * * * * \Yq therefore look forward

with confidence to brighter prospects and to happier times, wiien industry shall

EXERTIONS TO CIVILIZE THE SUMATRANS.

475

revive, agriculture flourish, and Bencoolen, no longer a blot in our Indian history,
shall rise to more than pristine prosperity.’

I am afraid, my dear Sir, you will long ere this have been tired with this old
and long story ; at all events, I hope you will consider it an earnest of my desire to
prove to you that I am not inattentive to the real interests of the place entrusted to
my immediate charge.

Lady Raffles and my dear children continue to enjoy excellent health. Marco
Polo thrives apace, and is every thing you could wish.”

The spice gardens, of which there were now many in the neighbourhood of
Bencoolen, added greatly to its interest and beauty ; Sir Stamford’s residence in the
country was twelve miles from the town, and though on first making the attempt to
persuade people to live out of the settlement, no servant even could be induced to
venture three miles after sunset, at this time (1823) there were various country-
houses on the road to Permattam Ballam, (his country-house,) all of them surrounded
by plantations. The clove trees as an avenue to a residence are perhaps unrivalled,
their noble height, the beauty of their form, the luxuriance of their foliage, and
above all the spicy fragrance with which they perfiime the air, produce, in driving
through a long line of them, a degree of exquisite pleasure only to be enjoyed in
the clear light atmosphere of these latitudes.

“ Bencoolen, September 23d, 1820.

“ I am doing more good here and at Singapore, at Nattal Tappanooly, and
Nias. I am making a country and a garden out of a wilderness, and I trust I am
laying the foundation of the future civilization of Sumatra : the independence of
the Eastern commerce I have already established. My letters from Bengal say that
all my plans are lauded at home, but others are larded for them, and that it is feared
I must limit my recompense to the gratifying sense of my public services. My
friends say, ‘ Do not, however, allow any penury in your superiors to damp your
zeal ; for you can at all times shew to whose intelligence we are indebted for the
civilization and independence of the Eastern countries.’ Are they right ?

“ My attention is at this moment directed to the Island of Nias, lying off Nat-
tal, a little to the north of Padang : it contains a population of from one to two
hundred thousand active, intelligent, and industrious people, and is the granary of
this coast. The people are heathens, and in great want of civilization and improve-
ment, and I contemplate a fine field for philanthropic exertions.

“ Sophia will write you all domestic news. For myself I do not feel my health
so good as it was, and I fear I cannot at the outside remain with any comfort above
a year or two longer in India : I therefore think you will see us in 1823 or 1824 at
farthest.

3 p 2

476

LETTER TO THE DUCHESS OF SOMERSET.

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Bencoolen, October 9, 1820.

“ We are still remaining very quietly at Bencoolen, and I fear the detail of an
agricultural life, which mine is at present, is too monotonous to afford many incidents
to interest you at such a distance, were I to attempt any description of my present
occupations. After having drawn together all the wild animals of the forests, and
collected the rich plants of the mountains, I am now endeavouring to tame the one
and cultivate the other, and have undertaken the arduous task of converting a wil-
derness into a garden. I have established a law, that every man shall sow gi-ain
enough for the consumption of himself and family. I am making new roads and
water-comses, regulating the police of my villages, abolishing slavery and bond-ser-
vice, forcing the idle to be industrious and the rogues to be honest. But all this
would not be half so interesting in description as a Batta feast, or the discovery of
some new and wild race.

* *

“ In my last letter I intimated to your Grace that I am now turning my
thoughts homewards ; one-half of my period of banishment has certainly passed
over, and in 1823, or the beginning of 1824, you will certainly see us. I know of
nothing that would induce me to remain longer. My health, I am soriy to say, is
not so good as it was. I feel the effects of climate very seriously, and on this
account, if I had no other inducement, I should hasten home. In a public point of
view, all I wish is, to remain long enough to see my settlement at Singapore firmly
established, and lay something like a substantial foundation for the future cinlization
of Sumatra : two or three years will be sufficient for this, and then I shall have an
object at home in endeavouring to uphold and further w'hat will have been so far
proceeded on. My great object, the independence of the Eastern Islands, has been
attained.

“ Lady Raffles and my dear children continue to enjoy excellent health.
Leopold is the wonder of all wiio see him. Charlotte speaks English very dis-
tinctly, and finds no difficulty in Malay and Hindostanee, and it is curious to observe
how she selects her language to the different natives. To us or her nurse she
ahvays speaks English ; to a Malay she is fluent in his language, and in an instant
begins Hindostanee to a Bengalee : if she is sent with a message, she translates it at
once into the language of the servant she meets with. She is only tw'O years and a
half old ; such is the tact of children for acquiring languages. She always dines
with us when w’e are alone, and the cloth is no sooner removed, than in bounces
Master Leopold, singing and laughing, and occupying his place. Mr. Silvio, the
Siamang, is then introduced, and I am often accused of paying more attention to the

PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION.

477

monkey than the children. This last gentleman is so great a favourite, and in such
high spirits, that I hope to take him to England with the family, and introduce him
to my little friend Anna Maria.”

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Bencoolen, October 9, 1820.

“ I have now the pleasure to send you the third paper on our Malayan plants.
These are only to be considered notices made at the moment, where we have not
the advantage of reference to late publications, or communication with scientific
friends. The paper contains an account of the nepenthes, sago, camphor, several
new mangifera, many ligna vitas, the melastomas, &c. You will recognize many
of your old friends, particularly the kayu gadis, or \irgin tree.

“ Under Stj^helia you will find an interesting observation respecting Sin-
gapore. We have not half gathered the rich harvest which surrounds our set-
tlement, but I think you will give me credit for what has been done. I am now
expecting an abundant supply of new matter from Pulo Nias and the northern parts
of Sumatra ; and I hope, in the course of next year, again to visit Singapore,
and pick up something on the Eastern coast in addition to our present botanical
stores.”

To Thomas Murdoch, Esq.

“ Bencoolen, October 9, 1820.

“ As my letter of July 22d was written at a time when I was very much hurried,
I am anxious to correct any hasty expression I may have used, and to explain more
fully my reasons for now becoming so strong an advocate for despotic authority.
There appear to be certain stages and gradations through which society must run
its course to ci\ilization, and which can no more be overleaped or omitted, than
men can arrive at maturity without passing through the gradations of infancy and
youth. Independence is the characteristic of the savage state ; but while men con-
tinue disinterested, and with little mutual dependence on each other, they can never
become civilized.

“ The acquisition of power is necessary to unite them and to organize society,
and it would perhaps be difficult to instance a nation which has arisen from bar-
barism without having been subjected to despotic authority in some shape or other.
The most rapid advances have probably been made, when great power has fallen
into enlightened and able hands ; in such circumstances nations become wealthy and
powerful, refinement and knowledge are diffused, and the seeds of internal freedom
are sown in due time, to rise and set limits to that power whenever it may engender
abuse. Freedom thus founded on knowledge and a consideration of reciprocal
rights, is the only species that deserves the name, and it would be folly to conceive

478

PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION.

the careless independence of the savage as deserving of equal respect. In order to
render an uncivilized people capable of enjoying true liberty, they must first feel
the weight of authority, and must become acquainted wth the mutual relations of
society.

“ Wliether the power to which they bow be the despotism of force, or the des-
potism of superior intellect, it is a step in their progress which cannot be passed
over. Knowledge is power, and in the intercourse between enlightened and igno-
rant nations, the fonner must and ^^ill be the rulers. Instead, therefore, out of an
affected respect for the customs of savages, of abstaining fi-om all interference, and
endeavouring to peiq)etuate the institutions of barbarism, ought it not rather to
be our study to direct to the advancement and improvement of the people, that
power and influence with which our situation and character necessarily invests us ?

“ Power we do and have possessed ; we have employed it in the most arbitrary
of all modes, in the exaction of forced serrices and in the monopoly of the produce
of the countr}^ While, as if in mockery, we have professed to exercise no inter-
ference ^rith the native administration of the country, we have made ourselves the
task-masters of the people, and with a false humility have refused to be their gover-
nors. Ought we not to discard this empty pretence ? The people are now firing
without a head to direct them, for we have destroyed the power of the native Chiefs ;
both reason and humanity would urge us to take the management into our own
hands, and to repair the mischief of a hundred years, by affording them a regular
and organised government. Instead of compelling their services for our o\\ti com-
mercial monopoly, while w^e leave them in their original ignorance and barbarism,
and by reducing them to the condition of slaves, shut the door of improvement
against them, ought we not to endeavour to direct their industry to objects bene-
ficial to themselves, and by securing to them the benefits of their labour, raise them
by degrees in the scale of cirifization ?

“ The case at Bencoolen is altogether different from what it was in Java at the
time of our occupation of it, arising entirely from the comparatively higher state of
civilization to which the inhabitants of that Island had attained : and even then, in
some of the mountainous and less civilized districts, it was questionable whether the
period had yet arrived when the people were competent to advance by their own
unaided efforts, and they were therefore stiU left in some measure under the imme-
diate sway of their Chiefs. By far the larger portion of the inhabitants of Java had
already passed that stage, and were thereby prepared for entering on the enjoyment
of a higher and improved condition.

“ I have troubled you with the above observations, that you may be prepared
for the arguments in which I found my assumption of sovereign power. Tp'ants
seldom want an excuse, and in becoming a despot, I am desirous to give you mine.
Hereafter, when I have an opportunity of explaining to you more fully the real

CONDITIONS OF JAVA AND SUMATRA CONTRASTED.

479

state of the country, I shall easily convince you that my premises are correct. Our
friend Marsden will, I think, admit at once that they are so ; but the course I am
pursuing is so opposite to his notions, as expressed in his History, that I despair of
carrying him along with me without a struggle. I know he is kind enough to place
great confidence in me, and to be fully satisfied with my motives ; but I fear that
he looks upon some of my plans as visionary and speculative. They may be so,
and I am willing to admit that they are not without the latter quality, but I cannot
be one of your tacit spectators of barbarism. It is well to say, let things remain
as they are — they have gone on well enough heretofore, why introduce new specu-
lations of improvement while the people are content ? This might perhaps have
been said, if not acted upon, if the thing had been possible. Some few years since,
in England, when the people were in the enjoyment of more substantial happiness
than recent reforms, or attempts to introduce them, are likely to prove, Eng-
land may have been said, if not to have reached the summit, at all events, to have
attained an eminence above all other nations ; and, in all further attempts, we were
necessarily without the aid of experience. But can this be said of Sumatra, or more
particularly of Bencoolen, where the people are at least a thousand years behind
their neighbours the Javanese ? Surely not.

“ If you would know the extent of my speculations, I would be you to contrast
the present conditions of Java and Sumatra. From the hand of God, Sumatra has
perhaps received higher advantages and capabihties than Java, but no two countries
form a more decided contrast in the use which has been made of them by man.
While Sumatra remains in a great part covered with its primeval forests, and ex-
hibiting but scattered traces of human industry, Java has become the granary and
the garden of the East. In the former, we find man inactive, sullen, and partaking
of the gloom of the forests ; while in the latter he is active and cheerful. They are
considered to have sprung from the same general stock, and the Strait which sepa-
rates them is not twenty miles across. How are we to account for the difference ?

“ It is not hkely that I shall give the Dutch credit for having had much share
in the improvement of Java, but they are not without some claims in this respect.
We must seek the causes elsewhere. I shall not now attempt to enter into them,
but I wish much to remove the idea that Sumatra is by nature less fertile than Java.
Wretched as our west coast districts may be, I can affirm that the soil of the interior
is for the most part rich and productive. No country is better watered ; its navi-
gable rivers afford a striking contrast to the want of them in Java ; the population
cannot well fall short of three millions, and in some parts agriculture is equally ad-
vanced with Java. We have, unfortunately, selected the very worst spots, and
adopted the very worst system of government — and to this alone should be attri-
buted our failure.

“ Now for my speculation. Palembang still remains independent, though the

480

CAPABILITIES OF SUMATRA.

Dutch blockade the river’s mouth *. Let the independaiice of this state be esta-
blished : we want no more. Palembang is able to govern itself — the people are
nearly as far advanced as those in Java, and recent events are fast consolidating
them into a great and powerful nation. Let the Dutch resign Padang, as not
strictly coming within the tenns of the convention which should refer to the status
quo ante helium of 1801, and not of 1795, and I ask no more than a carte blanche
for five years to make Sumatra more important — more valuable to England, than
even Java would have been. I would spend no more money in effecting this than
is now annually thrown away at Bencoolen, and I would lay the foundation of a
colony which, to a commercial nation like England, should eventually sm'pass
all others.

“ By opening the communication between Bencoolen and Palembang, the
grand navigable river of the latter place would be the outlet for all the rich produce
of the interior, including the spices of Bencoolen. The Jambi, Siak, and other
rivers to the northward would again be opened as the great channels of trade, while
om* stations on the west coast, which I would still maintain, would be our military
posts, whence all the rivers and all the interior of the country would be commanded.
I would open a high road along the centre of the Island, from one end to the other,
and the rivers should be my transverse pathways. I would assume supremacy with-
out interfering with the just independence of other states. I w'ould be the protector
of the native states. I would, in fact, re-establish the ancient authority of Menang-
kabu, and be the great Mogul of the Island. I w'oidd, without much expence, afford
employment for twenty or thirty thousand English colonists, and I w'oidd soon give
employment to as much British tonnage, and as many British seamen as are now
engaged in the West India trade.

“ In short, what would I not, and indeed wiiat could I not do, were I free to
act, and encoui'aged rather than abused ?

* On Sir Stamford’s going to Bencoolen, the Sultan of Palembang appealed to him against the conduct
of the Dutch, who claimed to exercise their former power over the Sultan, and were determined to re-establish
it by force. It may be proper to explain, that the territories of Palembang and Bencoolen join, and that
whatever affected the former state, had an immediate influence on the other. The Sultan, as might be ex-
pected, appealed to the nearest British authority to protect him. The treaty by which the Island of Banca
was ceded to the English Government in 1812, stipulated that they should maintain the Sultan on his
throne. By the convention of 1814 they ceded Banca to the Dutch. Tlieonly right to make such cession
was in virtue of the treaty of 1812 : it was therefore not possible to hesitate in the line of conduct neces-
sary to pursue. There was no other resident British power nearer than Prince of Wales’ Island; and the
fact of a Dutch line-of-battle ship lying opposite Palembang, clearly evinced the impossibility which ex-
isted of the Sultan’s holding any communication with the government on that Island.

Under these circumstances Sir Stamford felt bound to enter a protest against the proceedings of the
Netherlands’ Government at Batavia, and to send hon-e direct to the Court of Directors a statement of their
conduct. But the Court of Directors strongly disapproved of his liaving interfered in any way, and con-
demned this effort to uphold the honour and credit of the British Government.

DEATH OF MR. HULL.

481

“ This, I am willing to admit, is all very speculative, and I am sorry to be obliged
to add, also very visionary, for there is no chance of my ever attempting any thing
of the kind — the time has gone by when I had the spirit for it. I have met with so
much injustice and ill-usage on the part of the authorities at home, that the charm is
gone, my confidence is lost, and I only think of these changes as what might have
been, had circumstances been more favourable.

“ I am now confining myself strictly to our own petty states on the coast, and
surely what I am doing in them is rather practical than speculative. What I am
doing, will not only benefit these districts immediately, but may enable some subse-
quent authority, less harassed by an unconfiding government at home, to enlarge the
sphere for the extension of British principles ; I shall be content with what is imme-
diate and practical.

I am afraid, after all, that I shall have failed to prove to you, that in advocat-
ing despotism, I am the true and steady friend of national freedom. If so, I must
rely on your friendship to be satisfied with my assertion ; if, on the contrary, you
admit my arguments, pray enforce them with Mr. Marsden, as I would rather have
his concurrence than the first authority the British legislature could give : he will
not approve without being convinced ; but if he still thinks me speculative, it may be
suificient to say that I have relinquished the only speculation which deserved the name
of one, and am now a plain practical man.

“ Pray make our united regards, &c.

To prove to you that when I assume and advocate despotic authority, I do
not forget that men have rights, it may be sufficient to observe that I have abolished
the whole system of slaves and slave-debtors, so intimately interwoven with what are
called the native institutions of the country ; that a time has been fixed at which the
condition of actual slavery shall cease to exist ; and that for the system of slave-
debtors, I have substituted one of free contract, and this with the full and hearty con-
currence of the native Chiefs and the European population.”

“ Bencoolen, October 27, 1820.

“ The enclosed letters are to convey most melancholy tidings.

* * * * «

“ The affliction they announce is a most severe one ; we have lost poor Robert
Hull, and now mourn his death in all the agony of grief and wretchedness. He died
on the 24th instant, after a severe illness of five days, which he bore with exemplary
fortitude and resignation. The immediate cause of his death was inflammation of
the bowels ; but he never recovered from the illness occasioned by the fatigue and
exposure of the last campaign, and on accoimt of which he was absent from his sta-
tion. Poor Sophia and Nilson attended him day and night during his illness and last

3 Q

482

EXTENSION OF AGRICULTURE.

moments, and have suffered a severe shock ; but the first and most \iolent effects are
now subsiding, and I hope in a short time they \vill gain strength and spirits by quiet
and resignation.

“ Every thing here is going on very quietly, the place manifestly improving fast,
and a spirit of industry and activity beginning to supersede the dull lethargic torpor
which so lately prevailed.

“ The attention of every one is directed to agiiculture, and I find my little expe-
rience in Java of some importance in directing the labours of the people of this coast,
who have still so much to learn from their neighbours.”

CHAPTER XVII.

Sir Stamford forms an establishment on the Island of Nias for the suppression of slavery — Sufficient spices
raised at Bencoolenfor the supply of Great Britain — Description of the Island of Nias — Its popula-
tion, Exports, Slaves — Period of proposed return to England — Poggie Islands — Description of the
people — Death of Sir Stamford's eldest boy — Death of Captain Auber — Missionaries engaged in print-
ing Malay Bible — Illness of another child — Intended publication on commercial prospects — Deaths of
two children — Youngest child sent to England — Retired life — Expectation of Mr. Canning as Governor
General — Sir Stamfords opinion of the state of England — Arrival of a party for the measurement of
the pendulum at the Equator — Death of Dr. Jack — Voyage to Singapore.

The suppression of slavery was never lost sight of by Sir Stamford Raffles ; it was
connected with all his views, pohtical or commercial ; and when he found it pre-
vailed to a serious extent in an Island (Pulo Nias) in the immediate neighbourhood
of the British power, he was anxious to make some effort to reheve the inhabitants
from this oppression ; and as the English Resident at Tappanooly and Nattal had
always maintained a small estabhshment in the Island, it appeared an object of easy
attainment. The following letters contain references to this subject :

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Bencoolen, January 19, 1821.

“ I have much satisfaction in reporting that the Chiefs of Pulo Nias have ceded
the sovereignty of that Island to the Company. Our principal station is at Tello
Dalum, near the southern extremity, and in a fine harbour, affording good and safe
shelter and accommodation for ships of any size, at all seasons of the year. The
extent of population and cultivation, and the general state of civilization, have far
exceeded my most sanguine expectations. The population is certainly not less than
230,000 souls. Not a vestige of primeval forest is to be found on the Island ; the
whole has disappeared before the force of industry ; the whole Island is a sheet of
the richest cultivation that can be imagined, and the interior surpasses in beauty and
fertihty the richest parts of continental India, if not of Java.

The people, and in particular the Chiefs, are active and intelhgent, rich and
powerful, and, as far as we can judge of their character, are the very reverse of those

3 Q 2

4S4

FERTILITY OF THE ISLAND OF PULO NIAS.

we find on this coast. The exportation of rice annually is not less than twelve thou-
sand bags, of two maunds each. They have cheerfully entered into our views for
abolishing the slave-trade, and the people, and the country in general, promise
much.

“ I have only a few minutes to give you this information ; by the next convey-
ance you shall have all particulars.

“ My friends Dr. Jack and Mr. Prince have been in Nias for six weeks, and
have just returned, astonished and delighted with the people and the country. The
Island appears throughout to have been a base of lime, probably of coral origin,
and this will account for its fertility ; not a particle of our brick-like earth is to be
seen there ; deep black mould throughout.

“ I enclose you, under separate covers, two or three papers, which will fonn
part of om* first agi-icultural volume ; and I shall be extremely gratified to find that
you admit the correctness and justness of the rfews.

“ We are still without any accounts regarding Singapore, or the decision of the
commissioners in Europe. I hear the Dutch are follovrfng my steps at Padang, and
are about to build a fort at Surawasa. You will be surjnised to hear that
the exportation of coffee from Padang, diu-ing the last year, exceeded 15,000
peculs, and that it is expected to exceed 20,000 during the present. No less than
four ships are now there, taking in cargoes for Europe. Our coffee cultivation is alsa
rapidly extending ; but our means are small, and the unwise pohcy which restrains
Americans from trading at our port, is a sad check to our agricultural industry.

“ The Americans always carried dollars to exchange for produce, which made
them well-adapted to trade with a people whose wants were so few and confined as
the natives of Sumatra.

“ In a former letter, I stated the great improvement w'hich had taken place in
our rice cultivation, the quantity of seed being quadi'uple what it has been in any
former year.

“ The value of the landed-property belonging to Europeans and their descend-
ants, is estimated at 379,031 dollars, or, mcluding stock, at 445,437 dollars, and the
spice plantations belonging to natives at 75,445 dollars ; the average increase of
value in the last four years being above fifty per cent.

“ If Crawford’s statements are coiTect, our produce of nutmegs already exceeds
the average consumption of Great Britain ; and as the quality is fully equal, if not
superior, and the cultivators make no question as to price, Bencoolen has certainly
attained a point of prosperity which deserves attention.

“ It is hardly possible to conceive the numerous difficulties the planters have
hitherto had to contend Avith. The natural obstacles arising from the soil, and pecu-
liar condition of native society, have not been gi'eater than those thrown in the way
by Government. At one tune, an order w'as issued that no new plantations should

DEATH OF SIR JOSEPH BANKS.

485

be fornied ; at another, a heavy export-duty was established ; and down to the last
peace, we find a bounty granted in England to the cloves, &c. of Cayenne and
Bourbon, two war-possessions, while the spices of Bencoolen were subjected to the
same heavy duties as those of the Moluccas. The late act of Parliament, equalizing
the duties, gives the spices of Bencoolen, as far as the consumption of England goes,
an advantage of one shilhng per pound over foreign spices ; and if there were oppor-
tunities of sending them home direct, the London market would now be the most
favom-able, and amply repay the planters, notwithstanding the general depression of
prices. Were the Americans allowed to touch at Bencoolen, they would, by occa-
sioning a constant demand, act as a very powerful stimulus to our agriculture. At
Padang there are now four Americans taking in coffee. Here the Company’s
restrictions, &c. are such, that only one ship has sailed from hence for Europe
within the last three years. Our territorial hooks still show a dead loss of about
<£80,000 a year. 1 shall probably take an opportunity of addressing you more fully
on this subject, and in the meantime it may be satisfactory to you to know, that my
labours, though confined to a very unpromising and hmited pohcy, have not been
entirely useless.

“ Our dear little children enjoy excellent health, and are advancing most
rapidly ; Marco Polo is a fine intelhgent boy.”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Bencoolen, June 22, 1821.

“ We have an ugly report by the way of Batavia, that poor Sir Joseph Banks
is no more ! I fear it is too true, as by our last accounts he appeared nearly ex-
hausted. It was an event for which I ought to have been prepared ; but, notwith-
standing this, his death has been a severe shock to me, as it must have been to aU
who knew him, and could appreciate his inestimable value. When shall we meet
his like again, and by whom will his place be supphed ? He has left a sad blank.
To fill his place as he filled it is impossible. A successor, however, must be ap-
pointed ; and if talents, fortune, and entire devotion to the object cannot be found

united in one individual, rank must supply the deficiency.

* * * * * *

“ I am very much afraid that the death of Sir Joseph will go far to break the
heart of the Society. Many of the old and sterhng members will, I am sure, feel
the loss most deeply, and want heart to attend the future meetings. Much, how-
ever, nay every thing, will depend on the character of the new President.

“ I have a long account to send your Grace of my discoveries in Pulo Nias. I
believe I formerly told you that I was engaged in some arrangements for bringing
that Island under British authority. I am now happy to say that I have succeeded ;
the people have unreservedly become the subjects of Great Britain. As this is an

486

DESCRIPTION OF PULO NIAS.

Island almost unknown, and I may at least claim the merit of first visiting and
exploring its interior, some particulars may not be uninteresting, though I have
not time to say many words on them at present.

“ The Island is in sight of Sumatra, and seen by most ships passing. I find
the popidation to exceed 230,000 souls, on a surface of about 1500 square miles,
which gives a population of about 153 to the square mile ; the country most highly
cultivated, the soil rich, and the people the finest people, without exception, that I
have yet met with in the East. They are fair, and a strong, athletic, active race ;
industrious, ingenious, and intelligent, and forming a striking contrast to their neigh-
bours on the opposite coast of Sumatra. What has most astonished me is, the high
degree (comparatively) of civilization to which they have attained, without commu-
nication from without. We have no trace, no idea whence or how the Island
became peopled ; the people themselves say, a man and woman were first sent from
heaven, fi-om wiiom they are all descended. Their language, their habits, their
character, and institutions, are strikingly different from all others with which we are
acquainted. Hinduism never found its way to their shores, and only a few Maho-
medans, traders, are here and there to be found on the coast, but the religion itself
has made no way.

" They dwell in excellent and commodious houses, the interior of which are
laid out with neatness, not devoid of elegance ; streets are regularly formed and
paved, with avenues of trees, and stone stairs to the pinnacles of the different hills,
on which their villages are mostly situated, embosomed in the richest foliage ima-
ginable. The slopes of the hills and the valleys are covered with one continued
sheet of the richest cultivation, and there is not a forest tree standing in the Island ;
all have disappeared before the force of industry. To each village are attached
stone baths, appropriated to the different sexes, which remind us of Roman luxuries.
They w^ear a profusion of gold and other ornaments, than which nothing can be
conceived more original. I have a large collection now before me, and only wish I
could at once transfer them to Park-lane.

“ We have discovered an excellent harbour, and made two military stations
merely on account of the flag ; and hereafter I hope to have much satisfactory em-
ployment.

“ I am at this moment called away on particular business.”

To .

“ I beheve I may now affirm with safety, that Bencoolen alone will be able to
supply Great Britain with all the spices she requires. You may judge of the interest
of this kind of cultivation, when I inform you that the annual clear produce or
profit of an acre of nutmeg-trees is not less than ten pounds sterhng, and that we

SLAVE-TRADE AT PULO NIAS.

487

are covering the whole land with our parks of them. Nothing can be more beau-
tiful than an avenue of clove-trees ; the luxuriant foliage and the fragrance of the
air make it charming.

“ My attention has been drawn to the Island of Nias, which is situated opposite
the settlement of Tappanooly and Nattal, and on which the Resident has always
maintained a small establishment.

Frequent representations had reached me from the Resident at Nattal, of the
dreadful ravages to which the country was exposed, from the operation of an active
slave trade, which was carried on at Nias : it was at the same time stated, that con-
siderable supplies of rice might be obtained for our population on the coast ; and as
the natives were tractable, faithful, and industrious, the prospect of inducing some to
emigrate, and assist in improving our possessions in Sumatra, formed additional rea-
sons for deputing a commission to that Island, for the purpose of collecting infonna-
tion on the above points.

“ Under the sanction of the Supreme Government, I appointed Mr. Christie to
proceed to Pulo Nias in the month of July, 1820. That gentleman was obhged to
return on account of ill health, after having visited only one of the ports. Captain
Sahnond, on his retmm from Tappanooly, surveyed some of its coasts. The joint in-
fonnation which they afforded was sufficient to invite further research, and I accord-
ingly nominated a commission of two gentlemen to proceed for the pui-pose of
adjusting the differences which then existed, and to provide for the tranquillity of the
country ; to obtain the most accurate information of its population and resources,
and to place the natives so far under the direct authority of the Company’s Govern-
ment, as to leave the question as to the future management of the Island entirely to
the judgment of the Governor General.

“ It is quite unnecessary for me to enlarge on the result of the mission, from
which we learnt that the population consisted of not less than 230,000 souls ; that
the state of cultivation was such as to furnish an export of 12,000 bags of rice
annually ; and that the number of slaves taken from Nias in each year exceeded
1500!

“ The circumstances that attended the latter inhuman traffic were of the most
appalling nature, and no less revolting than those which attached to the same abomin-
able commerce on the coast of Africa.

“ The unhappy victims, torn by violence from their friends and country, are
dehvered, pinioned hand and foot, to the dealers in hmnan flesh, and kept bound
during the whole course of the voyage. Instances have occurred, where the captives
have seized a moment of hberty to snatch up the first weapon within their reach, stab
all whom they encountered, and conclude the scene by leaping overboard, and seek-
ing dehverance from their persecutors in a watery grave I

“ I have in another paper taken notice of the connexion which existed between

488

CAUSES OF THE COMMISSION TO PULO NIAS.

Nias, Nattal, and the Menangkabu country, and have ventured to point out the advan-
tages which might, in all probability, be derived by the natives of the several countries,
as well as by the Company, from encouraging and prosecuting such an intercourse.”

Frequent appeals made from the Chiefs of Pulo Nias, and the peculiar connection
which had always subsisted between that Island and the districts in the west of Sumar-
tra, induced Sir Stamford to appoint Mr. Prince and Dr. Jack to enquire into the real
circumstances of the case, in the hope of adjusting existing differences, and providing
for the immediate tranquillity of the country, and at the same time to collect such
information as would enable the higher authorities to decide on the future course
proper to be pursued. It was impossible to witness the constant scenes of rapine
and plunder, to which the coast of the Island had so long been a prey, from the in-
roads of pirates and slave dealers, after the express injunctions of the legislature,
and the principle so universally declared to actuate the ci\ilized nations of the world.
It was notorious that Pulo Nias, although for a long period of years nominally en-
joying the protection of the English flag, was still the most abundant, and almost
the only source of the supply of slaves on the coast, and that notwithstanding the
prohibition against importation at Bencoolen and elsewhere, it w'as impossible to
prevent it entirely. It was also well knowm that Pulo Nias was the principal
resort of the French cruisers for refreshment and refitment, and whence they com-
manded the whole coast of Sumatra during many periods of the late war. An un-
disputed supremacy of the Island was important in a political point of view, as it may
be considered to complete the command of the coast from Acheen to Nattal. Another
subject for consideration was the probability of the natives being easily converted to
the Christian religion, and that if the favourable opportunity were neglected, they
w'ould be likely to fall into all the superstitions of the Mahomedans.”

The folloAving is from an account of this Island fru-nished to Sir Stamford
Raffles by Dr. Jack and Mr. Prince.

“ Pulo Nias is situated under the 1st degree of north latitude, and runs in a
north-w'est and south-east direction, throughout 5® of latitude and 48° of longitude.
The \illages are mostly situated on the very pinnacle of the hills, yet they are always
embosomed in cocoa-nut and fruit trees of the greatest luxm'iance, wdiile the land
beneath them is devoted to rice, sweet potatoes, and other articles of supply.

“ The cultivation of rice is carried on both in sawahs and ladangs, according to
the nature of the ground, the latter prevailing in the more hilly parts, and the former
along the course of the principal rivers. The returns from sawahs are stated to be
above a hundred-fold; from ladangs the returns are about forty-fold; and such is
the singular fertility of the soil, that they are again fit for clearing in from five to
ten years. The gi'eater part of the rice is raised for exportation, the inhabitants

DESCRIPTION OF PULO NIAS.

489

raising but little for themselves, and preferring sweet potatoes, yams, plantains, &c.
for their own consumption. They breed great numbers of fowls and hogs, which
are chiefly fed on cocoa-nuts ; cattle and buffaloes are not indigenous, but have been
introduced at some of the Malay settlements ; cocoa-nut trees abound along all the
shores ; pepper has only lately become an article of cultivation among the Achenese
settlers, but it promises to extend rapidly : samples of coffee appear also of very
good quality.

“ The principal exports of Pulo Nias (exclusive of slaves) are, rice to the
extent of about 12,000 bags per annum ; oil, about 7000 or 8000 bamboos ; cocoa-
nuts in great quantities ; pepper at present about 800 peculs, but the quantity
increasing ; with some minor articles, the total value of which may^be about 45,000
rupees. The payments on account of slaves have not fallen short of from 70 to
80,000 mpees a year ; making the total value of the exports about 120,000 rupees.
The returns for this are almost entirely in the following articles of merchandize : —
blue salampores, white mamoodies and gurrahs, kerwahs, iron, brass ware, steel,
gold-dust, coarse china-ware, &c. &c. Salt is manufactured in small quantities on
various parts of the coast, by the method of pouring salt water on burning wood,
and is sold at the rate of three bamboos for a dollar. It is very sparingly used by
the Nias people, probably on account of the enormous price ; but it is not unlikely
that it would come into more general use, were they supplied at a cheaper rate by
importation.

“ In the northern division of the Island, the trade has been principally in the
hands of the Malays and Achenese who have settled at the various ports, and formed
alhances and connexions with the Nias Chiefs. This connexion has subsisted for a
considerable length of time, some of the early settlements having been formed about
sixty or eighty years ago ; and frequent intermarriages have so united their interests,
that the Nias Chiefs are generally guided by their Malay friends in all their inter-
course with foreigners : they have never, however, yielded any part of their territo-
rial rights, or admitted their interference in their internal affairs. The efforts of
the Malays have been solely directed to engrossing the commerce, which they have
in a great measure effected, and the Nias people rarely attempt to dispose of their
produce at first hand. The kind of monopoly they have thus succeeded in estabhsh-
ing, diminishes the profit to the grower, on the one hand, at the same time that it
enhances the price to the buyer.

In the southern districts, on the contrary, there are no foreign settlers, and
the Nias people themselves carry on a direct traffic with boats and vessels from all
parts of the Sumatran coast. The consequence is, there is more wealth, and the
people appear to have made a greater advance in the arts of life.

“ The Achenese have generally been found the most troublesome intruders ;
wherever they have been allowed to settle, their aim has been to foment dissensions

3 R

490

DESCRIPTION OF PULO NIAS.

and troubles, wth a view to their own independence, and the more easily gratifying
their rapacity. They are the principal agents in the slave-trade, and are not very
scrupulous in the means they resort to for procuring them.

“ The Nias slaves are highly valued throughout the East, for their industry,
ingenuity, and fidehty ; and observation has shewn, that these are no less the cha-
racteristics of the people in their native country. The intercourse with them has
given us a most faA'ourahle impression of their native character, and of their capa-
bilities of improvement. Notwithstanding the disadvantages of a secluded situation,
the absence of all instruction and example, and the insecmity arising from a state of
internal di\-ision, they have dra\\m forth, by their industry, the resources of their
fertile country to a greater degree than has yet been effected by any of their neigh-
bom's on the coast of Sumatra.

“ The extent of their gi’ain export would alone be sufficient evidence of their
industry ; but the same spirit pervades their whole economy. Their towns and
villages, though placed on elevated situations, \vith a view to defence, are clean and
neat ; the ascent is facilitated by a long stair or causeway, regularly built of stones,
and shaded by a row of fruit-trees on each side ; and the principal street itself is
often paved in a manner that would do credit to European skill. Their houses are
built of wood in the most substantial manner, raised upon strong posts, and their
interior is arranged with a neatness not devoid of elegance. Attached to every
\dllage are two inclosed baths, built of stones, appropriated to the different sexes ;
^ any trespass by a man on that belonging to the females subjects the offender to a
heavy fine. In the manufacture of their arms, cloathing, and gold ornaments, (of
which they wear a great many,) they display great ingenuity and considerable taste.
In their persons they are a handsome, athletic race ; their warfike habits, and
perhaps the nature of their country, give them an activity and vigom* of frame
unusual to the inhabitants of tropical countries. They are not addicted to any
practice of intoxication or gambling. Their address is frank and open ; they are
keen in their commercial dealings, fond of gain, but scrupulously exact in the fulfil-
ment of their engagements.

The country is divided into a number of tribes and districts, whose Chiefs
maintain a perfect independence of each other, and between many of whom ancient
feuds and perpetual enmity subsist. In his own district the Rajah possesses con-
siderable power, and is considered lord of the soil, though he derives no direct
revenue therefrom. In the exercise of his judicial authority he is assisted by the
Pamunchu, which office is always held by one of his relations, and their decisions
are guided by the traditional usages or customs of the country. Their laws are
remarkable for severity ; offences are probably rare. Murder, adultery, and robbery,
are punished with death, and the slavery of the offender’s family ; theft, and minor
offences, by heavy fines.

DESCRIPTION OF PULO NIAS.

491

“ In cases of debt, on failure of payment at the regular time, the amount is
doubled ; on a second failure it is doubled again, and so on until it amounts to a
certain sum, when the creditor is considered entitled to the person of his debtor as
a slave. Should the debtor avoid compliance, which is often the case, the creditor
may seize on any member of his family ; and when they belong to different districts,
the first straggler of the tribe is sometimes made responsible. This practice pro-
duces much distrust, as no man is secure from seizure on some pretence or other ;
and the consequence is, they are always on their guard, and never move any where
unarmed. All mamages are by jujur (or purchase), and the amount is very high.
It is probable that a gi*eat part of the debts are incurred on this account.

All the evils arising fr'om the imperfections of their civil institutions have
been aggravated and increased by the odious traffic in slaves ; and as this subject is
one of peculiar interest, we have been particular in obtaining the most minute
information concerning its extent, causes, and origin.

“ The greatest number of slaves has hitherto been exported from Sumanbawa
and Sello Dalum ; those from the northern parts have been much fewer. It is by
no means easy to get an exact account of their numbers, some endeavouring to
extenuate and diminish it, and others equally desirous of magnifying it, according as
they wished to give a favourable impression of their conduct, or a high idea of their
wealth ; and the very nature of the trade in some measure precludes exactness.
From a comparison, however, of these different accounts, checked by an estimate of
the number of vessels resorting thither, and the value of their imports, we are satisfied
that the annual number exported has not fallen short of fifteen hundred. According
to some accounts, more than this had been carried from Sumanbawa alone. They
are purchased chiefly by Achenese and Chinese vessels, the latter of whom carry
them to Padang and Batavia.

“ The circumstances that attend the traffic are no less revolting to humanity
than those which marked it on the coasts of Africa. The unhappy victims, torn by
violence from their friends and country, are delivered pinioned hand and foot to
the dealers in human flesh ; they are kept bound during the whole course of the
voyage, a precaution which is considered necessary to the safety of the crew. In-
stances have occuiTed where the captives have seized a moment of Hberty to snatch
up the first weapon within their reach, stab all whom they have encountered, and
conclude the scene by leaping overboard, and voluntarily seeking a watery death.
In their country, the Nias people rarely make use of rice as food, and are almost
unacquainted with the use of salt. The sudden change of diet to which they are
subjected on board ship, added to the confinement and dejection of mind, prove
fatal to many : of a cargo of thirty slaves, twenty have been known to perish before
the conclusion of the voyage ; and, on a moderate calculation, it may be estimated,
that of the total number purchased, one-fourth never reach their destinations, but
fall victims to the various causes above mentioned.

3 R 2

192

DESCRIPTION OF PULO NIAS.

“ On the scenes of \iolence that take place in this country itself in the search
of victims, it wll be useless to dwell ; they can be better imagined than described.
\^'e shall merely relate one well-authenticated instance, as given by an eye-witness.

‘ A plan had been laid to attack a single insulated house, inhabited by a man, his
wfe, and children, and to seize the whole family. At the appointed hour the house
was siu-rounded, but the man no sooner discovered his situation, understood the pur-
pose, and saw that there Avas no escape, than he locked himself into the inner apart-
ment, drew his kris, killed first his \Nife and cliildi-en, and then plmiged it in his o\vn
breast, preferring death to a life of slavery.’

“ Such are the circumstances that our inquiries have brought to light ; it is
impossible to contemplate such high qualities as we have described, subjected to
such e^'ils, without feeling the strongest interest m their favour. They have ap-
pealed to Britain for protection ; they have placed themselves under her flag and
dominion. We cannot forbear recording the remarkable expression of one of the
Chiefs of Tellddalam. He earnestly entreated us not to leave him : ‘ Have patience
with us,’ he said ; ‘ we are ignorant uninstmcted people, but w'e are desirous of
obtaining the means of improvement ; formerly w'e looked to the Malays and to the
Achenese, but they deceived us ; if you should now desert us, from w^hom can we
entertain any hope T We trust the appeal will not be in vain.

With a \iew to ascertain the best means of effecting the suppression of this
nefarious commerce, we have been minute in our inquiries into the causes and origin
of slavery on Pulo Nias, and the mode in which slaves are procured. Slavery is
recognized by their laws and customs ; it is the punishment ordained for certain
crimes, and it is permitted as the ultimate resource in cases of debt. These customs
have, no doubt, been much increased in severity by the temptation of an external de-
mand, and are often employed on very slight pretences, but they are quite inadequate
to account for the great number annually exported. We have abundant proof that
the greater number are made slaves by open and actual Anolence. The Rajahs had
little hesitation in admitting the fact, but said that the system originated with
foreigners, and that the source of- the e^il w'as without. In fact, the temptation of
exorbitant gain, and the persuasion of the dealers who resort to the ports, prove
too much for their self-denial, and induce the most unprincipled among them to
have recourse to every means of fi'aud, stratagem, or Holence, to procm*e \dctims to
their avarice.

“ It must not be forgotten to record, that w'e have met with a few instances of
Chiefs whose \-irtues have been proof against temptation ; who had not only pro-
hibited the traffic in their own districts, but even refused to permit the transit of
slaves fi'om the interior, or their disposal in any manner at their respective ports.
We had still greater reason to be satisfied with the conduct of the Rajah of Suman-
hawa. On the subject being first opened to him, and our ^iew’^s and intentions
explained, he expressed his own approbation, but wished to communicate with the

DESCRIPTION OF PULO NIAS.

493

Chief of the interior, with whom he was connected, before entering into such im-
portant engagements ; the answer proved unfavourable, and the Rajah was threat-
ened with vengeance. After some consultation, however, he came on board and
acquainted us that he was determined to disregard the threats of the interior Chief,
and to enter into agreements with us. He professed himself ready to shut his ports
against all exportation of slaves, on condition of our affording protection and encou-
ragement to legitimate commerce. This was peculiarly gratifying, as Sumanbawa
has hitherto been the greatest slave-port on the Island. Indeed it is but justice to
all the Chiefs to say, that on a full discussion, they entered into our views with
regard to the slave-trade, with more cordiality than could have been expected.

‘‘ The measures, therefore, to be adopted for its suppression appear to divide
themselves into three branches. First, to check as much as possible the external
demand; second, to endeavour to soften and modify the severity of the native
customs ; and third, to provide the means of relief to debtors, and such as by exist-
ing usages are liable to the condition of slavery.

“ On inquiring of the different Rajahs the number of persons in a state of
slavery on account of debt, whose redemption they wished to effect, the answer was
uniformly ‘ we have none, but if you wish to purchase slaves, wait a few days and you
may have a hundred.’ On inquiring further how this was to be effected, we found
that they had only to send notice to their agents among the interior Rajahs, and any
number were forthwith brought down bound. They probably sent word to catch so
many slaves, with as much indifference as they would have given an order to catch
so many hogs for the same purpose. The fact is the arrival of the trading boats,
which takes place at a certain season, is the signal for universal rapine and violence
throughout the interior.

On the subject of religion, the people of Pulo Nias have but few ideas ; they
acknowledge a Supreme Being, whom they caU Sumban Quit or the Lord of Heaven,
but they had no distinct notions respecting him. Wooden images are to be found
in all their houses which are regarded as a kind of lares or protecting household
gods, but no worship is addressed to them ; they are rather considered as representa-
tives or memorials of their ancestors, for whom they have a great reverence. A
belief in charms is common, and every man carries a bundle of these attached to his
kris — great occasions are celebrated by the slaughter of hogs and a great feast ; and
when a Chief commences any affair of consequence, as the building of a house, the
head of an enemy is sometimes suspended in honour of the circumstance. Their
form of oath is by cutting the throat of a hog, while the party invokes the vengeance
of heaven that he may suffer the fate of the said animal if he prove unfaithful
to his oath.

" In these rude notions we can trace little more than the unassisted efforts of
the human mind in a low state of civilization, conscious of the limitation of its own
powers, and impelled thereby to imagine a superior existence. It would be vain to

494

REFORM IN THE SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS.

trace a connection between them and any of the forms of Pagan worship established
in the East. The people of Nias had probably been separated at a very early
period from their original stock, and have been exempted by their insular situation
from the influence of the various religions that have at different times pervaded the
greater islands. The settlement of Mahomedans have been of too recent a date to
have much influence, and they have made but few converts ; they have not, however,
overlooked the object, but have generally defeated it by their rapacity and ^iolence.
By Europeans the Island has been ahnost entirely neglected. Thus abandoned to
the ravages of pirates, and to all the evils of an active slave-trade, we cannot but
estimate highly those native energies which have rendered their country populous
and flomishing in spite of so many obstacles.”

Sir Stamford was anxious to do the utmost possible good for such an Island and
such a people. It has been stated that Pulo Nias is the granary of that side of Sumatra,
and the extent of its grain produce only hmited by the demand. The benefits arising
from the suppression of the slave trade would not be confined to the rehef of the un-
happy victims alone, but would be the first step to the civilization of the country. In-
dependent of the habits of cruelty and rapine which it tends to infuse, the exorbitant
profit it holds out, like those of gambling, excites an aversion to the slower advantages
of legitimate commerce and agricultural labour. It required no special intei-position of
foreign influence ; a few stations of police along the coast would have been sufficient
evidence of protection, and this Sir Stamford warmly advocated, and hoped so great a
benefit so easily obtained would meet with approbation from all the wise and good :
hut the Court of Directors “ had no hesitation in declaring that his proceedings in
regard to Pulo Nias were deserving of their decided reprehension.” “ And they were
inclined to \nsit him wnth some severe mark of their displeasure for the steps he had
taken,” and threatened to remove him from his government.

After the transfer of Sumatra to the Dutch, the slave-trade was resmned
with greater \ngour than ever ; and numbers of these poor people have since been
earned away to Batavia, and the French Island of Bourbon.

“ Bencoolen, Feb. 1st, 1821.

“ I am now engaged in drawing up a detailed report of the past, present, and
anticipated circumstances of this settlement with reference to its finances in parti-
cular. This report will not be long, but it takes time to go through the books, and
draw out abstract statements of the accounts.

“ I have had a great deal of trouble in revising and reforming oiu general books
and accounts, and it is only lately that I have received authority fi'om Bengal to clear
them of the rubhish and confusion which has been heaped upon them during the last
twenty years of ruin and desolation.

IMPROVEMENT OF BENCOOLEN.

495

“ It was usual for the accounts of the different public offices to be invariably
framed in the accountant’s office some time after the receipts and disbursements were
made, so as to throw into the accounts of each month all charges belonging to it,
notwithstanding the actual disbursements so brought to account were made in another
month ; a practice which, however it may have tended to an apparent regularity in
the form of the accounts, necessarily deprived them of all genuineness and honesty of
character ; they were in fact fabricated accounts.

In the former accounts of the settlement, it was the practice to have all heavy
charges, whether on account of buildings, repairs, &c. &c. or debts, as open accounts
to the credit of the Company as stock. I have had them written off as charges of the
year, and the revised accounts and balances at the beginning of the present year will
shew you the extent to which this was carried, and the enormous amount of the really
unavailable stock which I found standing on the books. The whole of this ought to
have been written off in former years, and if the amount is divided on an average for
the last twenty years, it will be found that not less than a lack of rupees annually
should be added to the apparent charges.”

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Bcncoolen, May 15, 1821.

“ I have not much to communicate from hence. We have about half-a-dozen
new animals to describe, and our collections of plants are rapidly increasing. What
shall we do with them ? If we do not clear off as we go, we shall find ourselves ter-
ribly clogged in our future exertions.

“ Our agriculture is extending, and much of my time is spent in the country. 1
am now completing a very comfortable residence ; the grounds are in one direction
about fom* miles long, and towards the hills about three miles wide. We hope to
raise all our supplies on them, as the sawah land is very extensive, and I have up-
wards of two hundred head of fine cattle. Our roads are excellent. The distance
is about thirteen miles from Marlborough ; but I think the communication is much
quicker than between Aldenham and London, as our friends think nothing of driving
out to breakfast, and returning before the heat of the day.

“ I sincerely hope we shall carry you along with us in our progress of improve-
ment. I need not tell you how anxious I am to know your sentiments on what we
are doing ; for you must be pretty well aware that in all such proceedings it is rather
to good and sincere fi'iends that I can look for advice and support, than to the higher
official authorities with whom I am in communication. Neither the Court of Direc-
tors nor the Supreme Government seems inchned to enter into any improvements
which do not decrease expenses, and raise immediate revenues ; and I find that it is
really lost labour to enter into long explanations, and furnish them vrith despatches
which they never read. While I am conscious of taking the right path, I shall perse-

496

DUTCH TREATY WITH RACHMET SHAH.

vere ; and I suppose that in the end, when we come to collect the fruits, we shall find
all the authorities \nlling to gather them.

“ Our climate is excellent and delightful, and the improvements which we see
give an interest in the place which I never thought it capable of exciting.

‘‘ Lady Raffles bears up remarkably well. Marsden, your godson, I am happy
to say, is getting on very fast. My other children are becoming quite companions,
and often remind me of the necessity I shall be under of returning to England at no
very distant date.

“ Bencooleny May 25, 1821.

“ You mention the Dutch treaty with Rachmet Shah of Lingin, and say it is more
liberal than ours : either tlie Dutch have foisted upon you a false copy of the treaty,
or you must have read strangely. I have, however, a copy of the true treaty, and the
following observations will shew you my opinion upon the subject.

“ This treaty (Para. 3) is also a daring violation of the very rights on which
they claim respect from other powers to their treaties, inasmuch as with full know-
ledge of the commercial treaty, concluded by us with the same person on the 9th of
August preceding, they seem to make no difficulty to stipulate for its violation in the
sixteenth article of what they call their treaty, which excludes from the ports of Rhio
and all other ports of Johore, the ships of every power, European or American, with
the exception of those belonging to Holland.

“ In conclusion, the terms of this treaty, and the circumstances under which it
was made, are so extraordinary, and form such a combination as we could hardly have
supposed to belong to the present age. They are briefly these : —

“ A Dutch squadron enters the port of a power, which had but three months
before concluded a commercial treaty with the British, and proposes to the Chief the
terms of a treaty inconsistent with his pre\dous engagements ; on the refusal of the
Chief his port is blockaded by a naval and military force, and he is at length com-
pelled to become the commissioner of an absent prince, who did not possess the title
or the authority which they gratuitously bestow on him, and who himself has dis-
claimed all right to their possession,

“ One article of this treaty confers on this absent prince, as a sincere token of
their good-will, the favour of becoming a vassal to the power with whom he is sup-
posed to be treating as an independent prince. Another, ‘ as a token of their earnest
desire to promote the welfare’ of a trading people, excludes from the ports all ship-
ping but their ovm. They next proceed to appropriate half of the revenues of the
place to themselves, on the plea that their King is obliged to pay his own servants.
They grant him a military force at his particular desire ; at length, on pretence of
preventing piracy, they pennit him to hoist their flag on pain of his vessels being fired

REASONS FOR RETURNING TO ENGLAND.

497

into if he does not do so ; and, to complete the series, the witness in the beginning
becomes a commissioner at the end. It is difficult to look seriously on such a docu-
ment, and ridiculous to maintain the validity of an instrument which bears on its face
so much inconsistency and absurdity.

“ Such are the remarks I have to make on this celebrated treaty of 1819, and I
would repeat as my present sentiments — such are the facts of the case.

As to Sidtan Rachmet Shah, I never considered him more than Rajah of
Lingin. Rhio was always considered independent ; it was not until Rachmet Shah
declared he was not Sultan, that we inquired who really was and ought to be such.”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Bencoolen, May 29, 1821.

*****

“ God willing, we hope to embark fi*om this for England, if not in 1823, certainly
in 1824; I am not aware of any changes which are likely to protract my departure.
On the contrary, every thing seems to concur in proving the necessity, to say nothing
of the inchnation to return : political events may hasten, but cannot well retard it ;
and my presence in England may soon become indispensable in support of what I
have been trying to do in this part of the world. It is hardly possible for you to con-
ceive how much I have suffered for opening so important a channel for trade as has
been effected by the establishment of Singapore : every thing is condemned. But a
truce to politics : I have other reasons to urge me home. Neither my health nor that
of Lady Raffles is very good ; I never was strong, and during my first residence in
India, the climate made a considerable inroad on my constitution. I have had two
or three severe attacks since my return, and am now under the necessity of being
very careful. I really do not think I could last out above two or three years
more ; and certainly ambition shall not weigh with me one moment against
life. Besides this, my dear httle rogues wiU be rapidly expanding. Charlotte is
already as advanced as most children of five years old : she takes an interest in every
thing that is going forward, and is really becoming quite a companion. In two or
three years both her mind and body will require a colder climate, and to send her
home for her education, as people usually send their children from this country, is
out of the question ; we have determined to take her and all the children (for we
have now four born within as many years) and to time our departure with reference
to their health and happiness. Leopold also will, in two or three years, have grown
beyond my management, and it will be time to commence upon the rudiments of a
better education than I can give him. I believe people generally think I shall remain
longer, as they hardly suppose in such times, and with an increasing family, a man
will be inchned to forego the advantages of the field before me ; but they know me
not. I have seen enough of power and wealth to know that, however agreeable to

3 s

498

NASSAU ISLANDS.

the propensities of our nature, there is more real happiness in domestic quiet and
repose, when blessed with a competence, than in all the fancied enjojnnents of the
great and the rich.

“ Of public news I have very little to communicate, and perhaps none that will
be interesting. The Dutch, you know, are still at war with Palembang, and they
have lately fitted out a third expedition, consisting of upwards of 3000 Europeans,
fresh from Holland ; poor fellows ! They are determined on vengeance. No quarter
is to be given, and dreadful will be the massacre if they succeed, which God forbid !

Our establishment at Singapore is gaining ground so rapidly, that the Dutch
are determined to risk every thing, sooner than allow us to remain ; and, as far as I
can judge of the proceedings between the Commissioners in England, there is reason
to fear they will gain their point. It is the only chance our ministers have of making
some amends for the manner in which they restored Java.

^ ^ ^ ^

“ I am afraid you will find this a very long and selfish letter, and yet you beg
of me to say more of me and mine. I have endeavoured to obey your commands.”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ June 12, 1821.

“ In my last letter, I informed you I was much interested mth the people of
Pulo Nias ; during the last month my attention has been entirely devoted to them,
and I am half inchned to WTite a book in their favour, in order to prove that they
are the happiest and the best people on earth. I had nearly made my mind up to
this, when I made further discoveries in the neighbouring Islands, called the Nassau
or Poggy Islands, where I fomid a people still more amiable, and, if possible, still
more genuine. If I go on at this rate, I may expect to discover the garden of Eden,
and the descendants of our first parents, enjoying all the simplicity of primeval times.

“ It is very certain that on the first discovery of what we term savage nations,
philosophers went beyond all reason and truth in favom’ of uncivilized happiness ;
but it is no less certain, that of late years, the tide of prejudice has run equally
strong in the opposite direction ; and it is now the fashion to consider all who have
not received the impression of Em-opean arms and laws, and the fights of Revela-
tion, as devoid of every feeling and principle which can constitute happiness, or pro-
duce moral good. The truth, most probably, as is generally the case, lies between
the two extremes, and there is, no doubt, much difference, according to the circum-
stances under which the people may have been placed. We find, in some of the
Islands of the South Seas, people who are habitually mischievous, given to thieving,
lazy and intractable ; in others, we find the very opposite qualities ; and philoso-
phers, speculating upon the first data that are afforded, without full and general
information, are led into error.

RAVAGES OF THE CHOLERA MORBUS.

499

“ Various circumstances have hitherto prevented me from penetrating into the
Batta country, but I lose no opportunity of collecting information, and your Grace
will not perhaps be surprised to learn, that even among these cannibals, I find much
to praise and admire. In one province I have ascertained, beyond doubt, that a
considerable refinement has taken place in the mode of eating parents. Here, in-
stead of the young people eating the old ones, when past work, they send them to

their neighbours, wiio, in due time, return the compliment to them.”

^ ^ ^ ^ ^

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Bencoolen, July 12, 1821.

“ You must, during the last year, have been so much pestered with my letters,
that a respite of a few months will be very acceptable. Your letters of the 21st
November and 28th December have duly arrived ; and I hardly know how to thank
you for the zealous interest you have taken in all the questions I have so unmerci-
fully troubled you with. You have done just as I could have wished in every thing,
and, once for all, allow me to retmm my most sincere and grateful acknowledge-
ments.

I have obtained a great mathematical assistant, and hope to do something
respecting the geography of the Island. Dr. Jack and a few friends have just
ascended the sugar-loaf, and were the first Europeans who had reached the summit ;
they are still out in their rambles, and will, I hope, bring in an abundant collection
in the botanical department. Of animals they have not yet obtained one that is
new ; and, indeed, they observe, with regard to the mountain, that it is in vain to
look for them there, as none but monkeys can possibly climb the rocks.

“ Java, I am concerned to say, is suffering under all the miseries of the exter-
minating cholera ; the deaths average eight hundred a day, and from ten minutes to
fom* hours is the usual period of illness. God grant it may not extend this way,
although, as one of the Radins said on the occasion, if it did, it would leave us
much as it found us, as the population could not be well more scanty than at
present.

“ Yom* god-son grows a fine boy, and runs about. Lady Raffles has since pre-
sented me with another girl.”

Upwards of three years had passed in uninterrupted health and happiness, but
a sad reverse took place at this period ; the blessings most prized were withdrawn ;
the child most dear to the father’s heart, whose brightness and beauty were his
pride and happiness, expired in all the bloom of infancy, after a few hours’ illness ;
and from this time until his return to England, sickness and death prevailed through-
out the settlement and in his own family ; but God’s Holy Spirit enabled him to

500

ANECDOTE OF A NATIVE WOMAN.

receive these afflictions with meekness, and to feel that they were trials of faith not
judgments of anger.

“ Bencoolen, July \%th, 1821.

I little thought a week ago, when overwhelmed with grief by the loss of our
dear and eldest boy Leopold, who was snatched from us after a very short illness,
that I should so soon have been called upon to report upon another, and to you, my
dear friend, a still more severe loss. A vessel leaves this port immediately, and bad
news flies fast. Cruel as must be the stroke, and ill qualifled as I am at the present
moment to break it to you with the tenderness and caution I could wish, I must
perform the duty ; I must rend your heart by telling you that our dear friend and
your brother Harry is no more !

“He breathed his last yesterday, and was carried off in a few days by a series
of apoplectic fits, which baffled all the powers of medicine. He has just been buried,
and I snatch a moment from the time I am obhged to devote to Sophia to send you
the melancholy intelligence.

*****

“ I shall not trouble you with our griefs, you will have enough of your own.
Neither Sophia nor myself are well, and time and the influence of God’s blessed Spirit
can alone work any change. My resolution is taken to return home during the next
or the following year.

“ Neither my health nor spirits, nor indeed my time, if I had either, enable me
to say more ; in a few days we shall be more collected. God bless you ! and believe
that there are hearts here which sympathize with yours most deeply.”

As an example of the character and feeling of the people, the following anec-
dote may be interesting. Whilst the Editor was almost overwhelmed with grief for
the loss of this favourite child, unable to bear the sight of her other children —
unable to bear even the hght of day, — humbled upon her couch with a feeling of
misery, — she was addressed by a poor, ignorant, uninstructed native woman of the
lowest class, (who had been employed about the nursery), in tenns of reproach not
to be forgotten. “ I am come because you have been here many days shut up in a
dark room, and no one dares to come near you. Are you not ashamed to grieve in
this manner, when you ought to be thanking God for having given you the most
beautiful child that ever was seen? Were you not the envy of every body? Did
any one ever see him, or speak of him, without admiring him ; and instead of letting
this child continue in this world till he should be worn out with trouble and sorrow,
has not God taken him to heaven in all his beauty ? What would you have more ?
for shame, leave off weeping and let me open a window.”

ECONOMY OF SIR STAMFORD’S GOVERNMENT.

501

Bencoolen, October I6th, 1821.
* *

" So far from my administration being expensive, you will perceive that the nett
charges are less than any former year, notwithstanding all the changes that have

been worked, and that they are in a gradual course of reduction.

* * * *

“ My spirits are quite broken dovra, and I can write but httle.

^ ^ ^

I send by this conveyance my report on the past, present, and future, or
rather prospective circumstances of Bencoolen. It is my last effort, and will prove
that my finances will bear the test of examination. You will perceive how we are
reducing the nett charges.

“ I do not expect an unlimited surrender in favour of colonization, but it is a
great point even to move the question. If we can go silently on, the end will be
accomphshed eventually ; aU we want is men and capital, and certainly you have
abundance to spare.

We are getting better, but Sophia is not competent to write.”

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Bencoolen, November 9tk, 1821.

" My Dear Sir,

“ I have before me your long and kind letters of the 11th, 19th, and 23d
of March, the last which I have received, and I can hardly find words to express to
you either my acknowledgments for the warm interest which you have taken in all
that concerns me, or my regret and annoyance that I should have subjected you to
so much trouble and inconvenience. For the latter I have no excuse to offer but
the necessity which obliged me to call upon some friend on whom I knew I could
rely ; and in the hope that your kindness, hke charity, will cover a multitude of
sins, I will fain trust that I am already forgiven for the unreasonable intrusion on
your time.

‘‘ I will write you more fully hereafter, at present I am hurried and I am sorry
to say very far from well. The loss of our eldest boy has been a severe stroke to
us, and followed as it has been by so many deaths among our relatives and connec-
tions, it has nearly proved fatal to oiu happiness. I thank God Lady Raffles is at
last recovering, but we are neither of us what we were, and I fear we must soon
think seriously of returning home.

“ I have some anxiety about a successor for this place : unless it is some one

502

MALAY VERSION OF THE GOSPEL OF ST. JOHN.

inclined to follow in the track I have marked out, I fear all I have done may be
throwm away. We are certainly impro^■ing.

I am planting coffee extensively at Pennattam Ballam, and the country really
begins to assmne a new character. At present, my plan is to leave this the end of
next year, about this time, for Singapore, and there to remain till I hear what are
the arrangements at home. I have no idea of its being given up to the Dutch, but
I fear its being put under Penang. Should every thing go on favourably, which is
hardly to be expected, I should wish to remain at Singapore till the early part of
1824.

“ My last letter will have informed you that our attention is now devoted to
geographical and geological information. The result is contained in a paper for-
warded to Mr. Colebrooke : for the correctness as far as it goes, I hold myself fully
responsible. About January I expect a party ^^^ll be here from the observatory at
Madras, for the puiimse of trying the \1bration of the pendulum on the line : if we
have good weather and zealous men we shall do much. We go on collecting the
never-failing wonders of our extraordinary and abundant vegetation. I have lately
thought it adnsable to draw up a short review of the circiunstances of Bencoolen,
particularly \nth reference to its finances ; should you be disposed to read it, it may
perhaps serve to amuse an idle hour, and it will prove to you that I am leaving no
stone untimied to make the most of this place before I leave it. I am working upon
rather a stubborn soil, but I think I feel it give way before the exertions we are now
making.

“ Our little family are upon the whole veiy well ; they have their share of trials
but bear them pretty well, and at present are all in good health. Charlotte is every
thing mamma could wish, and Marsden, now alas, the only son, is advancing rapidly.
He has not the beauty and lovehness of poor Leopold, but he is a fine boy, and re-
markably quiet and intelligent. Our last, Ella, is a great beauty.

“ We live in the country quite retired, and when the sun admits, which is not
for many hours in the day, we are always in the grounds superintending oiu* im-
provements. We call our house Permattam Ballam — the abode of peace.

“ Our missionaries are engaged in printing a new version of the gospel of St.
John. Mr. Robinson, the author of the work on ^Malayan orthography, is a Baptist
missionary, who settled mider my administration in Java, and has since sought my
protection here ; he has been a close student of Malay literature and language for
the last seven years, and has long been in the habit of preaching to the natives.”

To the Duchess of

“ November 9, 1821.

“ My heart has been nigh broken, and my spirit is gone : I have lost almost all
that I prided myself upon in this world, and the affliction came upon us at a moment

ILL HEALTH OF SIR STAMFORD.

503

when we least expected such a calamity. Had this dear boy been such as we usually
meet ^vith in this world, time would ere this have reconciled us to the loss — but such
a child ! Had you but seen him and known him you must have doated — his beauty
and intelligence were so far above those of other children of the same age, that he
shone among them as a sun, enlivening and enlightening every thing around him.
I had vainly formed such notions of future happiness when he should have become
a man, and be all his father wished him, that I find nothing left but what is stale,
fiat, and unprofitable. My remaining children are, I thank God, rather superior to
the ordinary run, and Charlotte is every thing we could wish her. How is it that I
feel less interest in them than in the one that is gone ? — perhaps it is in our nature.

“ But I must leave this subject or you will have cause to regret my corres-
pondence. You will be sorry to hear that Lady Raffles and myself have been
seriously ill, and that I am still so far complaining that I hardly know whether I
shall live or die. At one time I am sorry to say I cared but little which way my fate
turned ; but I now begin to think of the necessity of exertion for those about me,
and sometimes ventm'e to look forward ; but T am too low and wretched to write
much more even if my paper allowed.”

“ Bencoolen, November \0th, 1821.

“ Sophia has at last undertaken to write to her mother. She is getting better,
and I am happy to say the children are well ; for myself I am at this moment under
the operation of mercury, and maintain but a crazy kind of existence. I sometimes
think it very doubtful that I shall ever reach England again : at other times, I rally
a little ; but, upon the whole, I begin to be more indifferent as to the result than I
used to be.

‘‘ My present plan is to leave Bencoolen about this time next year for Singa-
pore, and to remain there till I go home.

* * * *

“ As far as comfort and accommodation go, I think we might more advan-
tageously remain all our time at Bencoolen, but we want a change, and I dread the
chance of two years’ idleness.”

To the same.

“ Bencoolen, December 6th, 1821.

“ Our health has upon the whole improved, but we have still a sick house ;
nothing however serious. I calculate that by the next China ship we shall be able
to see our way clear. If it is certain that I am not to administer Singapore on my
own principles, then I shall feel httle interest in going round as I at first proposed.
If I do not go the end of next year it will probably be March, 1823, before I move

504

ILLNESS OF SIR STAMFORD’S ELDEST CHILD.

from hence to Singapore, my object being to remain there till I start for England.
This event will, I hope, take place in January, 1824, at furthest; my health and con-
stitution will not stand longer.

“ I observe what you say regarding trade and the opening which now offers by
the late act. I fear trade any wiiere just now is a bad concern. At any rate it is
not likely to be much improved in India by this unimportant act — it merely grants
to English ships indulgences wiiich they formerly took upon themselves to enjoy.

“ We have thousands of ships canying on the port to port trade, including
China, and the only advantage now gained by the English shipping is that they are
allowed to compete with those of India on pretty nearly fair terms. It may possibly
raise the value of English ships, and will in proportion depress those of India, and it
may be the means of satisfjing John Bull for a year or two, when he will find that
he has not gained much by it : you see, therefore, that we view this subject in India
somewhat differently to what you do in England.”

* ^if *

“ Bencoolen, December \0th, 1821.

We are at this moment in gi’eat alarm for our dear Charlotte, who labours
under a violent dysentery — Sophia has not left her for three days and nights, and
our almost only hope is now in effecting a salivation with mercury. So severe has
been our affliction in the loss of poor Leopold, that w^e are hardly capable of sus-
taining a second shock of the kind just now. The younger children have also been
seriously ill, but are getting better. We have at any rate resolved to send home all
we have left as soon as a ship going direct can be procured : I have half made an
agreement with the Captain of the Borneo for the purpose, and they wall probably sail
in February.

'^^'hat a sad reverse is this ! but the other day we were alarmed lest we
should have too many, now all our anxiety is to preserve some even of those we have.
The change of climate may do wonders, and we shall hope to follow them in a year
or eighteen months.

“ I keep to my resolution of going to Singapore in the course of the present
year ; some change will be necessary for Sophia.”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Bencoolen, December 16, 1821,

My last letter will have informed you of our sad affliction in the loss of my
dear boy Leopold, I cannot yet reflect on the event with any degree of calmness,
Charlotte has also nearly fallen a sacrifice to the climate, and is at this moment far

EXTENSION OF THE EASTERN TRADE.

505

from being out of danger. Our house for the last six months has been a complete
hospital. This change has within a few days induced us to resolve upon sending all
the children we may have left to England without loss of time, and we propose em-
barking them on the Borneo, to touch here for them in February next. If our dear
Charlotte hves to embark I shall write you more particularly, if not I shall want
spirits to address you.

‘‘ My own health still continues most seriously affected. I am seldom well for
twelve hours, and always laid up for several days in the month. Nothing but a
sense of public duty would weigh with me, under these circumstances, to stay a day
longer ; but I cannot leave my post without previous notice, and completing some
aiTangements which are in progress. I shall, however, be at liberty to move where
I please, by the time our answer can be received from England to letters written by
the present opportunity. Lady Raffles is almost exhausted with continual watching,
night and day.”

“ Bencoolen, December 26th, 1821.

“ My former letters will apprise you that we send our dear children home by
the first of March, so that you may expect them in June. Charlotte is improving,
though very slowly.

With regard to the increased facilities in trade to arise from the new act, you
will see fi*om my former letters, that I do not rank them very high. They will, to
a certain extent, be injm'ious to the country traders ; but, I think, the local know-
ledge of the latter, and their greater facilities of knowing the state of the markets,
and taking advantage of the moment, will still enable them to sustain a successful
competition.

“ I have said and done all that was possible in the political department. My
attention will occasionally be directed to the agricultural interests at Bencoolen ; but
as soon as I proceed to Singapore, commercial plans will occupy all my time. All
the information which has yet reached England seems to be very general. You
want something practical, and my idea is to collect all particulars in detail ; that is
to say, specimens of the manufactures that may be introduced into Siam, Cochin-
China, Japan, &c., through Singapore ; the extent of the demand, the price to be
obtained, and the returns to be procured. A body of information of this kind, col-
lected by me on the spot, with the advantage of personal explanation in Europe, is
likely to be very valuable.

“ I shall probably point out great advantages ; such as the introduction into
China of manufactured cottons, in lieu of twenty thousand tons of raw material, that
we now send them from India ; the supercession in the China market of the iron and

3 T

506

DEATH OF SIR STAMFORD’S ELDEST CHILD.

crockery-ware, now so extensively in demand from China throughout the whole
Ai'chipelago ; the extensive circulation of a British copper coinage throughout the
Archipelago.

“ I hope to prove to the Company and my country, that in my views and ex-
pectations regarding Singapore, I have not been visionary.”

“ Bencoolen, January 15, 1822.

“ We have this morning buried our beloved Charlotte. Poor Marsden was
carried to the grave not ten days before, and within the last six months we have lost
our three eldest children : judge what must be our distress.

“ This is a melancholy day, and I have turned my thoughts to serious subjects :
among the rest, to the risk we run by remaining longer in this country. I
have, therefore, taken the first step towards going home, by sending in my resig-
nation.

On refeiTing to my commission, I find that I am not allowed to leave India
without permission fi’om the Court, under the hand of thirteen or more Directors.

This is intended merely to apprise you of the misfortunes and afflictions we
are still doomed to suffer. We have now only one child left, the little Ella, still an
infant ; thank God, she is apparently well, and it is our determination she shall go
home in the Borneo, in which ship I had engaged accommodation for the three.

“ I shall not attempt to convey to you any thing like an idea of poor Sophia’s
sufferings. Charlotte had attained that age that she was quite a companion, and of
all the misfortunes likely to happen, this was the last looked to. Yet, severe as the
dispensation is, we are resigned to it ; we have still reason to thank God.

“ I still propose \isiting Singapore about September next, to return here the
following May. By the 1st January, 1824), God wilhng, we hope to be on our way
home ; but more of this hereafter.”

“ Bencoolen, February 19, 1822.

*****

“ I am sending home various collections, principally rocks and corals.
*****

“ I have been desperately ill and confined to a dark room the last ten days, but,
thank God, I am better : I dare not uTite much.”

“ Bencoolen, February 26, 1822.

As the Borneo will be off in a day or two, I sit down to give you something
of a general letter, but I am too ill and weak to write much, and you must excuse
repetition, should I fall into it. For the last three weeks I have been confined to

BURNING OF QUEDA BY THE SIAMESE.

507

my room by a severe fever, which fell on the brain, and drove me almost to mad-
ness. I thank God, however, that I have now got over it, and am on my legs again ;
but I am still weak, and unable to converse with strangers.

“ The first and most interesting subject is our dear child. * * ^

“ Our little darling is under the immediate charge of Nurse Grimes. She leaves
us in excellent health, and we indulge the hope that by the strong measure we have
taken of sending her to a healthier climate, we may be spared this one comfort to
solace and enliven our declining days.

“ Sophia’s health, though it has suffered severely, is, I thank God, improving,
and if it is the will of God that we even continue as well as we are, we hope to be
able to stand out another year or two with tolerable comfort.

“ I fancy I shall find plenty to do at Singapore. * * * *

“ The place thrives wonderfully. The amount of the tonnage arrived during
the first two years and a half, will speak volumes in its favour.

“ We sent lately a commercial embassy to Siam, which was well received. So
convenient and contiguous is Singapore, that Siam sugars and other articles are sell-
ing there a dollar cheaper than in Siam itself : this is owing to their being conveyed
in native junks to Singapore.

“ There is a sad confusion at Penang, first among the Governor and his coun-
sellors, and next with the Siamese, who have burnt and sacked Queda, and obliged
the King to take refuge at Penang.

You of course are aware of the history of these proceedings ; it is a result
that has long been anticipated, but need not now have been brought to issue. Had
the Government of Penang possessed sufficient foresight to have supported the King
by sending him a force when he was still in his capital, they would have averted the
stoian ; but having neglected this, they now talk of sending a force to drive out the
Siamese, and recover the sacked ruins of the city of Queda, in which they have no
chance of success whatever, if the Siamese hold out.

“ This is not intended as a quarrel with us. Queda has always been tributary
to Siam, and when we got the grant of Penang from the former, we ought to have
procured the sanction of the latter as lord paramount. The Siamese, however, do
not dispute our possession of Penang, as we have been so long there ; but they do
not choose to lose the King of Queda as a vassal, particularly as he gets 10,000
dollars a year from the Company. Every three years he is bound to send a golden
tree to Siam in token of his vassalage.

“ Siam requires that whenever the urgency of the state demands, he shall assist
with money and men. Repeated contributions of the kind have been levied ; some
resisted, and the matter was generally accommodated and all parties satisfied, until
the King of Queda, relying on the strength of our name, power, and alhance, seems
to have set his sovereign lord the King of Siam at defiance ; who in return has chas-

3 T 2

o08

CONSIGNMENT OF SPICES FROM BENCOOLEN.

tised him, by burning his town and driving him from his dominions. The affair as
a political one is of no great importance. Thank God we have nothing to do with
this quaiTel at Singapore and the other side of the Archipelago, where our connec-
tion is purely commercial and daily improving.

“ You seem anxious to know how we go on with our schools and Bible Society,
and I am happy to report favourably of them. Upon the whole we go on well, par-
ticularly with the schools. We are printing the Gospels in an improved Malay ver-
sion suited to this coast, and I have it in contemplation to print the New Testament
in Javanese, which is now ready for the press.

“ The spices I think must attract the attention of the Coiu't of Directors. The
private consignments by the Borneo are nearly equal to the Company’s, and the
whole will afford a supply for the British Isles for nearly twelve months.

“ Look after the engraving of the chart of the pepper ports by Captain Ash-
more, and interest Horsburgh : he will know the value of them.”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Bencoolen, February 27, 1822.

“ You will, I am sure, giieve to learn what has befallen us. My last letter
announced to your Grace the loss of my dear Leopold. I have now to add, that
during the last month, and within a few days of each other, we have been succes-
sively deprived of my only remaining boy, and of Charlotte, your god-daughter.
We have now only one left, an infant, the little Ella ; and that we may not run the
risk of a tropical climate, we send her home by the present opportunity, under the
charge of our good old nurse.

“ Such severe trials in a climate by no means congenial to an European consti-
tution, and broken down as we were by former afflictions, have had their effect in
producing severe illnesses. Lady Raffles has in point of health shared better than
myself, hut she is miserably reduced and lowered. For myself, I have had two of
the most severe attacks I ever suffered. The last a fever which fell on the brain,
and I was almost mad. I am still an invalid, and confined to my room.

“ How different are these communications to those I was so happy as to make
during our first three years residence ? We were then perhaps too happy, and
prided ourselves too highly on future prospects. It has pleased God to blight our
hopes, and we must now lower our expectations more to the standard of the ordi-
nary lot of human nature — God’s will be done !

All our thoughts, and all our wishes are now turned homewards. Sometimes
the prospect is bright, and the heart expands in the contemplation ; at others, dark
clouds intervene, and the dread of meeting old friends with new faces and colder
hearts, chills every feeling of pleasure. For ourselves I can only say, that with
every remove we have dragged a lengthened chain ; and that our attachments and

AMOUNT OF TONNAGE ARRIVED AT SINGAPORE,

.509

affections have only warmed and encreased in the ratio of the distance to which we
have been driven, and the time we have been banished. We shall carry home the
same hearts, the same principles and attachments with which we left England,
heightened only by the force which absence and privation give to every enjoyment.
Lady Raffles prays you to excuse her : since the loss of my dear Leopold she has
never dared to take a pen in her hand.

‘‘ In a day or two we shall he left without a single child ! What a change ! We
who had recently such a round and happy circle. All our fears were once that we
should have too many : all our cares are now to preserve one — our only one. I
cannot say any more : my heart is sick and nigh broken.”

To the Duke of Somerset.

“ Bencoolen, February 28, 1822.

“ Our domestic misfortunes have borne so heavily upon us, that I have been
obliged for many months to forego the satisfaction of any thing like a regular cor-
respondence with my friends. The loss of our three eldest children added to severe
and dangerous illnesses, have so completely broken our spirits, that we are almost
afraid to look forward, and under these circumstances I am sure I shall not plead
in vain to your Grace, that you will excuse my long silence.

“ I am still confined to my room from the effects of a violent nervous fever,
and my medical attendants limit me to the number of lines I may write, this will
therefore account for my unusual brevity.

Jif * * * *

“ I send by the Borneo a very considerable collection of plants and seeds for
the Horticultural Society : among them some very thriving plants of the mangosteen
and other Malayan fruits, our choicest flowers, the sago and sugar-tree, with all the
va'rieties of our pine-apples, &c. If the ship meets with good weather they will I
think be a very valuable addition to their stock.

“ My settlement of Singapore continues to prosper. By the returns of ship-
ping, and native vessels arrived since it has been in our possession, the following
results appear.

“ The total tonnage arrived in two years and a half has been upwards of 161,000
tons, and the estimated value of imports and exports, 8,000,000 dok, or ^2,000,000.

“ Considering all the disadvantages under which Singapore has been placed, the
want of confidence in its retention even for a month, the opposition of the English
settlement at Panang, and of the Dutch, a stronger proof of its commercial import-
ance could hardly be afforded.

“ It is my intention to go round to Singapore in about three months, and to
remain there until I have made the necessary arrangements for establishing the
place on a proper and lasting foundation.

510

CONSIGNMENT OF SPICES FROM BENCOOLEN.

“ The change for a few months will, I doubt not, prove beneficial to Lady
Raffles’ health and spirits.”

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Bencoolen, Feb. 28, 1822.

“ My Dear Sir,

‘‘ Our domestic afflictions have been so gi'eat, that I have been quite un-
equal, during several months, to maintain any thing like a regular correspondence
with my friends. You will have heard of our severe loss in the death of my eldest
l)oy Leopold, and I have now to add, that, during the last month, and within a few
days of each other, we w^ere doomed to lose our eldest daughter Charlotte, our first
born, and my only remaining boy, Marsden, your godson. These have been dreadful
trials to my dear Sophia ; but, I thank God, she is now becoming tolerably recon-
ciled, and that, upon the wiiole, the shock has been got over as well as could have
been expected.

“ ^^ e have still one little prattler left, an infant ; but after what has passed we
have lost all confidence in the climate, and lose not a moment in sending her to
England. She proceeds in the Borneo, now about to quit this port for London.
Parting with our only one is an additional trial to Lady Raffles, but we have judged
it the best, and have not allow^ed feelings to predominate. This will prove to you,
that however we may be depressed the spring of our minds is not destroyed.

“ I have myself' suffered most severely from illness, and am at this moment
hardly convalescent, not haring left my room for three weeks. This last attack is
the most severe I have felt, and I can compare it to nothing short of a brain fever,
which almost made me mad. It is the first and only fever I ever experienced, and
by falling on the nerves w^as doubly distressing.

“ All these circumstances combined have only tended the more firmly to fix
our determination of going to England in the course of next year, and I have ac-
cordingly sent home my resignation.

“ By the Borneo I send a considerable consignment of Bencoolen spices to the
Company, and the planters have shipped a still larger quantity on their own ac-
count : the invoices cannot amount to less than 100,000 dollars, and probably more.
This will afford the means of a fair experiment, and I am anxious to interest all the
friends of Bencoolen in it. Our cultivation is extending, but w^e are sadly off for
capital and European industry, tlie very commodities with which you overflow.

“ You will be pleased to hear that my settlement at Singapore continues to
advance. The enclosed list of arrivals and departures during the first two years
and a half will speak volumes in its favour. The tonnage amounted to 161,515
tons. If such has been the result wfflile the settlement has laboured under every
possible disadvantage (w^ant of confidence in its retention even for a month, and the

DEFEAT OF THE DUTCH IN SUMATRA.

511

efforts of the Dutch to crush it) what may we not expect hereafter, when con-
fidence is established, capital accumulated, and the British merchant has fair play
for his industry and speculation ? The trade with Siam has most rapidly increased ;
indeed, Singapore would seem to be in a fair way of becoming the great trading
port for Siam goods. Already the sugar of Siam sells at Singapore for less than it
can be pmchased at the capital of Siam, and many of the Siamese traders (principally
Chinese in junks) come to enjoy the advantage of a free port.

“ Crawfurd has been deputed by the Governor General to visit Siam and Cochin
China. With the former place we are going on so well, that if commerce alone is
our object, I think it is a pity to disturb the progress that is so rapidly making with-
out our direct interference. As to Cochin China, some information may be obtained
regarding the coasts and country ; but the latter is in too unsettled and disturbed a
state to promise much advantageous intercourse of a commercial nature.”

“ Bencoolen, March 6, 1822.

“ The Borneo sailed from hence on the 4th instant, having our dear and only
child on board. Sophia has borne the parting tolerably well ; but what a sad and
lonely house, without nurse and the children — never was there such a change — we
wander from room to room, sohtary and dejected ; but God’s will be done, and we
must be content.

“ I see no reason for altering the course I am steering, and my mind is made up
to stand or fall by my own views or measures ; thank you, however. * *

Our schools here are extending, and the missionaries gaining ground.”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Bencoolen, April 12, 1822.

“ It is now above a month since I wrote to your Grace by the ship in which we
sent home our dear and only remaining child Ella ; and though, as you may well sup-
pose, we have been left as solitary and disconsolate as can well be imagined, I think
it will be satisfactory to you to know that both Lady Raffles and I have been gaining
ground in health and spirits. We now begin to look with some confidence on return-
ing to our native land, and to indulge in a thousand anticipations of joy and anxiety.

* * * * *

“ In the way of news, or interesting information, you cannot expect much. The
only political event in our neighbourhood of recent occurrence is the defeat of the
Dutch in the interior of Padang, where they have become engaged in a war with the
Padries, a sect of Mahomedans, which is rapidly gaining ground throughout the
northern parts of Sumatra. It is the practice of these people, when they are attacked,
to place the women and children in front ; and in the last onset by the Dutch, it is

512

DUTCH PUNISHMENT OF A PADRI CHIEF.

reported that not less than one hundred and twenty women, each with a child in her
arms, were sacrificed, the women standing firm.

“ The discomfiture of the Dutch on the last occasion is stated to have been
occasioned by the treachery of a Padri Chief, who apparently came over to their side,
and led them into a snare ; and the Dutch took their revenge of his perfidy by assem-
hhng all the troops and Chiefs of the country, sha^ing off the poor man’s beard, &c.
and then chopping off his head, embalming it, and sending it down to the seat of
government, to the Resident’s, where it is exhibited.

To Thomas Murdoch, Esq.

“ Bencoolen, Jpril 12, 1822.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ I am afraid you will have thought me very remiss in not acknowledging
the receipt of your kind and friendly letters ; and yet could you know the state of
misery and anxiety into which we have been plunged during the last year, I am sure
you would make allowances. Our first serious misfortune was the death of Lady
Raffles’ eldest brother, who had come to us from Bengal on a rtsit. Next followed
my dear and eldest boy Leopold, your godson, the pride and hope of my life ; but we
were perhaps too proud, and we hoped for too much, and, if so, we have been justly
humbled. Our brother-in-law. Captain Auber, who brought us out to this country,
was the next ; and after him, in rapid succession, nearly every person in India whom
I could call a friend; all those who had been in my confidence in Java: and to close
the year, I was myself attacked with a serious and alarming illness, which I did not
shake off for many months. Lady Raffles, though not laid up, was in a very preca-
rious state ; and though her anxiety for me might be of temporary service in turning
her thoughts from former afflictions, it could not do otherwise than still further
reduce her.

“ With the past year, however, w^e had vainly hoped that w'e had overcome our
afflictions. M e endeavoured to raise ourselves about Christmas ; but before the 20th
of Januaiy two more of my children, my eldest daughter Charlotte, and my only re-
maining boy Marsden, w^ere in the grave ! This blow w^as almost too much for us.
But w'e had still one little one left, and embraced the first opportunity of sending her
to a safer climate, wiiere, w'e trust in God, she will have duly arrived long before this
reaches you. Our misfortunes did not even end here ; for I again fell ill, and was
confined for nearly tw'o months, with something very like a brain fever. It is only
wathin the last month that I have got about at all ; but I now feel myself completely
recovered, though much shaken in constitution. Lady Raffles most fortunately, and
unexpectedly, has kept her health tolerably w^ell ; and if it pleases God that our afflic-
tions now^ cease, we will still look forw'ard to brighter days and better times.

I have thus detailed my sorrows, not so much to excite yoiw commiseration.

IMPORTANCE OF SINGAPORE.

513

as to prove to you that it was incapacity alone which prevented my writing. It is
of no use to brood over misfortunes, and you will I am sure be happy to learn that
we have both recovered our usual tone of mind and spirits ; the body however is
weak, and the only remedy for this is change of climate ; on this also we have re-
solved, and I hope to reach England early in 1824.

“ I propose going round to Singapore in the course of a few months, for the
purpose of completing all my arrangements in that quarter. Its rise still continues
to astonish those who did not at first look deeply. From a statement of the arrivals
and departures, imports, &c. during the first two years and a half, it appears, that,
during that period no less than 2889 vessels have entered at the port, of which 383
were armed and commanded by Europeans, and 2506 by natives of independent
states, and that their united tonnage amounted to 161,515 tons.

“ It further appears that the value of merchandize in native vessels that have
entered the Port during the same period has exceeded five milUons of dollars, and
that the imports and exports by ships, have not been less than three millions more,
making a gross amount of eight milhons of dollars, or nearly .£200,000 sterling.

“ These statements have been forwarded to Europe, and from this proof of the
extent of commercial dealings at Singapore during the infancy of the establishment,
and whilst it has laboured under many disadvantages, some estimate may be formed
of its real value and importance.

To the Rev. Dr. Raffles.

“ Bencoolen, April \7th, 1822.

“ My Dear Cousin,

“ I wrote to you so lately by the Borneo, that I have httle to add beyond
the assurance of my continued esteem and affection. We have, thank God, reco-
vered very much of late, and Sophia is quite herself again. I am but a crazy
mortal at best, but on the whole am quite as well in health as I have any right to
expect in a climate which is any thing but congenial to my constitution.

“ We still hold our determination of quitting India, God willing, for Europe,

about the end of next year — neither of us can last out longer.

« * * * »

“ We now pass our time in great retirement. I have lately completed a very
comfortable country-house, and much of my time is taken up in agricultural pursuits.
I am by far the most active farmer in the country, and as President of the Agricul-
tural Society, not only take precedence at the board, but in the field. I have a dozen
ploughs constantly going, and before I quit the estate, I hope it will realize a revenue
of two or three thousand a year, besides feeding its population. It is an experiment,

3 u

514

SIR STAMFORD’S AGRICULTURAL EXERTIONS.

but it will encourage others ; and as it is a property which belongs to the Company,
no one can accuse me of interested views in the efforts which I am making. It is
possible that in England I may look with interest to the returns in money which
my oats and barley may afford ; but here I am quite satisfied with seeing and col-
lecting the produce of my industry and exertions. I am cultivating and improving
for the mere love of the thing, and the desire of employing my time advantageously
for others.

“ Our sugar at last succeeds very well, but the disappointment in the mills has
been great indeed. It was only a few weeks ago that I received the letters from
Messrs. Littledale. We then immediately set to w'ork to construct a mill here as
w'ell as w^e could ; and it has now commenced to w ork at the rate of half a ton a day.
The sugar is excellent, and I have no doubt the rum will be of equally good quality.
This is the first part of my mechanical operations, for which I take to myself no little
credit, considering our w'ant of assistance and experience. We took our model from
the Encyclopaedia.

“ Adieu, my dear Cousin, &c.”

“ Bencoolcn, July 25th, 1822.

“ I am sure it will be satisfactory to you to know that both Sophia and myself
have become ourselves again : not that we can forget our past and heavy afflictions,
or cease to mourn over them ; but we can now again enjoy the present hour, and
look forward with steadiness and satisfaction. I am not one of that ‘ Satanic school’
w ho look upon this w orld as the hell of some former and past creation, but am con-
tent to take it as I find it, firmly believing, from all I have known and seen, that
whatever is, is for our good and happiness, and that there is actually more of both,
even in this world, than in our consciences we can think we have deserved. Our
health too, has improved and if in this respect we could remain as we are, w'e
might risk tw'o or three years more, at least so say our present feelings, but we
must not trust them : experience dictates prudence, and if we only hold out till the
appointed time, we shall be satisfied. We have had a very sickly season, and among
the casualties are our chaplain and doctor; Jack also has been obliged to fly to
Batavia for change of air, and deaths are of daily occurrence in our small circle : but
notw ithstanding this w^e still look up ; therefore, with the blessing of God, don’t
despair of seeing us in 1824.

“ I have long looked for the appointment of Mr. Canning as Governor-General;
and, upon the whole, I augur w'ell of his government, not from any personal views
as to myself, but w'ith respect to the public interests, to which I cannot but look
w'ith anxiety. My life has hitherto been a public one ; and long habit, if it is
nothing else, has made the pubhc weal as interesting to me as my owm personal

EXPECTED ARRIVAL OF MR. CANNING IN THE EAST.

515

prospects ever can be. Without attending to it I should lose half the interest of my
life, so that you must not he surprised if I still hold on the same course, even
though I may not be able to prove that my interests are advanced by it. To these
I never looked primarily, and God grant I never may. I believe, paradoxical as it
may seem to say so, I should lose my identity were I to cease to love other things
better than myself. It may be a wrong turn of mind, but such is the twist of it,
and matured as it now is by forty years’ growth, I fear I must change myself ere I
think or act otherwise.

“ Do not, however, do me the injustice to suppose that I am overweeningly attached
to the things of this world — am in love v\dth ambition, or suppose I can reform the
world by my endeavours. I think I know myself better. I would rather be a
simple unit with the united few who act rightly and on principle, than a blazing
cypher acting for self and my own nothingness. But a truce to this. I hope to be
at Singapore by the time Canning arrives, so that he will find me at my post of
danger, and I yet hope of honour too.

“ As for Crawfurd, what you say, to a certain extent, had now and then presented
itself transiently to my mind in the same light ; but you mistake me if you suppose I
entertain any unpleasant feeling on the account ; whatever his faults, he is devoting
his mind exclusively to objects in which my heart and soul are deeply interested. Let
CrawTurd have his swing, and the more extended the better ; in the present times we,
perhaps, require such bold and fearless men. The cloud of ignorance, which still
hangs over England, with regard to the Eastern Islands, cannot be dissipated by ordi-
nary means, or by dint of reason ; it requires the agency of some of those powerful
elements which, while they disperse, cannot avoid partially destroying.

“ Where we differ we shall explain, and longer and cooler heads may light their
matches from the sparks which we strike out. Two of a trade, they say, can never
agree ; and Crawfurd and I are, perhaps, running too much on the same parallel, not
now and then to be jostling each other ; but if in following my steps he profits by my
en'ors and experience, it will be a satisfaction to me. He writes to me that his views
are turned homewards in 1825, but this I don’t believe. I think he expects to return
from his cruise about the fall of the next year, and will, I have no doubt, convey a
fine collection to the Governor General ; it is not impossible we may meet.

“ I observe what you say on the state of the nation. I agree with you, as far as
we can perceive from this distance, that things look better. Manufactures and com-
merce are certainly improving, and agriculture will come about in due time. It is
very amusing to hear the complaints of the imin of the country in consequence of its
too great riches and abundance. For those who suffer, and they are very many, I
feel most sincerely : most deeply do I commiserate the wretchedness which must
necessarily be felt by certain classes ; and all must be content to retrograde from the

3 u 2

516

SIR STAMFORD’S OPINION ON THE STATE OF ENGLAND.

high pitch of ease and luxury, which were created by an over, but, perhaps, necessary
excitement ; yet I never can bring my mind to suppose our case desperate, while
we not only have more people, but more food, and more money than we know
what to do with. \^^ere I to land, for the first time, on some large and highly
populous island, and to observe a similar state of things, what would be my impres-
sion ? Not that it was a mined, but a badly governed country. Ours, perhaps, is so
circumstanced ; although among the many quacks and pretenders to heal the diseases
of the state, I have seen but few whose panacea were worth the trial. Upon the
whole, perhaps, we cannot go on much better than w'e are doing : our circumstances
have changed, and greatly changed, and the gi'eat object is to assist the wheel as it
turns round, and render the change as gi*adual and imperceptible as possible. Most
certainly do I think we have not changed for the w^orse. Scarcity and high price never
can be better than cheapness and abundance : for a time, it may serve to gorge the
appetites of the few ; but in the long run, and for the nation at large, it never can last,
but must inevitably end in ruin. Industry and plain living suit better with good
morals, sound understanding, and, consequently, with the happiness of this life, and
the prospects of the future, than idleness and luxury, though they were to be bought
without the sacrifice of the many to the few. I look highly on the resources of the
country, I consider them as inexhaustible, and that the days of our true greatness
are now approaching. So much for politics.

I must not omit to tell you a curious fact : the Java Government were dis-
tressed for money, and proposed to raise a loan of thirty lacs in Bengal, at fi'om
seven to nine per cent., payable in five years. The terms were communicated to
me, and the loan opened ; but there was a feverish anxiety in Calcutta as to the
security of the Dutch, notwithstanding their power and means in the East were
never less equivocal ; and the Dutch themselves thought better of it, and the loan
was closed, when, lo and behold ! the only subscription to the loan, actually realized,
was from me. This has occasioned a reference to Batavia from Bengal ; and it is
odd enough, after all our battlings, that I should be found to be the only man in
India who would hear their distress, and trust them with a penny. This is, at least,
an amusing anecdote for the entertainment of his Netherlands’ Majesty, when he
may honour me with another invitation to his palace at Lacken.

“ Your letter respecting young M’Lean I purposely put aside to answer, after
turning the matter in my thoughts ; it is a serious matter to direct the destination of
a young man, and, as I never like to drop those whom I once take up, I am anxious
to see that all is right in the beginning. So much depends upon the start that we
cannot be too cautious.

“ My former letters will have informed you of my present plan for going home,
and, I thank God, the necessity does not exist for our going in the Layton.

SIR STAMFORD’S RESPONSIBLE SITUATION.

517

“ I observe what you say respecting Pulo Nias ; I must again refer you to my
principles of action, with an assurance that I do, and will, to the utmost of my power,
act prudently and cautiously.

“ I am placed here, as it has been my lot ever since I have been entrusted with
a government, to administer the public affairs according to my best ability. I lose
no time in informing my superiors of my situation, and the circumstances of the
country, and their interests. I implore advice, and ask for authority ; I receive
none ; scarce an acknowledgment, and when I do, one that only proves they can
never have read what I have written. Year after year rolls on ; the pubhc weal must
be attended to, and time and tide stand still for no man. How is it possible that a
man, having the honour of his country at heart, and any conscience whatever, can
remain a silent spectator of what is daily getting worse and worse ? Either he must
step in to stop the ruin, or he must eat the bread of idleness, and pocket the wages
of iniquity, for they cannot be honestly earned without the performance of corres-
ponding duties, to say nothing of the happiness or misery of the thousands and tens
of thousands committed to his charge, and whose destiny must, in a great measure,
be considered in his hands.

“ I receive very kind letters from Mr. Grant and Mr. Edward Parry ; I have
reason to value and esteem them, and I am deeply sensible of their kindness.

“ My hand aches, and I must leave off with an apology for writing you so long
a letter ; but, in truth, I have not had time to write a shorter, and, therefore, give
you in haste what comes uppermost. We are all well.”

“ Bencoolen, July 26th, 1822.

“ You say our new Deputy Master- Attendant is o. protege of Mr. Robinson, and
on this account entitled to my attentions.

“ I am not aware that, as yet, I am under any obhgation to Mr. Robinson, for
if report says true, he is most hostile to me, but for why I know not. Be it as it
may, I would always rather return good for evil ; and, in the hope that he may one
day lay aside his prejudice, and be open to reason and conviction, you may assure
him that I only regret I am not better known to him. Times may alter as they
have once altered, and, really, I cannot account for much that I see and hear ; never-
theless, I shall continue to pursue a straight-forward course, as I have hitherto done,
without swerving to the right or left, quarrelling with no one.”

Bencoolen, July 28, 1822.

“ I will now reply to your letter respecting young M'Lean.

“ With industry and perseverance, a good constitution and frugal habits, there
wants but one thing more to complete the requisites, and that is capital, or credit,

518

OPENING FOR COMMERCIAL SPECULATIONS AT BENCOOLEN.

which is the same thing ; '^^^thout this last, it is chance if the others have fair play,
and with it, I think few places offer better prospects than the spot from whence I
write — Bencoolen, w'here there are most advantageous openings for advantageous
speculations, in the cultivation and manufacture of sugar and rum, the culture of
coffee, spices, &c., and where, notwithstanding all its supposed disadvantages, more
may now be done \\dth dollars than ever could be effected in the West Indies Avith
pounds.

“ Commercial speculations are, in a great measure, at a stand, and Singapore
is overstocked with merchants. They will be too keen for a novice, and in these
times it is quite a science, even for the first houses, to know how to make money :
the most they can do is to prevent loss. In Java there are great facilities and advan-
tages, both for trade and cultivation, particularly the latter, but then it is under a
Dutch government. Of the extent of capital required, any thing from one to five
thousand pmmds mil answer, but, of course, the more the better. With tw^o or
three thousand pounds to sink in the land at Bencoolen, I really think a pretty for-
tune might be made in ten years, paying back the first capital with a high interest
in three or four.

“ One thing, however, must not on any account be expected either here or at
Singapore — there are no appointments to be had — not more than you can pick up
in the streets of London ; therefore, every thing must depend upon the party him-
self, and on his own ffugahty and exertions.”

^‘Bencoolen, September 1822.

“ We have had a very sickly season. I am concerned to say, my inestimable
friend Jack stiU remains in a very dangerous state, and is obliged to embark in the
Layton for the Cape. In him I lose my right hand ; but if he survives, he will
rejoin me in six months, and accompany us home.

“ I am afraid I shall have a good deal to do at Singapore, as the place grows
so rapidly, that some important pro\dsions must be made for its internal manage-
ment and comfort.

^ »

" Sophia, I am sorry to say, has had an illness which has lowered her very
much, and makes me very anxious to get her home. Would to God we were once

safe with you, and out of these enervating regions.

**«*»#*

“ The idea of a pepper cargo without dead weight is such a farce, that the
Layton has been the laughing-stock to all the private traders, and, were the whole

REDUCTION IN THE EXPENSES OF BENCOOLEN.

519

proceeding to be published, I know of no instance that would expose more igno-
rance and absurdity in the Company’s proceedings as merchants *.

“ I am off for Singapore to-morrow, very far from well, and the change may
do us good.

“ For the past year the only item in our books worthy of remark is, that the
charges of the settlement have been reduced about 7 0,000 rupees ; but the place is
still so exorbitantly high and expensive, that, perhaps, the less that is said on the
subject the better.”

To W. Marsden, Esq.

“ Bencoolen, September 8th, 1823.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ I promised myself the satisfaction of writing to you very fully by the
Layton, but illness, and the variety of detail which must be got through in the few
days between this and my embarkation for Singapore, v^ill, I fear, compel me to be
more brief than usual. I still continue to suffer so severely from a nervous affec-
tion in my head, that I cannot calculate upon an hour’s health ; Lady Raffles too, is
only just recovering from an illness ; and my invaluable friend. Dr. Jack, is on the
eve of embarking for the Cape as a last hope. Under these circumstances, and the
bustle of packing and delivering over the charge of the settlement for some months,
you will, I am confident, make allowances. Your kind letters, from the 19th of
August, 1821, to the 7th of March last, are now before me, and although there are
many points in them to which I could have wished to advert, I must be content to
notice a few.

“ Your observations on our press are as just as they are liberal ; and I only wish
it was in my power to convince you that we have sufficiently profited by them. You
were, of course, aware, that my object is rather to excite others than to come for-
ward myself, and that in our present pubhcations I necessarily keep in the back
ground. I allow nothing to appear as direct from myself.

‘‘ The following is the latest and best information which I can obtain respecting
the Rakan river.

« « « «

* The Court of Directors sent the Layton out to Bencoolen with strict orders to fill her entirely with
pepper ; and so strictly forbad any thing else being put on board, that Sir Stamford could not alter their
orders. A moment’s consideration will lead to the inference, that pepper is in itself so light, that a vessel
entirely laden with it would be buoyed up, and float entirely on the surface of the water ; consequently
could not, with safety, venture to sea. A proportion of sugar had been prepared as ballast ; but as it was
not allowed to be received on board, the vessel sailed with that small quantity of pepper which would not
endanger her safety in passing the Cape, &c.

520

GENERAL SURVEY OF SUMATRA.

The above is abstracted from the journal of the cruizer Timir, sent over for
the express pm-pose, at my suggestion. This will shew you that I am doing aU I
can to ascertain the true fonn of the coast in this quarter. This long extract has
occupied so much of my paper, that I must defer our further geographical dis-
coveries till another opportunity. I enclose you Captain Crisp’s calculations on the
longitude of Bencoolen : we are just commencing with Jupiter’s satellites, and I
shaD, certainly, not allow the present astronomical party to leave the coast until I
have laid down all the principal points.

September 19th. I had written thus far, when I was broken in upon by a host
of people, and on business ; and my time is now so short, that I can do little more
than close this letter, as w^e embark at daylight to-morrow. Dr. Jack is still alive,
and sails for the Cape this evening, but I have very little hope for him ; I shall feel
his loss most severely, both as a private friend and as an able assistant, not only in
the particular line of natural history, but in our geographical pursuits. With his
assistance and Captain Crisp’s, I had commenced our general survey of Sumatra with
some hope of success ; but I am now no longer sanguine of doing much in my oum
time. In a country hke this, where nothing material of this natm'e has been effected,
the scope of our operations seemed naturally to divide itself into three branches ;
first, the determining the geographical position of all the sea-ports and harbours,
and the hydi'ographic delineation of the line of coast and the adjacent Islands ; in
this we have done, and I am happy to say we are still doing a good deal ; secondly,
the conducting a series of triangles from a measm'ed base, in order to fix the site of
to\Nms, the extent, and direction of the several ranges of mountains, and the points
where the rivers take their rise ; in this we have gone so far as to lay doum a
tolerably extensive base from the tower of IVIarlborough Fort, which we pm*pose to
adopt as the leading point, or meridian, and to carry on the triangles as far as the
eye will reach from hence ; and, thirdly, the stretching the more minute topo-
graphical details, in w^hich we neither have wasted nor shall waste our time.

“ I must, however, here close, in the hope that my health will enable me to
take advantage of the leisure of the voyage to write you more fully. I take the
liberty of presenting Mrs. Marsden Avith a cask of Bencoolen sugar, in the hope
that she will patronize our manufacture. The superior authorities will insist that
we can neither manufacture sugar nor grow coffee, though we have already produced
the former of better quality than any known in the East, and oirr coffee-gardens
are in every way promising, and the export from Padang alone, during the last year,
exceeded 20,000 peculs. You will observe, that our sugar is muscovado, and not
the light article usually obtained fi*om India, and as the worth of sugar must be in
its sweetness, we think we stand high. I am confident you will give it all the credit
it deserves, and more we do not wish.”

DEATH OF DR. JACK.

521

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ September 11, 1822.

“ The last arrivals have brought us many kind letters from you ; and I need not
attempt to say how truly, and how deeply, we feel your kindness. The hand of
affliction has been heavy upon us ; and it is in such times that the kindness of friends,
and of those we love and esteem, is doubly valued.

“ I did intend to write you a very long letter by this opportunity ; but illness,
and the multiplicity of detail which crowds upon me at the moment, deprive me of
the leisure of even five minutes. We embark for Singapore to-morrow morning.

“ If I am able to hold up my head, and use my pen at all, I shall certainly avail
myself of the leisure of the voyage to endeavour to make amends for my long silence
by writing you a very prosing letter. I will not attempt to say more at present, as
you will easily perceive from the wi'iting that I hold my pen with difficulty ; but
though my head fail, my heart nevei" will.”

aI* ^

^ ^

“ Bencoolen, September 15, 1822.

“ We were to have embarked this morning for Singapore, but the wind has
proved foul, and it w^as ordained that w'e should remain another day, to bury our
dear and invaluable Mend, William Jack. Poor fellow ! a finer head or heart there
never w'as ; and whether as a bosom friend, or as a scientific assistant, he was to me
invaluable ; he had been ill long, and returned from Java about a fortnight ago, after
an unsuccessful \isit for change of air : w^e embarked him yesterday morning in the
Layton, for the Cape ; and he died this morning before the ship weighed her anchor.

“ I am so depressed in spirits, and altogether so incompetent to the task of
writing to his father at this hurried moment, when all is confusion for my embarka-
tion, that I must postpone it ; but I beg you to assure him, that the loss is as deeply
deplored by his friends here, as it is possible it can be by his family at home ; and that
for myself, I am so overwhelmed by the misfortune, that I cannot command myself
to enter into particulars. His character and talents stood deservedly high with all
who knew him ; and if any thing can afford relief to a parent in the loss of such a
son, it ought to be the reflection that he has performed the course w^hich he w^as des-
tined to run with honour and integrity, and that his sphere of usefulness wns as ex-
tended as his talents and ability, themselves of no common order, could command,”

“ Straits of Sunda, off Angler, September 26, 1822.

“ I am happy to say that we are thus far on our way to Singapore, all well. The
melancholy addition to the number of deaths in our family, by the loss of William

3 X

522

DEPARTURE FOR SINGAPORE.

Jack, made us quit the place without much regret ; and God grant the change of air
and scene may work a favourable change both in our health and spirits.

“ It is indispensable that the ship which comes out for us should have a poop, as
Sophia could not undergo the voyage below hatches ; indeed, she is so bad a sailor,
and we are both so weak and unfit for a long voyage, that we sometimes think of
making a port-to-port voyage home ; that is to say, going to the Isle of France, the
Cape, St. Helena, and the Cape de Verd Islands, and stopping at each place a week
or a fortnight to recruit.

To the Rev. Dr. Raffles.

“ In the Straits of Banca, October 1, 1822.

My Dear Cousin,

“ Our correspondence has latterly flagged, though I hardly know why, except
it be that we may neither of us have had heart or spirit enough to enter on the sad
subjects w^hich have most absorbed our attention. You will, I think, be glad to hear
that we have quitted Bencoolen for a season ; for though I still adhere to its being,
on the whole, as healthy as other parts of the East, the melancholy events which
have accumulated in our own family, must produce a contrary impression on all who
look to us with interest and affection. Death, as if he seemed determined to glut
himself to the last, snatched from us, two days before we sailed, another member of
our family, my invaluable and highly respected friend. Dr. Jack ; he had supphed
the place of Dr. Arnold, and all my future Hews in life w'ere intimately blended with
the plans and projects which we had formed. He was to have accompanied me to
England, and his death has left a blank which vdll not be easily or speedily filled up.

I am now on my passage to Singapore, accompanied by Sophia and her
youngest brother ; and my plan is to remain there about six months, with the Hew
of arranging and modelling something hke a constitution for the place, and transfer-
ring its future management to a successor. Should God spare oiu* lives, Ave then
look to return to Bencoolen for the purpose of winding up ; and then, about the end
of the year, if it be not too presumptuous to look forward so far after what has
passed, we contemplate the prospect of revisiting old England. At all events, no
Hews of ambition will weigh with us beyond that period ; and, considering the pre-
carious state of our health, and the many ties at home, it seems, in the natural course
of things, that we should then take this step.

“ Among the numerous deaths which have occuiTed at Bencoolen, we have lost
no less than three doctors, and our worthy chaplain, Mr. Winter, w'hose widow and
family are now on their Avay to England. As the advance of good principles so
essentially depends on the character of the pastor, and particularly at Bencoolen,
where there is only one of our Establishment, and his union with the Missionaries is
so essential, I am not a httle interested in the choice that may be made of a sue-

APPOINTMENT OF A CHAPLAIN TO BENCOOLEN.

523

cessor. He will be appointed from home, and, most likely, become known to you
before his departure. This, I think, would be advantageous, particularly with reference
to future correspondence after I may leave the countiy. Of all places, a ship is the
worst for apphcation, or even for writing a letter, for there is always something going
on, and generally what is annoying either one way or the other. I am subject to
constant interruptions, and am at this moment obliged to break off my letter.

“ I again resume the pen, though I have little to add, except a farewell.”

3 X 2

CHAPTER XVIII.

Arrival at Singapore — Description of the settlement — Grounds of right to its retention — Occupation at
Singapore — Selection of site for college — Value of land — Contrast of Bencoolen and Singapore —
Number of vessels arrived in the first tno years and a half — Bungalow on Singapore hill — Botanic
garden — Description of plant described by Dr. Finlayson — Mission to Bali — Drawing up laws and
regulations for the settlement — Magistrates — Memorial against slavery — Resolution of the Bengal
Government — Instructions to Mr. Crawfurd — Addresses from the inhabitants — Singapore the only place
in India where slavery cannot exist — Leaves Singapore — Touches at Batavia — Correspondence with the
Baron Van de Capellan.

The pleasui'e of ^v^tnessing the encreasing prosperity of a settlement which he had
himself formed, in which he was hailed as a benefactor, and welcomed as a friend by
all ranks and classes, raised the spirit which sorrow had depressed ; and Sir Stamford’s
heart again expanded with the hope of happiness, and rejoiced in the consciousness
of possessing the pow'er of diffusing chdlization and blessings around him.

“ Singapore, October ll//(, 1822.

“ We landed yesterday, and I have once more established my head-quarters in
the centre of my Malayan friends. I have just time to say thus much, more you shall
have soon and often ; in the meantime you nail he glad to know that I feel sufficient
health and strength to do all I uish. The coldest and most disinterested could not
quit Bencoolen, and land at Singapore, without surprise and emotion. What, then,
must have been my feehngs, after the loss of almost every thing that was dear to me
on that ill-fated coast ? After all the risks and dangers to which this my almost only
child had been exposed, to find it grown and advanced beyond measure, and even my
warmest anticipations and expectations, in importance, wealth, and interest — in every
thing that can give it value and permanence ?

“ I did feel when I left Bencoolen, that the time had passed when I could take
much active interest in Indian affairs, and I wished myself safe home ; but I already
feel differently ; I feel a new life and vigour about me ; and if it please God to grant
me health, the next six months wall, I hope, make some amends for the gloom of the
last sixteen.

'7L. y.Ay

ARRIVAL AT SINGAPORE.

525

“ Rob me not of this my political child, and you may yet see me at home in all
my wonted spirits, and with an elasticity about me which will hear me up against all
that party spirit can do to depress me.

“ I have not time to write to any one else, therefore let all friends know that we
are well, and again. Heaven he praised, in the land of the living. Sophia is quite
well.

“ Mary Anne and her child are well also, and in our hearts we sing, ‘ Oh be
jojdul in the Lord.’”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Singapore, November 30, 1822.

“ I am sure you will congi’atulate us in haAing escaped from Bencoolen with our
lives, after the rapid succession of miseries which we experienced there. To close
the melancholy list of casualties in my own family, I have to add the loss of my most
excellent, valued friend. Dr. Jack. He was carried off the day before we sailed from
Bencoolen.

“ We have already experienced the benefit of change of scene and climate ; and
the prosperous state of this rising colony has made amends for the dull and sombre
Hews which we have left. Here all is life and activity ; and it would be difficult to
name a place on the face of the globe, with brighter prospects or more present satis-
faction. In little more than three years it has risen from an insignificant fishing vil-
lage, to a large and prosperous town, containing at least 10,000 inhabitants of all
nations, actively engaged in commercial pursuits, which afford to each and all a hand-
some livelihood, and abundant profit. There are no complaints here of want of
employment, no deficiency of rents, or dissatisfaction at taxes. Land is rapidly rising
in value, and instead of the present number of inhabitants, we have reason to expect
that we shall have at least ten times as many before many years have passed. This
may he considered as the simple, but almost magic result of that perfect freedom of
trade, which it has been my good fortune to establish.

We are daily looking for accounts of the arrival of our new Governor General;
and it is not improbable he may bring out final instructions respecting this place, as
far as concerns the question with the Dutch. I have, however, very little mieasiness
on the subject, as I think it now nearly impossible to dispossess us ; and the time for
my going home now draws so nigh, that I shall be able to fight the battle out in
England, upon more equal ground than I have been obliged to do here.

“ I could fill a volume with new matter, on new people, new manners, and new
comitiies, but I must be content to hold my tongue until I have the gratification of
telling you aU my long stories in person.

* *

“ I am at present engaged in establishing a constitution for Singapore, the

526

SAILING FISH.

principles of which will, I hope, ensure its prosperity. The utmost possible freedom
of trade and equal rights to all, with protection of property and person, are the ob-
jects to be obtained, and I shall spare no pains to estabhsh such laws and regulations
as may be most conducive to them. In Java I had to remodel, and in doing so to
remove the rubbish and incumbrances of tw^o centuries of Dutch mal-administration
— here I have an easier task — and the task is new. In Java I had to look princi-
pally to the agi'icultural interests, and the commercial only so far as they were con-
nected with them ; here, on the contrary, commerce is every thing, agriculture only
in its infancy. The people are different as well as their pursuits. I assure you I
stand much in need of ad\dce, and were it not for Lady Raffles, I should have no
counsellor at all. She is nevertheless a host to me, and if I do live to see you again,
it will be entirely owing to her love and affection : wthout this I should have been
cast away long ago. If it please God we have health, we hope to pass the next two
months pleasantly enough in this interesting occupation.

“ The only amusing discovery which we have recently made is that of a sailing
fish, called by the natives ikan layer, of about ten or twelve feet long, which hoists a
mainsail, and often sails in the manner of a native boat, and with considerable swift-
ness. I have sent a set of the sails home, as they are beautifully cut, and form a
model for a fast-sailing boat — they are composed of the dorsal fins of the animal,
and wiien a shoal of these are mider sail together, they are frequently mistaken for
a fleet of native boats.”

To W. Marsden, Esq.

''Singapore, Nov. 30, 1822.

“ My Dear Sir,

" You will, I am sure, be glad to learn that we have derived every ad.
vantage from change of scene and climate wliich we calculated upon, and that both
Lady Raffles and myself have daily improved in health and spirits since our arrival
here. The last blow reserved for us at Bencoolen was the death of my most valued
friend. Dr. Jack, and gi'eat indeed has been the loss which I have sustained by this
event. Poor fellow, we had become so intimate, and our futm-e plans had become
so interwoven with each other’s views in life, that I could not have felt the loss of a
brother more than I did his. But I must not get into a melancholy train of thought,
and will drop the subject till w^e meet.

“ Of Singapore I could of course say a good deal ; but when I say that it is
going on as prosperously as possible, you will infer much of what I w^ould communi-
cate. I have nearly got over the job of undoing, and am steadily going on in the
establishment of something like a constitution for the place, on the principle of esta-
blishing it permanently as a fi'ee port in every sense of the word. The active spirit
of enterprize which prevails among all classes is truly astonishing, and for its extent,
7

FIRE AT CANTON.

527

I believe I may safely say, that no part of the world exhibits a busier scene than the
town and environs of Singapore. The Dutch have been obliged to take off their
duties at Java and elsewhere on native prows, and as far as appearances go, they
seem to see the necessity of adopting a more liberal system throughout. I am sorry,
however, to say that a recent act, in which they were the principals, is perhaps as
disgraceful and abominable over a defenceless woman, as ever was committed by a
civilized nation.

“ You must be aware that the grounds on which I maintain our right to Singa-
pore rested on the following facts, which it has never been in their power to disprove.

1st. That subsequent to the death of Sultan Mahomed, which happened
about twelve years ago, there had been no regular installation of a successor, nor
had any Chief been acknowledged as such, with the essential forms required by the
Malay custom.

“ That the regaha (the possession of which is considered essential to sove-
reignty), still remained in the custody of Tunku Putrie, widow of the deceased
Sultan.

3d. That the Rajah of Lingin had never exercised the authority of Sultan of
Johore, and explicitly disclaimed the title, and

“ 4th. That the prince whom we supported was the eldest son of the late Sul-
tan, and was intended for the succession. That he was acknowledged by one at
least, if not both the constituting authorities of the empire, and that he himself
stood in no way committed to the Dutch, when I formed the treaty with him.

“ The Dutch have allowed nearly four years to pass since our occupation of
Singapore, in trying to prove that the Sultan of Lingin was actually invested with
the sovereignty of Johore ; but finding our ministry more firm than they expected,
and that their assertions were not admitted as proofs, they have at last given up the
point, and actually proceeded to the seizure of the regalia from the hands of Tunku
Putrie. I enclose you the particulars ; it is a curious document and may deserve
preservation as connected with the history of this part of the world.

“ The details of the destructive fire which has taken place in China will reach
you through the public prints ; I will therefore only notice that the whole of the
factories, English and foreign, with two exceptions, and upwards of 12,000 Chinese
houses, including six belonging to the Hong merchants, were burnt to the ground
between the first and third instant, and that the fire was by no means extinguished
on the twentieth, when our last accounts came away. The whole of the Company’s
w'oollens of the season, worth about <£400,000 have been destroyed, and about five
hundred tons of tea — 700,000 dollars were fortunately saved from the Company’s
treasury, but nothing else from the factory, and the supercargoes have for the most
part lost every thing but the clothes on their backs. This will occasion some long

528

MR. CRAWFURD’S MISSION TO SIAM AND COCHIN CHINA.

faces in Leadenhall-street, but it will set the manufacturers at work to supply the
woollens lost.

“ You will no doubt have heard of Crawfurd’s mission to Siam and Cochin
China. He has failed in the essential objects of his mission, but has had the means
of collecting a good deal of information respecting the countries he has visited,
which will afford him the opportunity of ^^Titing a very interesting book or two.
He was vith me last week on his retmai to Bengal, and I had the opportunity of
entering fully into the subject. At Siam he was detained five months. The King
received him in the first instance, but all his communications subsequently were with
an officer of the second rank below the sovereign ; and the only acknowledgment
he could obtain of the Governor General’s letter, was a short reply from an officer
of the third rank, specifying the duties and regulations of the port ; but which was
no sooner dehvered than the terms were broken, and the first act after Crawfurd’s
departure was to seize the supercargo. Captain, and part of the crew of an Enghsh
vessel, and to beat and knock them about till they had nearly deprived them of
life ; aftenvards putting them in irons and treating them with a barbarity which would
disgrace savages : and this purposely as an insult to our embassy, and to shew their
contempt of our power.

“ At Cochin China he met with a somewhat better reception personally, but
the King woidd not grant him an audience, or receive the letter from the Governor
General at all. The reason assigned was its not coming from a crowned head,
and that a similar letter fi-om France had not been received. A certificate from
one of the mandarins that we should be allowed to trade on the same terms as
the French, was all that Craufurd could obtain.

It does not seem that there is any foreign European influence at either
court, prejuchcial to our political or national interest ; and Crawfurd seems to think
they are both too jealous to admit of any. They have undoubtedly gi-eat apprehen-
sions of any European power gaining a footing among them ; and nothing could
equal the strict manner in which the embassy was watched at Cochin China.

“ Siam proves to be fully as rich a country as we supposed. Its population is
estimated at six millions, of which one-sixth may be Chinese, and nearly one-half the
whole are included at the districts of Lao, the other half occupying Lower Siam.
The produce in sugar, pepper, &c. &c. is immense ; and the tonnage on junks which
annually enter the Minam is not estimated at less than 40,000 tons ; of these,
eighteen or twenty of the largest junks belong to the King, who uith the court,
monopolizes all the foreign trade of this country. The value of this junk trade is so
important to the King and all concerned in it, that they are naturally averse to the
admission of our shipping to its supercession, and perhaps destruction ; and this
circumstance added to the despotic nature of the Government, its jealousy and

SIAMESE TRADE.

529

general bad character, seem to preclude the hope of our enjoying a direct trade to
any extent, by means of our own shipping. We must be satisfied with the entrepot
which we have established at Singapore, whither their junks regularly come with a
large portion of the produce of the country, and can afford to sell it at a lower rate
than foreigners can procure the same articles in Siam itself ; and now under the pro-
tection of the British flag the exchange must take place. In the extension of this
trade, the King and his court are so much interested, that he will in a manner feel de-
pendent on us for the accommodation and protection afforded.

“ The richest province of Lower Siam seems to be Chantibun, on the eastern
side of the gulph. It is said to export upwards of 80,000 peculs of pepper in a
year.

On his way to Cochin China, Crawfurd touched at Saigun, the capital of Lower
Cochi, and situated on the northern bank of the Camboja river. This place he de-
scribes as full of activity and produce, and abounding with Chinese, who seemed
anxious for a more general intercourse with us. Cochin China is a poor country
comparatively with Sjam ; but the principal value of our connection with it seems to
be with reference to the channel which it may afford for a more extensive intercourse
with several of the provinces of the Chinese.

“ For further details I must refer you to Crawfurd’s book when published, or
beg of you to await my arrival in England, as I am ashamed to lengthen this letter
further.”

To W. Marsden, Esq.

“ Singapore, November 30, 1822.

“ My plan is to resign Singapore as soon as I can make arrangements for the
appointment of a successor.

“ Since I have been here I have caught no less than six duyongs, (the animal
described by Valentin, and so long talked of as the mermaid), some as large as nine
feet two inches. A full-grown female is now under the dissecting knife, so that the
natural history of this extraordinary animal is hkely to be better known than any of
the other cetce.

“ Crawfurd’s astronomers omitted to take either the latitude or longitude of
Bankok, the present capital of Siam, although they were there upwards of four
months. The most remarkable production which they fell in with was a large potatoe
or yam (a species of inenispermurn) weighing no less than four hundred and eighty
pounds avoirdupoise ! This is a match for my gi*eat flower. Crawfurd carried up
two dmjongs from hence, and I have now three, ready prepared for England.

“We are making some advances towards a general survey of Singapore and the
adjacent Islands ; and I am happy to say I have succeeded at last in getting a very
correct survey of the eastern coast of Sumatra from Diamond Point down to the Ca-

3 Y

530

BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF CHANGE OF SCENE.

rimons. By the time I return to Bencoolen, I trust my astronomical party at the Line
will have done something ; and, at all events, I hope I shall have it in my power to
shew you that I have not been idle.

“ You will be surprised to hear that a considerable quantity of the finest benjamin
is produced in Lao, about the latitude of 15° or 16°, if not more.

“ My hand is rather unsteady from my late illness, therefore excuse my scrawl,
whidi I am almost ashamed to send.”

To T. Murdoch, Esq.

“ Singapore, December 4, 1822.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ I am afraid you will accuse me of neglect in not writing to you for so long
a period, but I must tell the truth, and rely on your kindness. I have not been able
to bring myself to the point since the loss of my dear boy, Leopold, and even now feel
a reluctance in doing so, which I can hardly overcome. The loss of that dear boy,
in whom all om' hopes were centered, has indeed been a severe blow ; and the rapid
succession in which our other darlings have been swept from us, has been almost too
much to bear. But, I thank God, the worst is past ; and though we may have hard-
ened our hearts a httle in order to get over it, I will yet hope that there is as much
happiness left for us in this world as we deserve to enjoy. We were, perhaps, too
happy, too proud of our blessings ; and, if we had not received this severe check, we
might not sufficiently have felt and known the necessity of an hereafter. The Lord’s
will be done, and we are satisfied.

“ You wll, I am sure, congi'atulate us on our removal fi'om Bencoolen. Only
two days before we left it we lost another member of our family, my inestimable
friend. Dr. Jack. This blow was reserved tiU the last, but it has not been the less
severe. Poor fellow, we have lost in him one of the clearest heads and warmest
hearts I ever met with ; but death has so assailed us in every quarter wthin the last
year, that I hardly yet know or feel all that I have lost.

“ We have been here nearly two months, and the change of air and scene has
done us great good. Lady Raffles in particular has greatly recovered both in her
health and spirits, and I am myself very sensibly better, though still occasionally
dreadfully oppressed with head-aches.

“ Public report speaks so favourably of this place, that I cannot well say more
about it, without subjecting myself to the charge of egotism, for it is, indeed, every
thing I could wish, and rising and improring in every way fully equal to my expectations.
It is at least a child of my own ; and now that I am in other respects childless, I may
perhaps be indulged with this ; and I can assure you, that the interest I take in it,
cheers many a day that would otherwise be gloomy and sad enough in reflections on
the past.

MR. CRAWFURD’S MISSION TO SIAM.

531

“ I am now busy in allotting the lands and laying out the several towns, defin-
ing rights, and establishing powers and rules for their protection and preservation.
I have been a good deal impeded, but the task, though an arduous and serious one,
is not one that I find unpleasant. What I feel most is the want of good counsel and
advice, and of sufficient confidence in my own experience and judgment to lay down
so broad and permanent a foundation as I could wish. I have already upwards of
10,000 souls to legislate for, and this number will, I doubt not, be increased during
the next year. The entei-prize and activity which prevails are wonderful, and the
effects of a free-trade and liberal principles have operated hke magic. But that the
past prosperity of the place may not prove ephemeral, it requires that I be the more
careful in wiiat I do for the future ; for if the past, under all our uncertainty of pos-
session, has so far exceeded my expectations, w^hat may not be calculated upon
hereafter, when our principles are better understood, when our possession is con-
sidered secure, and when British capital and enterprize come into full and fair
play !

“ You will probably have heard of Mr. CrawTurd’s mission to Siam and Cochin
China, which I am sorry to say has failed in all essential objects ; that is to say, of
the mission ; for in other respects his rtsit to those countries has, I doubt not, been
attended w ith gi'eat advantage, in affording him the means of obtaining information
of the people and countiy not previously, or at least not generally known. He has
ascertained that, in a political point of rtew% they are a most impracticable people,
and that it is folly for us to attempt political negociations with them ; and as the su-
perior authorities are satisfied of this, they will, I hope, be content with the retention
of Singapore, where, as an extensive depot for the produce of all these countries, the
British and the British-India merchant may always effect his exchange under the
protection of the British flag. On this point I shall hope to write you more fully
hereafter, now that I have once broken the ice.

“ My sister and Captain Flint are here, and it is no small gratification for us to
be with them. Flint is anxious to testify his recollection of your kindness and atten-
tion, and proposes sending you by the first opportunity the skeleton of an enormous
ape, standing about five feet six, lately obtained fi’om Borneo.

“ We are overwhelmed with duyongs. While writing this I am informed of the
arrival of another, which makes the seventh since I have been here.

“ Lady Raffles will wiite to IVIrs. Murdoch very soon. She pleads the same
excuse for her silence that I have done for mine. The kindness of yourself and
family has induced such a feehng on our part, that w^e calculate upon your sjunpathy
in all our misfortunes.”

3 Y 2

o32

VALUE OF LAND AT SINGAPORE.

“ Singapore, December 10, 1822.

“ My time is at present engaged in remodelling and laying out my new city,
and in establishing institutions and laws for its futm'e constitution ; a pleasant duty
enough in England, where you have books, hard heads, and lawyers to refer to, but
here by no means easy, where all must depend on my own judgment and foresight.
Nevertheless I hope that though Singapore may be the first capital established in
the nineteenth century, it will not disgi'ace the brightest period of it.

“ You will be surprised to hear of the value of land here. A few spots of
ground hitherto considered of no value, and passed over by the local resident, sold
in the course of an hour for upwards of 50,000 dollars. You uill perceive that I
have been very cautious in wording the grants of land, so as not to alarm the anti-
colonists at home.

“ We have heard nothing of the Borneo since her leaving the Cape, and
are looking out most anxiously for news of our dear child. Sophia’s patience is
almost exhausted, and her spirits begin to flag, but I thank God she is again in ex-
cellent health, and better than I have seen her for the last two years. The hope of
getting away from this country the end of the year buoys us both up, and enables us
to get on from day to day with something like satisfaction.

“ I have been very severely attacked since my arrival here, and it would be
madness to think of remaining in the country a day longer than the time 1 have
limited. I must remain here till April or May, and be at Bencoolen in June to meet
and despatch the Indiaman.

“ Nothing can be more striking than the contrast between the two settlements.
At Bencoolen the public expenses are more in one month than they are at Singapore
in twelve. The capital turned at Bencoolen never exceeds 400,000 dollars in a
year, and nearly the whole of this is in Company’s bills on Bengal, the only returns
that can be made ; at Singapore, the capital turned in a year exceeds eight millions,
without any government bills or civil establishment whatever.”

Extract of a Letter to the Rev. Dr. Raffles.

“ Singapore, January 12, 1823.

My Dear Cousin,

“ Since my arrival here I have received two letters from you of rather
ancient date ; but they remind me that I am very much your debtor in the way of
correspondence ; and if my health admitted it, should not long be so. As it is, you
must be satisfied with a few lines, the doctor prohibiting me from writing more.

“ The progress of my new settlement is in every way most satisfactory, and it

ENDOWMENT OF A COLLEGE AT SINGAPORE.

533

would gladden your heart to witness the activity and cheerfulness which prevail
throughout ; every day brings us new settlers, and Singapore has already become a
great emporium. Houses and warehouses are springing up in every direction, and
the inland forests are fast giving way before the industrious cultivator. I am now
engaged in marking out the towns and roads, and in establishing laws and regu-
lations for the protection of person and property. We have no less than nine mer-
cantile houses (European), and there is abundant employment for capital as fast as
it accumulates.

“ Both Sophia and I have improved in health since our arrival here, but I still
feel myself so weak and broken down in constitution, that it will be as much as I
can do to hold out for the year. My principal attack is in the head, and for days
together I am nearly distracted, and almost unconscious of what I am doing.

“ The death of my friend. Dr. Milne, of Malacca, has for a time thrown a damp
on missionary exertions in this quarter, but I expect Dr. Morrison, of China, to
visit this place in March, and I hope to make some satisfactory arrangement with
him for future labours. The two missionaries who are here are not idle. Messrs.
Milton and Thompson, the former in Chinese and Siamese, and the latter in Malay
and English printing. I have selected a spot for my intended college ; and all I
now require is a good head-master or superintendant. It is my intention to endow
it with lands, the rents of which will cover its ordinary expences. I am also about
to commence upon a church, the plan of which is already approved.

“ Believe me, &c.”

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Singapore, January 21, 1823.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ By a statement I forwarded to the Court of Directors in February last,
it was shewn that during the first two years and a half of this estabhshment, no less
than two thousand eight hundred and eighty-nine vessels entered and cleared from
the port, of which three hundred and eighty-three were o^vned and commanded by
Europeans, and two thousand five hundred and six by natives, and that their united
tonnage was one hundred and sixty-one thousand tons. It appeared also, that the
value of merchandize in native vessels arrived and cleared, amounted to about five
milhons of dollars during the same period, and in ships not less than three milhons,
giving a total amount of about eight millions as the capital turned.

“ This statement I thought very favourable ; but I have now the satisfaction
of forwarding to the same authority official statements, from which the following
results appear for the year 1822, a detailed and accurate account having been kept
during that period of the trade of the place.

534

TRADE OF SINGAPORE.

Total amount of tonnage, importing and exporting, one hundred and thirty
thousand six hundred and eighty-nine.

Total value of imports and exports in the year 1822, eight milhons five hun-
dred and sixty-eight thousand one hundred and seventy-two.

“ Nearly the whole of this trade is carried on by a borrowed capital, for which
interest is paid from nine to twelve per cent, per annum ; and it is not a little
remarkable, that since the establishment of the settlement, now four years, not a
single ship has arrived from England, notwithstanding Europe goods are in con-
stant demand. All British manufactures that heretofore found their way into the
settlement have come by circuitous routes, and with heavy charges of freight and
duties at other ports added to their invoice value. No less than four fi’ee traders
loaded home from Singapore last year; and the Venelia, by which I send this, now
goes home wth a full and valuable cargo of sugar, pepper, tin, tortoise-shell, &c. ;
and we could load half a dozen more ships in the com’se of the season were they
here

“ It being a great object to establish the freedom and independence of the port
on a sohd foundation, I take the liberty of enclosing you copies of several regula-
tions I have recently passed for the registry of land, the rules of the port, and the
establishment of a local magistracy, in the hope that you will consider them apph-
cable to the peculiar circumstances of Singapore. Land has already assumed a high
value, and a few lots of about sixty feet front, in a convenient situation for mercan-
tile purposes, realized at pubhc sale upwards of fifty thousand dollars in the course
of half-an-hour. Small lots in the outskirts of the town, of only eighteen feet fi-ont,
are bought and sold by the Chinese as high as seventy or eighty dollars each, at the
same time that they pay an annual quit rent of eight dollars to government.

‘‘ I have established a revenue without any tax whatever on the trade, which
more than covers all civil disbursements, and which must annually increase in future
years, while these disbursements should remain the same.

“ I give you these outlines, knowing how much interest you take in the settle-
ment, and how satisfactory they will be to you. We yet remain without any accounts
as to the final decision in Europe, but I cannot bring my mind to suppose that it will
be unfavourable.

* It may be interesting to compare the relative trade at Singapore, Penang, and Malacca : the following
is the value of the Exports and Imports in the year 1827-8 : —

IMPORTS.

EXPORTS.

Singapore.

dollars.

14,885,999.

Penang.

dollars.

6,437,042.

Malacca.

dollars.

1,266,090.

Singapore.

dollars.

13,872,010.

Penang.

dollars.

5,586,707.

Malacca.

dollars.

7,918,163.

Some details on the Singapore trade will be found in the Appendix.

EXTENSIVE SPECULATIONS OF THE CHINESE.

535

“ We have lately built a small bungalow on Singapore Hill, where, though the
height is inconsiderable, we find a great difference of climate. Nothing can be more
interesting and beautiful than the view from this spot. I am happy to say the
change has had a very beneficial effect on my health, which has been better during
the last fortnight than I have knovMi it for two years before. The tombs of the
Malay kings are, however, close at hand ; and I have settled that if it is my fate
to die here, I shall take my place amongst them : this will, at any rate, be better
than leaving one’s bones at Bencoolen. If it please God, we still live in the hope
of embarking for Europe towards the end of the year.

“ I am la)dng out a botanic and experimental garden, and it would delight you
to see how rapidly the whole country is coming under cultivation. My residence
here has naturally given much confidence, and the extent of the speculations entered
into by the Chinese quite astonishes me.”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Singapore, January 23, 182J.

“ Since I last wrote to your Grace, about a month ago, I have had another
very severe attack in my head, which nearly proved fatal, and the Doctors were for
hurrying me on board ship for Europe without much ceremony. However, as I
could not reconcile myself to become food for fishes, I preferred ascending the hill
of Singapore, where, if my bones must remain in the East, they would have the
honour of mixing with the ashes of the Malayan kings ; and the result has been,
that instead of dying, I have almost entirely recovered. I have built a very com-
fortable house, which is sufficient to accommodate my sister’s family as well as our
own ; and I only wish you were here but for half-an-hour, to enjoy the unequalled
beauty and interest of the scene. My house, which is one hundred feet front, and
fifty deep, was finished in a fortnight from its commencement. When wifi your
cottage be done ?

“ We have been a long time without news from Europe, and as yet have had
no account of the arrival of our dear httle girl. God grant she may have reached
England in safety. She is now our only one, and any accident to this our last and
only remaining hope and consolation, would be severe indeed.

“ We have recently discovered a companion for my great flower, in a noble
Orchideous plant, which will shortly be described by Mr. Finlayson and my friend
Dr. Wallich, the latter of whom has taken several growing specimens to Calcutta, in
the hope of getting them to England. It grows parasitically on rocks, or roots, in
several of the Islands in the Straits of Malacca, and the stems are as thick as a man’s
wrist, and from six to ten feet long, without branches, at the extremity of which they

536

MISSIONARIES AT SINGAPORE.

produce abundance of leaves. But the wonder is, its magnificent inflorescence,
which forms an erect spike six feet high, wth upwards of one hundred large-spread-
ing brown and white chequered fragrant flowers, between two and three inches in
diameter.”

To T. A. Hankeij, Esq. Treasurer to the London Missionanj Society.

“ Singapore, Januarij 23, 1823.

“ Dear Sir,

“ Since my return to Singapore, I have had occasion to notice the very
zealous and successful exertions of the Rev. C. H. Thomson, settled at this place as
a missionary in connection with your Society. His acquirements in the Malay lan-
guage are considerable, and he has succeeded in establishing a iSIalay school of from
twenty to thirty pupils, several of whom he has converted to Christianity. He has
also a small portable press, with Roman and Malay types. Considering his means
and the circumstances of the place, he has already done more than could be ex-
pected ; and, at any rate, laid a good foundation for future labours. I have given
the necessary permission for the erection of a Malay chapel.

“ The proposal of a mission to Bali seems to me to deserve attention. The
Dutch have no influence on that Island, and Mahomedanism has made but little or
no progress on it. The population is estimated at between half a million and a mil-
lion ; and I am not aware that a missionary, properly quahfied, would find many
obstacles to his establishment. He should, however, in the first instance, come to
Singapore to study the language, and become acquainted with the manners and cha-
racter of the people. He must be content to suffer some privations, and to overcome
some difficulties, at the outset ; but if he has temper and a good constitution, the
spirit of the good cause should carry him through it with satisfaction and credit.”

“ Singapore, January 23, 1823.

“ I am anxious to interest you in favour of our misssionary labourers, and par-
ticularly in support of the Rev. C. H. Thomson, who is established here, in connec-
tion with the London Missionary Society. His means have been very limited, but
he has done a good deal, and is making a sure and steady progress. He has made
several converts, and established a very respectable school.

I have witten home to the Secretary of the Society, recommending their
sending out to him two printing-presses : pray support this recommendation, if you
have any interest with the Society, as I look with great confidence to the influence

RAPID PROGRESS OF SINGAPORE.

5S7

of a well-conducted press in this part of the East, and the superintendance can never
be better placed than in the hands of the missionaries.

‘‘We have also proposed a mission to Bali, and some other measures.”

^ * *

To Dr. Wallich.

“ Singapore, February 8, 1823.

“ You would hardly know the south bank of the river again. From the point,
as far as the small nullah, all is in active improvement. Messrs. Mackenzie, Napier,
and Scott, Che Sang, and others, building substantial warehouses, according to an
approved plan ; and two high-streets forming from the river, through the centre of
the Chinese town, to the sea. The bridge, too, is in great forwardness ; and in two
months more the whole plan for that side of the water will be so far proceeded upon,
that my successor cannot help following it up.

“ The botanic garden goes on well. I am now employed in laying out the
walks, and stones are collected for the foundation of a handsome rail-way round it.

“ I shall soon become anxious about the arrangements of this place.”
*****

“ Singapore, February 26, 1823.

“We are still without accounts respecting our dear little one, although
the papers announce the arrival of the Borneo, and letters as late as the 20th
August, have been received.

“ It is impossible that I can leave this place under its present circumstances.
I have no one about me to put in charge of it, on whom I could rely. I have had,
and still have much to do in remodelling almost every thing, so that my time is fully
taken up, and the days pass more quickly than I expected. Thank God, both
Sophia and I keep our health much better than we expected, and we only pray that
we may so continue till the end of the year ; then, if it pleases God, we will make
an attempt to join you in the land of our fathers.”

To Dr. Wallich.

“ Singapore, March 8, 1823.

“ My Dear Friend,

“ I snatch a few minutes to thank you for your kind and welcome letter of
the 10th of January, and congratulate you most sincerely on your return to the bosom
of your family, and the delights of your second Eden.

“ It will be satisfactory to you to learn, that notwithstanding the delays attending

3 z

538

ABOLITION OF SLAVERY AT SINGAPORE.

the wet season, my job here is nigh accomplished, the gi-ound being raised as far as the
small nullah, and the new warehouses rising in eveiy direction.

“ Your principles are too pure, and your heart too warm, to encounter the shafts
of ridicule, which en^y and malice may fling at you. These are the weapons of the
heartless and unprincipled; of those who have no sympathy vith the feelings of
others, no consideration for their happiness, no common feelings for the common be-
nefit of mankind. Never mind, magna est veritas et grevalehit , and truth is rirtue.
You must recollect my warning. We live in a strange world. Unfortunately in the
political part of it we are often obliged to smother feelings : this I say in my own de-
fence, lest you should think I do not sufficiently espouse your cause. ]SIy heart and
soul are with you and for you, and therefore you may judge how I feel.

“ The magistrates have commenced operations with great pimdence and judg-
ment ; their first presentation was upon the arrangement of the town.

“ The second came in yesterday in the shape of a memorial against slavery — the
slave-master and slave-debtor system — which seems to have been permitted here to
an unlimited extent. I have not yet finally decided upon the question, but I am much
inclined to think the wisest and safest plan will be to do in this as I did in the lands,
annul all that has gone before. This establishment was fonned long after the enact-
ments of the British legislature, which made it felony to import slaves into a British
colony, and both importers and exporters are ahke guilty, to say nothing of the Bri-
tish authority who countenanced the trade. The acknowledgment of slavery in any
shape in a settlement like Singapore, founded on principles so diametrically opposed
to the admission of such a practice, is an anomaly in the constitution of the place,
which cannot, I think, be allowed to exist. But of this more hereafter.

“ I am now in negociation uith Dr. INIorrison for the transfer of the Anglo-Chi-
nese College from Malacca to this place, and its union with my proposed Malay Col-
lege, under the general designation of the ‘ Singapore Institution.’ * *

“ I notice your request about my book (History of Java), and shall most heartily
and ^rillingly meet your wishes. The book itself was a hasty performance, and I have
often been ashamed of it ; but the true circumstances under which it was UTitten are
stated in the preface, and all the world must know that I am no book-maker.

“ I shall write to our excellent friend General Hardwicke by the present oppor-
tunity, if I can snatch a few moments time. I feel most gi*ateful for his kind and
generous attachment, and I beseech you to say from me to him all and every thing that
with such feelings I ought to say. I have indeed a warm and affectionate regard for
him, and to tell you the truth, I love you both ; and what can I say more ?”

“ Singapore, April 1823.

“ Yesterday brought us our letters and packets up to the 30th of August, and

ESTABLISHMENT OF A NATIVE COLLEGE.

539

truly satisfactory have they been to us. The accounts of our dear child, the welfare
of all have been most gratifying, and we return thanks to God for the blessings we
have received.

I have lately had two or three severe attacks, but am getting over them, and
Sophia is improving ; she is to be confined in October, and in January we hope to
start for England.

I am anxiously looking out for Crawfurd to take charge here, that I
may proceed to Bencoolen, where my presence is urgently required, Mackenzie,
my deputy, having been obliged to fly on account of ill health. I hope to be
there by June.

I have had two very kind letters from Mr. Edward Parry and Mr. Money,
pledging themselves to support my claims.

I am now engaged with my valuable friend Dr. Morrison, of China, in rearing
and establishing an institution at Singapore, for the cultivation of Chinese and
Malayan hterature, and for the moral and intellectual improvement of the Archi-
pelago and the surrounding countries. It will be my last public act. Singapore
continues to thrive and expand.”

To Dr. Wallicli.

“ Singapore, April \ lth, 1823.

“ My health is upon the whole much the same as when you left us — not over
good at any time, and at others miserable ; nevertheless, I hold up with a good
heart, and again feel some confidence that I may last out the year. More I dare
not risk in these climes.

I have just established an Institution which will, I am sure, give you satisfac-
tion. The particulars I shall hereafter communicate, not having time at present.
The object is the cultivation of Chinese and Malayan literature, with the improve-
ment of the moral and intellectual condition of the people. The Anglo-Chinese
College at Malacca is to be removed here, and united with a Malay college, and
both fonn parts of the Institution, which has a scientific department, and places for
professors in natural philosophy, &c. &c. I have put poor Finlayson’s name down
for the latter, partly as a just compliment I wished to pay him, and partly to raise
the character of our Institution, by associating so creditable a name with it. I have
also taken the liberty of naming you as a trustee.

“We have about 20,000 dollars in funds, and have voted 15,000 for the build-
ings ; the site is fixed upon near the beach, and the plan and appearance will be very
respectable.

“ I trust in God this Institution may be the means of civilizing and bettering
the condition of millions ; it has not been hastily entered into, nor have its possible
advantages been over-rated. Our field is India beyond the Ganges, including the

3 z 2

o40

RESOLUTIONS OF THE BENGAL GOVERNMENT.

Malayan Aixliipelago, Australasia, China, Japan, and the Islands in the Pacific
ocean — by far the most populous half of the world ! Do not, my dear fiiend, think
that I am led to it by a vain ambition of raising a name — it is an act of duty and
gratitude only. In these countries has my httle independence been gained. In
these countries have I passed the most valuable, if not, perhaps, the whole period of
my public life. I am hnked to them by many a bitter, many a pleasant tie. It is
here that I think I may have done some little good, and instead of frittering away
the stock of zeal and means that may yet be left me in objects for which I may not
be fitted, I am anxious to do all the good I can here, where experience has proved
to me that my labours will not be thrown away. Ill health forces me to leave
Singapore, before even the material aiTangements are made for its prosperity ; but
in pro^■iding for its moral improvement, I look to its more certain and permanent
advance. Would that I could infuse into the Institution a portion of that spirit and
soul by which I would have it animated, as easily as I endow it ^^^th lands, &c. It
will long be in its infancy, and to arrive at matmity wll require all the aid of friends
and constant support. It is my last public act, and rise or fall, it vnW always be a
satisfactory reflection, that I have done my best towards it. I pray you befi'iend it.

“ Adieu — I am called to breakfast, and have wTitten this random letter "vrith so
much haste and inattention, that you will hardly make it out.

I remain, now and for ever,

“ Yom*s most devotedly and affectionately,

“ T. S. R.”

The follo^ring resolutions of the Bengal Government, on Sir Stamford’s learing
Singapore, were very satisfactoiy to him.

“ Fort William, March 29, 1823.

“ The first question for consideration is the natm’e of the controul to be exer-
cised henceforward over the affairs of Singapore, and the proceedings of the local
Resident. The aiTangement under which that trust was vested in the Lieutenant
Governor of Fort Marlborough originated in the circumstances under which the
settlement was founded, and the temporarj' convenience resulting from it wll cease
with the relinquishment of the charge by Sir Stamford Raffles, under whose imme-
diate direction the settlement was established, and whose personal superintendence
of it, in its early stage, therefore possessed a peculiar value.

“ It would seem more naturally to fall within the range of the government of
Penang, but there are objections of a different kind to that arrangement. There is
a general impression that the prosperity of Singapore must in a great degree be
attended wth a proportionate deterioration of Penang. As far as the information

SIR STAMFORD’S REPORT ON HIS GOVERNMENT AT SINGAPORE.

511

furnished by the records of the custom-house at the latter place affords the means
of judging, it would not appear that this has yet been the case ; but there is no
doubt that the feeling prevails among the inhabitants of both settlements generally^
and without supposing that it reaches the Government, or that if it did, it would
bias their conduct, there seems no such advantage to be contemplated in rendering
Singapore dependent on Penang, as to justify the risk of injury to the interests of
the rising establishment, from the direct or incidental consequences of such an
arrangement. The system of government and the principles of commercial pohcy
prevailing at the two settlements are moreover radically different, and it is not rea-
sonable to expect that each could be administered under the direction of a subordi-
nate and limited authority with equal effect.

“ On the occasion of relieving Sir Stamford Raffles from the superintendence
of Singapore, the Governor General in Council deems it an act of justice to that
gentleman, to record his sense of the activity, zeal, judgment, and attention to the
principles prescribed for the management of the settlement, which has marked his
conduct in the execution of that duty.

“ On placing Mr. Crawfurd in charge of the settlement of Singapore, you will
be pleased to communicate with him fully on all points, and furnish him with such
instmctions as you may deem necessary for carrying into effect the orders which
are now communicated to you, in reply to your several despatches relative to the
affairs of that settlement.”

Sir Stamford framed a short code of laws and regulations for the preservation
of peace and good order, in a settlement which existed for upwards of five years
entirely on his responsibility, and the confidence reposed in him individually ; from
this responsibility neither the Bengal Government nor the Court of Directors would
relieve him ; yet trade increased greatly, and population collected rapidly, in the
confidence he inspired. A short extract from Sir Stamford’s Report to the Bengal
Government on these Laws and Regulations will shew the reasons which influenced
him, and the principles on which he acted.

First I have declared that the port of Singapore is a free port, and the trade
thereof open to ships and vessels of every nation, free of duty, equally and alike
to all.

“ I am satisfied that nothing has tended more to the discomfort and constant
jarrings which have hitherto occurred in om* remote settlements, than the policy
which has dictated the exclusion of the European merchants from all share, much
less credit, in the domestic regulation of the settlement, of which they are frequently
its most important members. Some degree of legislative power must necessarily
exist in every distant dependency. The laws of the mother-country cannot be

542

PRINCIPLES OF THE GOVERNMENT AT SINGAPORE.

commensurate with the wants of the dependency : it has wants of which a remote
legislature can very imperfectly judge, and which are sometimes too urgent to admit
the delay of reference.

“ It may be expected that I should explain the grounds on which I have felt
myself authorised to go, even as far as I have done, in legislating, and constituting a
power of legislating provisionally for Singapore, and at the same time state the mode
in which I consider the legislative and judicial branch of the pubhc administration
can be best prorided for, in any permanent arrangement to be made by the authori-
ties at home.

“ I shall briefly state that an actual and urgent necessity existed for some imme-
diate and prorisional arrangements ; and that, in adopting those which I have esta-
blished, it has been my endeavour, while I gave all due weight to local considerations,
to adhere, as closely as possible, to those principles, which, from immemorial usage,
have ever been considered the most essential and sacred parts of the British consti-
tution. The peculiar tenure on which Singapore is at present politically held, the
unusual degree of responsibihty still resting on me personally, and the actual circum-
stances under which a large population and extensive capital has accumulated under
my administration, naturally called upon me to adopt all such prorisional measures
as necessity might dictate. More than this I have not attempted ; and I should have
but ill fulfilled the high and important trust reposed in me, if, after haring congre-
gated so large a portion of my fellow-creatm’es, I had left them without something
like law and regulation for their security and comfort.”

With these views and feehngs Sir Stamford selected twelve of the most respect-
able merchants, and appointed them to act as magistrates for one year. A list was
ordered to be kept of persojis eligible for the magistracy, from whom and the ex-
magistrates the Resident was in future to appoint twelve annually. Two of these
magistrates were to sit with the Resident in court, to decide in ciril and criminal
cases ; and two were to act in rotation each week for the minor duties of this office.
Juries were to consist either of five Europeans, or four Europeans and three respect-
able natives. In criminal cases the jury might be either pm'ely European, or purely
native.

The Resident’s Court was to assemble once a week, the Magistrates’ twice, but
their office was to be open daily.

It will be erident that this simple arrangement, w'hich had never before been
attempted, is w^ell adapted to bring the ignorant natives acquainted with a knowledge
of right principles of action, and to inspire them with respect for those who thus ad-
ministered justice ; but Sir Stamford did not rest satisfied with the mere enaction of
punishment, his object was also the prevention of crime, an equal or even more im-
portant duty of a legislator : with this view, gambling and cock-fighting were prohibited,

SUPREME GOVERNMENT APPROVE OF SIR STAMFORD’S REGULATIONS. 543

and declared to be illegal, the persons foimd to have conducted a gaming-table or cock-
pit were liable to the confiscation of their property, and banishment from the settle-
ment, and no gaming debts could be recognized by the magistrates, but the winners
were to be compelled to restore the amount to the losers.

The Bengal Government highly approved of this effort to check the vicious
propensities of the natives; but after Sir Stamford’s return to England, Mr.
Crawliu'd, whom he had placed in charge of the settlement, anxious to raise a re-
venue at any cost, estabhshed Government licenses for indulgences in both these
vices, and they were in consequence farmed out to the highest bidder. The Grand
Jury soon gave a proof that Sir Stamford judged wisely in employing the European
merchants as guardians of the public peace and morals ; for on the assembling of the
Court of Judicature, they presented a bill against such a pubhc sanction of \fice, as
appearing to them deeply to affect the interests of the community of Singapore ;
stating that the subject which they (the Grand Jury) present, is one to which they
advert with some degree of dehcacy, because they are aware that two opinions exist
on the subject ; and, secondly, because it is a source of revenue to the Honourable
Company. However, as only one sentiment prevails in the minds of the Grand
Jurors with regard to the propriety or expediency of licensing public gambhng-houses,
they consider it would be a dereliction of their duty, were they not to present the
system as, in their opinion, fraught with considerable e^dl to the community. To
them it appears as detrimental to the security of property, to the peace and good
order of the settlement, and to the moral character of the lower classes of its inha-
bitants, as it is repugnant to the laws of their country. They do not deem it neces-
sary to enter into any lengthened arguments to prove the truth of this proposition.
Suffice it to observe, that their opinion is fonned on the experience of this settlement
for the last five years ; and that of foiu*teen bills of indictment, which have been pre-
ferred during the present sitting of the Grand Jury, no less than three of the offences
originated in, or were connected with, pubhc gambling-houses.”

The recorder stated, “ There is no doubt but that gambhng-houses are pubhc
nuisances at common law, and indictable as such. It was not at all necessary for
you to have stated in your Presentment, that you felt any dehcacy on the subject,
because the gambhng-houses in Singapore were a source of revenue to the Govern-
ment. You have done no more than your duty in presenting them,” &c. It appears
that this Hcious system of legahsing vice amongst the lower orders of society has in
consequence been given up, and Sir Stamford’s original laws and regulations en-
forced. Above all, it must not be forgotten Sir Stamford declared, “ As the condi-
tion of slavery, under any denomination whatever, cannot be recognised within the
jurisdiction of the British authority, all persons who may have been so imported,
transferred, or sold as slaves or slave-debtors, since the 29th day of Febmary, 1819,

544

ADDRESS OF THE MERCHANTS OF SINGAPORE.

are entitled to claim their freedom, on application to the registrar, as hereafter pro-
vided ; and it is hereby declared, that no indi\ddual can hereafter be imported for
sale, transferred or sold as a slave or slave-debtor, or having his or \\erjixed re-
sidence under the protection of the British authorities at Singapore, can hereafter be
considered or treated as a slave, under any denomination, condition, colour, or pre-
tence whatever.

“ Hereafter, a continued residence of twelve months at Singapore shall be con-
sidered to constitute a fixed residence, and to entitle the party to all the benefits of
the British administration.” The further detail of the laws and regulations of Sin-
gapore will be found in the Appendix.

Sir Stamford had the gi’atification to receive from those best qualified to ap-
preciate the commercial advantages of Singapore, the following address on his de-
parture fi’om the settlement. His feelings are, however, best expressed in his replies,
which are annexed.

Address of the Merchants of Singapore, on the occasion of the departure of the

Honourable Sir T. S. Raffles in 1823.

To the Honourable Sir T. S. Raffles.

“ Honorable Sir,

“ It is with pecuhar satisfaction that I find myself made the channel of
conveying to you the thanks and acknowledgments of the mercantile community
of Singapore, a body distinguished for good sense and discrimination, and who have
at once felt the benefits of your rule and enjoyed the best means of appreciating
your exertions. It is scarcely necessary for myself, who have for so many years
had the advantage of your confidence and friendship, and the honor of serving under
your government, to say how cordially I join in all the sentiments expressed in
the address, and I shall only take this opportunity, when we are on the point of
being separated by a long interval of time and place, to renew to you the assurance
of my affectionate attachment to yoiu' person, and my respect and esteem for your
public talents.

I remain with sincere regard,

‘‘ Your faithful and obedient Servant,

(Signed) “ J. Crawfurd.

“ Resident."

“ Singapore, June 5, 1823.

SIR STAMFORD’S REPLY TO MR. CRAWFORD.

545

“ To Sir T. S. Raffles, Lieutenant Governor of Fort Marlborough.

“ Honorable Sir,

“ The period of your approaching and final departure is one of peculiar
interest to the commercial community of this place, and we the undersigned mem-
bers of it gladly seize the opportunity which it affords us of indulging in the ex-
pression of those feehngs towards your person, which the occasion is so well calcu-
lated to excite.

“ At such a moment we cannot be suspected of panegyric, when we advert to
the distinguished advantages which the commercial interests of our nation at large,
and ourselves more especially, have derived from your personal exertions. To your
unwearied zeal, your vigilance, and your comprehensive views, we owe at once the
foundation and maintenance of a settlement unparalleled for the liberality of the
principles on which it has been established ; principles, the operation of which has
converted, m a period short beyond all example, a haunt of pirates into the abode
of enterprize, secmity, and opulence.

“ AVhile we acknowledge our own peculiar obligations to you, we reflect at the
same time with pride and satisfaction upon the active and beneficent means by which
you have promoted and patronized the diffusion of intellectual and moral improve-
ment, and we anticipate, with confidence, their happy influence in advancing the
cause of humanity and ci\ilization.

“ We cannot take leave of the author of so many benefits without emotion, or
^^^thout expressing our sorrow for the loss of his protection and his society. Accept,
Sir, we beseech you, without distinction of tribe or nation, the expression of our
sincere respect and esteem, and be assured of the deep interest we shall ever take
in your own prosperity, as well as in the happiness of those who are most tenderly
related to you.

“We remain with the deepest respect,

“ Your most obedient Servants,

“ Signed by the European and Native Merchants of Singapore.”
‘ Singapore, June 5, 1823.”

To John Crawfurd, Esq. Resident of Singapore.

“ Sir,

“ I have had the honor to receive your letter with the address from the
mercantile community of Singapore, and you will oblige me by submitting to that
highly respectable body the accompanying reply.

“ My experience enables me to bear ample testimony to the disinterestedness
and honor of the principal merchants of Singapore, European and Native, and while

4 A

o46

SIR STAMFORD’S REPLY TO THE MERCHANTS OF SINGAPORE.

it is a high satisfaction to me to find such truly respectable establishments formed in
the early period of the settlement, it can be no less a proportionate gratification to
me personally to receive from men so distinguished, so unexpected an expression of
their pubhc opinion in favor of the measures which I have felt it my duty to adopt
for the general prosperity of the place.

“ The sentiments of respect and attachment which you are pleased to express
towards my person are most grateful to my feelings, and while I thank you most
sincerely for the kind and handsome manner in which you have conveyed them, you
must allow me in return, to wish you all prosperity in the discharge of the important
duties to which you are now called, and for which you are so highly and eminently
qualified, and at the same time that you may enjoy all happiness and comfort in
your social and domestic circle.

With an affectionate and sincere regard.

Believe me, your’s truly,

(Signed) " T. S. Raffles.”

“ Singapore, June 9, 1823.”

To Alexander Morgan, Esq. and other European and Native Merchants of Singapore.

“ Gentlemen,

Mr. Crawfurd has dehvered to me the address, which you have so kindly
and dehcately draivn up on the occasion of my departure.

“ Under the peculiar circumstances of my personal connection with the esta-
blishment of Singapore, it is impossible to suppose that I can be indifferent to any of
its interests, far less to its commercial interests, of which I consider you to be the
representatives.

“ It has happily been consistent with the policy of Great Britain, and accordant
with the principles of the East India Company, that Singapore should be established
as a Free Port ; that no sinister, no sordid view, no considerations either of political
importance or pecmiiary advantage, should interfere with the broad and liberal
principles, on which the British interests have been established. Monopoly and
exclusive privileges, against which public opinion has long raised its voice, are here
unknown, and while the free Port of Singapore is allowed to continue and prosper, as
it hitherto has done, the policy and liberahty of the East India Company, by whom
the settlement was founded, and under whose protection and control it is still ad-
ministered, can never be disputed.

“ That Singapore will long and always remain a fi'ee Port, and that no taxes
on trade or industry will be estabhshed to check its future rise and prosperity, I can
have no doubt. I am justified in saying thus much, on the authority of the Supreme

SIR STAMFORD’S REPLY TO THE MERCHANTS OF SINGAPORE.

547

Government of India, and on the authority of those who are most likely to have
weight in the councils of our nation at home.

For the public and peculiar mark of respect, which you. Gentlemen, have
been desirous of shewing me on the occasion of my departure from the settlement, I
beg that you will accept my most sincere thanks. I know the feehng which dictated
it, I acknowledge the delicacy with which it has been conveyed, and I prize most
highly the gratifying terms to me personally in which it has been expressed.

“ During my residence among you, it has afforded me the highest satisfaction
to witness the prudence, the regularity, the honourable character of your proceed-
ings, and when I quit you for other lands I shall be proud to bear testimony in your
favour, not only as your due, but as the best proof of the sure and certain result
which the adoption of hberal and enhghtened principles on the part of Government
must always ensure.

“ There are some among you. Gentlemen, who had to encounter difficulties
on the first establishment of the freedom of the Port, and against whom party spirit
and its concomitant, partial judgment, was allowed for a time to operate. In the
commanding station in which my public duty has placed me, I have had an oppor-
tunity of, in a great measure, investigating and determining the merits of the case,
and the result renders it a duty on my part, and which I perform with much satisfac-
tion, to express my most unqualified approbation of the honorable principles which
actuated the merchants of Singapore on that occasion.

‘‘ I am not aware. Gentlemen, that I have done any of you a favom-, that is to
say, that I have done to any man amongst you, that which I would not have done to
his neighbour, or more than what my duty required of me, acting, as I have done, on
the liberal and enlightened principles authorized by my superiors. My best endea-
vours have not been wanting to establish such principles, and to sketch such out-
lines, as have appeared to me necessary for the future prosperity of the settlement,
and in doing this it has been most satisfactory to me to have found in you that ready
concurrence, and at all times that steady support, which was essential to my Govern-
ment and authority.

“ May you. Gentlemen, English and Native, and as the language of your
address expresses it, without class or distinction, long continue in the honourable
and distinguished course which you have so happily commenced, and may the prin-
ciples which you respect and act upon, long distinguish you among the merchants
of the East.

‘‘ I can never forget that the Singapore Institution could not have been founded
without your aid. The liberal manner in which you came forward, to spare from
your hard earnings so large a portion for the improvement and civihzation of the
surrounding tribes, and in the furtherance of general knowledge and science, would

4 A 2

548

EMBARKS FOR BENCOOLEN.

at once stamp the character of the Singapore merchant, even if it did not daily come
forward on more ostensible occasions.

“ I am most grateful for the kind expression of your personal regards to me,
and those who may be dear to me ; and, in return, beg you will accept my most
sincere and heartfelt wishes for yoirr health, comfort, and prosperity.

I have the honour to be,

" Gentlemen,

“ Your’s most faithfully,
(Signed) “ T. S. Raffles.”

“ Singapore, June 9ih, 1823.”

Sir Stamford now returned to Bencoolen, and on the voyage wrote the’ letters
fi-om which the follo^ving are extracts :

“ Off Borneo, June 12, 1823.

“ Ha\dng placed Crawfurd in charge of Singapore, and sailed from thence on
the 9th instant, we are thus far on our return to Bencoolen, being under the neces-
sity of touching at Batavia on the way, the ship having goods to land there. Don’t
alaiTn yourself at this last intimation, for I am most peaceably inchned, and do not
intend to land.

“ You will hear from Bengal that all my proceedings and plans at Singapore
have been approved; that Crawfurd has been appointed Resident immediately
under the Bengal Government. This is exactly what I wished ; and I am happy to
say, every thing has turned out to my entire satisfaction.

“ I have not, as you may suppose, remained at Singapore eight months for no-
thing ; two-thirds of the time have, no doubt, been spent in pain and annoyance,
from the dreadful head-aches I am doomed to suffer in this country, but the remain-
ing third has been actively employed.

“ I have had every thing to new-mould from first to last ; to introduce a system
of energy, purity, and encouragement ; to remove nearly all the inhabitants, and to
resettle them ; to line out towns, streets, and roads ; to level the high and fill up the
low lands : to give property in the soil and rights to the people ; to lay down prin-
ciples, and sketch institutions for the domestic order and comfort of the place, as
well as its future character and importance ; to look for a century or two before-
hand, and provide for what Singapore may one day become, by the adoption of all
such measures of forecast as reason and experience can suggest.

“ That I have not forgotten the moral interests and character of the settlement.

LETTER TO DR. RAFFLES.

549

the establishment of the Singapore Institution will be the best proof. I have given
it as free a constitution as possible ; and Singapore is now, perhaps, the only place
in India where slavery cannot exist.

“ Sophia bears up very well. We expect to reach Bencoolen by the 10th
of July.”

To the Rev, Dr. Raffles.

“ At Sea, off the Coast of Borneo, June 14, 1823.

“ My Dear Cousin,

“ We left Singapore on the 9th, and are thus far on our return to Ben-
coolen, with the intention of touching at Batavia on the way. My time was so fully
occupied while closing my administration at Singapore, that I really had it not in
my power to sit down as I ought to have done, to thank you most sincerely for your
letter announcing the andval of our dear little Ella ; it was the first account we
received, and I need not attempt to express the joy and gladness which it diffused
throughout our domestic circle. Sophia’s patience was almost tired out, and the
news has given her almost a new life. I am sorry that I have been obliged to leave
Singapore before the printing of the papers on the formation of the Singapore Insti-
tution was completed. Printing in this country is, indeed, most tedious and expen-
sive work. I have left orders that several copies be sent to you by the very first
opportunity, and you will perceive that I have put your name down as a Trustee.
I laid the foundation-stone of the buildings three days before I embarked.

“ Mr. Crawfiird is now the Resident of Singapore ; and, in anticipation of my
return to Europe at the end of the year, I have resigned all further charge of the
place. It is a most promising settlement, and is fast realizing my most sanguine
views regarding it.

We have under our charge for Europe my sister Mary Anne’s little boy
Charles, and are thinking of preparations for the voyage home, which, with the
blessing of God, we hope to commence with the new year, touching at the Cape and
at St. Helena on the way, so as to be with you in May or June. My health has now
become w'orse, but Sophia’s is much improved.

“ You know by experience the misery of ship-board, and will, therefore, not
expect that I should, in such a situation, write you a very long and interesting
letter. I write these few lines with a very unsteady hand and giddy head ; but as I
may have a chance of sending them by some vessel about to sail from Batavia, I am
unwilling to lose the opportunity of writing at all.”

550

LETTER TO DR, WALLICH.

To Dr. Wallich.

“ At Sea, off the Coast of Borneo, July, 1823.

My Dear Friend,

“ It is quite an age since we heard from you, and we have been some-
what disappointed in not receiving a hne from you by Crawdurd, or, at any rate,
by the ship in which he came down. He, however, brought Sophia your bottle
of aether, which has proved that you did not forget us : accept our best thanks
for it.

It will, I am sure, be satisfactory to you to know, that all my arrangements
have been approved in Bengal, and that I have cause to be highly satisfied with the
considerate attention and support which I have uniformly met with from Mr. Adams’
Government. They appeared to have entered into, and fully understood my views,
and, what is more, fully appreciated them. I placed Crawdurd in full charge before
my departure.

“ I give you this parish news, because I am confident it will interest you, and
be at the same time satisfactory to you to know, that however annoyed I may have
been for a time, the close of my administration at Singapore has been just what I
wished.

“ You will probably hear much of my College, and the laws of the former ; the
pamphlet now in the press will give you all information, and of the latter I have not
time to enter into the details. It was impossible that, after collecting together so
great a population, and so much wealth as is now accumulated at Singapore, I could
with any satisfaction to myself, leave the place, without estabhshing something like
law and regulation. The constitution which I have given to Singapore is cer-
tainly the purest and most hberal in India ; but this, perhaps, is not saying much
for it.

“ I left Singapore on the 9th instant. I am forced to touch at Batavia on my
way to Bencoolen, very much against my will ; but the Captain has goods to land,
and no other opportunity was likely to offer of getting round. The Dutch will be a
little astonished, but I cannot help it ; I do not intend to land.

“ You will be gratified to hear, that although I was dreadfully harassed and
fagged before leaving Singapore, I feel no ill effects fi’om it, and now do not have a
dreadful head-ache above once or twice a week, instead of for two or three days
together as heretofore. Lady Raffles also bears the voyage better than I expected ;
and upon the whole we have great cause to be thankful for the comparatively tole-
rable health w'e now enjoy. So that I hope we may yet last out till the end of the
year, after which it would be madness to attempt to hold out in this country.

ARRIVAL AT BATAVIA.

551

“ Write me fully and frequently to Bencoolen, and say what I can but do
for you at home. God bless you, my dear friend, and that you may enjoy health and
prosperity, is the ardent wish of your most affectionate friend.”

To Dr. Wallich.

“ Java Seas, July 20, 1823.

“ My Dear Friend,

“ Before we arrive at Batavia, where recollections of the past and change
of scene may occupy my whole attention, let me remind you of two or three little
things in which I require yom' good offices. First and foremost stands my desire to
obtain for Sir Everard Home the foetus of the tiger, lion, whale, rhinoceros, &c. &c.

In the next place, a particular description of the Jackia formosa, and memo-
randum for the life or memoir of our departed friend, to be completed with the
assistance of his brother.

" I wish you to send me drawings of all the varieties of nutmegs in your pos-
session. I shall have much to say respecting the cultivation of the nutmeg at Ben-
coolen, and it would be interesting to enhven the description with an account of
the natural gi’owth, habitude, &c. I have already a large collection, upwards of ten
varieties.

“ I enclose you my decision on the slave question. Do not forget the dwarf
bull and cow to Bencoolen before I go.

Adieu my good friend, and God bless you and yours.”

“ Batavia Roads, June 28, 1823.

“ We arrived here on the 25th. Sophia was taken on shore on the same day,
and is now under the hospitable roof of Macquoid, where she is gaining health and
strength to enable her to get through the remainder of the voyage. This is Satur-
day and we hope to be off on Tuesday morning.

“ For myself, I remain on board according to the resolution I took on embark-
ing. I have, however, had an opportunity of seeing all the English gentlemen, and
have no particular cause to regret the necessity which forced us to touch here, as I
have been able to see the sort of material of which the Dutch Governor General is
made. I deemed it respectful and proper to send Nilson on shore, telling him, I
was in the roads, and that Sophia would land on account of her health ; but that it
was neither my wish or intention to land. His surprise and apprehension, however,
on the occasion were such that he would not ask Nilson a single question, but
returned an answer to my note verbally by Macquoid.

“ In the evening, however, he thought a written acknowledgment necessary.
Had Bonaparte returned to life, and anchored in the Downs, it would not have

552

CORRESPONDENCE WITH BARON VAN DER CAPELLAN.

excited greater agitation in England, than my arrival has done here, though the sen-
sation might have been very different. Here fear and apprehension are every thing,
and to these all courtesy, principle, and interest give way.

“ I send you the correspondence which has taken place on the subject, as it is
rather amusing.”

No. I.

To His Excellency The Baron Van der Capellan.

“ Tuesday Evening,

‘‘ Sir,

“ I have the honor to inform your Excellency of my andval in Batavia
Roads, in the ship Hero of Malown, in which I am returning to Bencoolen, being
under the necessity of touching at this port, for the purpose of landing some con-
signments from Bengal.

“ I trust our detention will not exceed two or three days ; but as Lady Raffles
is in a very delicate state of health and suffers much at sea, the advantage of going
on shore will be a great rehef to her.

“ Captain Hull, of my personal staff*, will have the honor of dehvering this
letter.

“ I have the honor to be, with the highest consideration, &c. &c.

(Signed) " T. S. Raffles.”

No. II.

To Mr. Le Chev. Thos. S. Raffles.

“ Batavia, Juin 25, 1823.

" Monsieur,

“ J’ai re9U avec une extreme surprise la lettre que M. le Capitaine Hull
m’a remise de votre part.

J’ai charge M. IVIacquoid de vous donner verbalement ma reponse, et ne
doute point qu’il ne s’acquitte avec exactitude de cette commission.

“ Je veux cependant aj outer encore a ce qu’il vous dira de ma part, que j’etois
loin de m’attendre a vous voir arriver a Batavia apres tout ce qui a eu heu depuis

1818.

Vous ne pomiez ignorer. Monsieur, qu’une pareille visite que vous amiez pu
eviter, ne pent que m’etre extremement desagreable.

“ L’indisposition de Madame Raffles est cependant un motif que je respecte trop
])our m’opposer a votre sejour a Batavia pendant quelques jours.

“ Je regrette. Monsieur, de ne pouvoir apres tout ce qui a eu lieu vous ac-
cueilleir, comme je me fais toujours un devoir et plaisir de recevoir les fonctionnaires
d’un Gouvernement si intimement lie avec celui que j’ai I’honneur de representer ici.

CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE BARON VAN DER CAPELLEN.

553

“ Vous connoissez trop bien I’etat des choses, Monsieur, pour ce que j’ai besoin
de vous observer, que toute communication ou entrevue personelle entre nous doit
etre evitee. Je ne pourrais que repeter de nouveau toute la serie de plaintes que
j’ai era de mon devoir d’adresser k mon Gouvernement comme a votre, depuis plu-
sieurs annees, contre un gi-and nombre de vos actions dirigees contre les interets
de mon Souverain ; une pareille communication n’ofFrirait aucun agrement ni pour
vous ni pour moi-meme.

J’ai I’honneur d’etre, &c.

(Signed) Van Der Capellen.”

No. III.

To His Excellency Baron Van der Capellen.

“ On board the Hero of Malorvn, Batavia Roads, Thursday morning.

“ Sir,

Your Excellency’s letter was delivered to me during the night.

“ I am sorry that what was intended merely as a mark of respect, should have
given rise to the extreme surprise which you express. I felt it right to inform your
Excellency of my being in the roads of Batavia, and I stated the circumstance which
had led to it.

“ You would appear to have been misinformed, in supposing that it was my in-
tention or my desire to land or court a personal interview. My landing in Java, while
under your Excellency’s government, could only have been attended with painful
feelings, public as w'ell as private, and there certainly has been nothing in the con-
duct of your Excellency, which could have rendered me particularly desirous of per-
sonal communication or acquaintance.

“ I caused it to be publicly known before I embarked, that I neither intended
nor wished to land; and under these circumstances I trust you ^vill admit, that the
proscription you have thought proper to issue might, in common courtesy, have been
delayed, until a solicitation on my part might have called for it.

“ Your Excellency also appears to have been misinformed, when you state that
I might or should have avoided touching at Batavia, knowing how disagreeable it
would be to you. I can assure you it w'as a matter of absolute necessity, in every
way against my wishes and feelings ; though I must say, I never for a moment sup-
posed it would have given rise to any apprehensions or unpleasant feelings on your
part.

“ You have. Sir, thought proper to refer to political differences, and to the com-
plaints which you have thought proper to make against my proceedings, which you
considered to be directed against the interests of your Sovereign ; on which it is ne-
cessary for me to call to your recollection, that I have at least had similar grounds of

4 B

554

CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE BARON VAN DER CAPELLEN.

complaining of some of the proceedings of your government, and that the very acts
on my part, which you call into question, arose solely from a conviction, that such
proceedings on your Excellency’s part were directed against the interests of my coun-
try. The decision, as to whose views on the subject have been most connect, remains
wth higher authorities ; and while I cheerfully give your Excellency the credit of
harfng acted as you deemed best for the interests of your country, I hope you will
judge equally charitably of the motives which may have dictated my conduct.

I have thought the above explanation due as 'W'ell to your Excellency as myself,
as I should have presumed you to have been as incapable of offering a personal incivi-
lity, as I am of receiving one without noticing it as it deserves.

“ I did not. Sir, consider it necessary to request your permission for Lady Raffles
to land, as I could not suppose it to be so in the present state of civilized society ;
but I have now respectfully to request that, as she is in delicate health, and far ad-
vanced in her pregnancy, your Excellency will insure her a safe passport to the ship
whenever she may be desirous of re-embarking.

“ I have the honour to be, &c.

(Signed) “ T. S. Raffles.”

This correspondence may be left without comment. It is not necessary to
add more than that the request contained in the closing lines was granted : and
that, though Sir Stamford himself remained on board, during the week of the vessel’s
stay at Bataria, and did not once rfsit the shore, the people of the Island were not
to be restrained ; and he there held as it were a continual levee every day, people of
all ranks flocking to him.

CHAPTER XIX.

Arrival at Bencoolen — Plans for the future — Freedom of the port of Singapore — Account of the Padries —
State of health — Death of friends — Death of child — Anxiety about the arrival of the ship Fame — De-
termines to ernhark in the Borneo — Arrival of the Fame — Embarkation — Burning of the ship — Appeal
to the Court of Directors — Extract from memorandum book, for regulation of time — Embarks in the
Mariner — Storm off the Cape — Arrival at St, Helena — Landing at Plymouth.

Sir Stamford had now closed his official connection with Singapore, the most in-
teresting object of the latter part of his public life in the East, and he proposed to
have passed the few remaining months of his residence in India, in completing and
arranging his affairs, both public and private. During his residence in these regions,
he had devoted himself with aU his mind, health, and strength, for twenty years, to
the duties of the several stations entrusted to him, and he had combined with the
performance of those duties, which peculiar circumstances had made more responsible
and arduous than usual in such situations, an unwearied pursuit of the literature of
the several countries within his reach. He also pursued, as will have been perceived,
the study of chemistry, geology, and natural history, and in fact was unceasingly
occupied in the acquirement of various kinds of knowledge.

The following are extracts from the letters written during this period of his
residence in Sumatra.

To Dr. Wallich.

“ Beneoolen, November 1, 1823.

“ Crawford has promised most solemnly to adhere to and uphold all my ar-
rangements.

* ^& * * * * *

God knows I have had but one object in view, — the interests of Singapore, —
and if a brother had been opposed to them, I must have acted as I did towards Co-
lonel Farquhar, for whom I ever had, and stiU do retain, a warm personal affection
and regard. I upheld him as long as I could, and many were the sacrifices I made to
prevent a rupture, but when it did take place, I foimd it necessary to prosecute my
cause with vigour and effect.

4 B 2

556

PLANS FOR THE FUTURE.

I lament to observe by the papers that poor Finlayson breathed bis last in the
way home. Poor fellow, I never had much hope that he would be spared ; yet his
death has been to me a severe shock, admiring and valuing as I did, his talents, dis-
position, and principles.

“ It is only a week ago that we had another death in our family : Mr. Dmm-
mond, a gentleman who had come out to us highly recommended from home, and was
embarking largely in our agricultural pursuits, was carried off in less than twelve
hours. I know not how it is, but these continual breaches in our domestic circle
seem to be sad warnings.

“ I had hoped to have got away by the end of the present year, but an accu-
mulation of details, and the arrival of a detachment of troops most unexpectedly
sent by the Bengal Government to the northern part of the Island, may keep me for
some time. My health for the last week or two has rather improved, but I am
still subject to the same attacks which so often and so completely overpowered me
at Singapore.

“ Lady Raffles, though entirely recovered from her last confinement, is in a
very delicate state, and it was only last night that we were forced to apply thirty
leeches, and have recourse to warm baths and laudanum, to keep down inflam-
mation.

“ My time has been so occupied since my return, that I have hardly been able
to arrange the papers of our friend Jack. I prepare to take them all hence with
me. They are not very extensive, but they are generally to the point, and
valuable.

We are desirous of placing an inscription over his grave, and I have wi-itten
to Calder to send an appropriate stone from Calcutta. I learn from his brother that
his age was only 27; he died at Bencoolen, at the Government-house, on the 11th
July, 1823. I must beg of you to do the last kind office, of adding to the above
particulars a few words expressive of his character and attainments.”

“ Bencoolen, November 4, 1823.

“ Sophia, I am sorry to say, has had an attack of fever, and alarmed us very
much, but she is improving ; and if we get awny this season all may yet be well.

“ I propose on the voyage hence, if my health admits, to sketch out something
like an account of the establishment of Singapore, wath a description of the place,
map, &c. Something of the kind seems necessary for general information.

Our little Flora expands daily.”

PROPOSED PLAN FOR THE VOYAGE HOME.

557

To the Duchess of Somerset.

‘'November 6, 1823.

This is the last opportunity that will offer for writing to England, before we
ourselves intend embarking.

“ The voyage out looked long, and was long, but we shall no longer draw a
lengthening chain, each day will bring us nearer to that spot where all our best af-
fections are centered, and we shall hope to land in far better spirits than the day we
parted. That indeed was a dismal day ; and yet, if we do meet again, shall we not
forget it ?

“ I am sorry to say that we have had another death in our family, and that I
have been under great alarm for Lady Raffles. She had first presented me with
another little girl, and recovered from her confinement, when she was attacked by a
most severe fever.

“ By touching at the Cape of Good Hope, which we hope to reach from this in
six weeks, remaining there ten days, and then stopping at St. Helena, which we
should reach in ten days, and proceeding from thence to England, in seven weeks
more, we hope to break the length of the passage, and to keep up her strength, as
well as that of the infant, by occasional rest and refreshment.

“ I believe I have already informed your Grace, that I had delivered over charge
of Singapore, and that it only remains for me to wind up my administration here.”

^ ^ ^ ^ ^

To Mr. Murdoch.

“ Bencoolen, November 14, 1823.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ I have received your kind and friendly letters down to the 23d of January
last, and feel most grateful for the warm and kind interest which you continue to
take in our welfare and happiness. Indeed, I hardly know how to thank you suf-
ficiently, except it is by saying that we justly appreciate it.

“ As this may be the last opportunity afforded of writing to England before we
ourselves may embark, I am anxious not to let it pass without once more praying
your forgiveness for all my omissions in the way of letter-writing. I feel conscious
that I have not written to you so often nor so fully as I ought to have done, and
that I have a long arrear of debt, which I fear I shall never discharge, unless you
will accept of the only composition which it is in my power to offer — the assurance
that, though I may not have written much, I have not felt the less, and that both
Lady Raffles and myself have not only retained our respect and affection for you
and your family unabated, but that time and distance have only tended to strengthen

558

PROPOSED ACCOUNT OF SINGAPORE.

the feeling into that kind of affectionate attachment and regard, that in returning to
Europe, we look forward to the pleasure of seeing you, as to the meeting with those
of our own blood and family.

“ Our plan is to leave this about February, or so as to make England in July ;
hut so fatally have our anticipations been disappointed hitherto, that I hardly dare
look forward with confidence to its execution. Lady Raffles had hardly recovered
from her last confinement, when she was attacked by a \iolent fever, which has
hardly yet left her, and she is still confined to her couch. I am scarcely able to hold
up my head two days together ; but yet we will hope that our period of banishment
is nearly terminated, and that we may, with the blessing of God, see you in the
course of next summer.

“ What may be my future plan of life is still more uncertain ; but if I am for-
tunate enough to reach England ahve, I am certain that no inducement shall ever
lead me to re\dsit India. I have already passed nearly thirty years of my hfe in the
Company’s service, and have always been placed in situations of so much responsi-
bility, that my mind has always been on the stretch, and never without some serious
anxiety.

“ I naturally look forward to retirement, when these anxieties may cease, and
I can enjoy that serenity which is above all things necessary for the peace and com-
fort of this hfe. Accustomed, however, to activity, and necessarily to habits of
business, I am aware that I cannot be idle and happy at the same time, and there-
fore I shall be ready to enter with some degree of zeal upon any pursuits that appear
to promise eventual satisfaction.

“ I enclose you a copy of the address presented to me by the merchants of
Singapore, on the occasion of my resigning charge of that settlement, preparatory
to my proceeding to Europe, and hope that, in the pledge which I gave them, of
the 'permanency of the freedom of the Port, without duties or restrictions of any
kind, I shall be supported and borne out by the authorities at home. I cannot but
think that we have now taken too firm a root at Singapore, to render it even pos-
sible that it should be dehvered over to the Dutch, and therefore I did not advert to
such a possible contingency. Hereafter I hope to present you with a pamphlet,
containing the particulars of the estabhshment of the Singapore Institution, as well
as with the regulations which I have adopted there for the administration of justice,
until more regular prortsions are made. They will, I think, meet your approba-
tion. I notice what you say regarding the publication of some account of the esta-
blishment of Singapore, with a map annexed, and thank you for the hint. I have
little to say on the subject, more than has been repeated over and over again in my
official despatches, though perhaps in different words ; but as these are likely to
moulder away in Leadenhall-street, \vithout perhaps being twice read, it may be
useful should I attempt a more public exposition of my sentiments and Hews.

PROPOSED ACCOUNT OF SINGAPORE.

.559

Indeed, after what has taken place, and particularly with reference to the extra-
ordinary assertion of Lord Bathurst as to the nature of my appointment, something
of a public nature will be required from me ; and although I am far from wishing to
obtrude myself or my proceedings on the public, I feel confident, that the more my
conduct is investigated and known, the more credit will at any rate be given to my
motives ; so that, in this point of view, I have rather an inducement to publish than
otherwise.

“ Should, therefore, my health admit, I shall probably devote a few hours in the
day, during the voyage home, to condense into a convenient space what I think may
be interesting on the subject, to be revised after my arrival in England, according to
circumstances. It is not my wish any more than my interest, to run counter to the
authorities that be ; but as a public man, I hardly know how I can pass over the
direfid sacrifices made by Lord Castlereagh without remark. My sole object, in
a pohtical point of view, is to do justice to the cause I have undertaken, and I think
it only requires to be fairly and honestly stated, to make its way wherever it is
known.

" According to my present notion of the subject, it occurs to me that, by way
of introduction, I might enlarge on the course and value of the trade of the Eastern
Islands and China, its past history and present state, with a description of the more
interesting points of character among the inhabitants, and some account of the geo-
graphy and natural history of the different countries. I might then give a short,
but pointed account of the question with the Dutch ; the reasons which induced the
establishment at Singapore ; how that establishment was effected ; the principle on
which it was maintained, and the rapidity of its rise ; a short description of the
place, its inhabitants, productions, and localities, might follow, with an account of
its institutions, and an appendix, containing the regulations for the Chinese and
Malay College, &c.

“ You will hardly believe, that at the close of my administration of that settlement,
I received the unreserved approbation of the Government of Bengal of all the mea-
sures of a public nature that I had adopted. I have, however, been opposed through-
out in establishing the freedom of the port, and any thing like a hberal mode of
management, and not only by the Penang Government, but also in Bengal. The
Bengal merchants, or rather one or two of them, whom I could name, would have
preferred the old system, by which they might have monopohzed the early resources
of the place, and thus checked its progress to importance. My views have been
more enlarged, and as the authorities at home have fortunately not yet interfered
with the details, I have taken upon myself to widen the base, and to look to a more
important superstructure. I have given the place something like a constitution, a
representative body, and fashioned all my regulations more with reference to the
pure principles of the British constitution, than upon the half-cast, or country-born

560

MENDEZ PINTO’S ACCOUNT OF JAVA.

regulations of our Indian administration, which, however well they may be suited to
the circumstances of continental India, are altogether inapphcable to the state of
society in the Eastern Islands. This has brought upon me what may be called a
local opposition-party in Bengal, and I must be content to look for the just appre-
ciation of my views and plans rather in England than in India.

“ I was the other day looking over the translation you was so kind to make for
me from iSIendez Pinto relating to Java, and though he may exaggerate numbers,
and tell a story with embellishments, his localities are so correct, that, as far as I
can judge from this instance, I am inchned to think he deserves more credit than he
has yet received. His statements regarding Borneo and other countries of the
Archipelago less knoum than Java, would be interesting; and if from the history of
the last-mentioned Island we could vouch for his correctness, it might set people
thinking of what was possibly the fonner condition of the Archipelago, before the
valour of Portugal broke down its power, and the sordid pohcy of the Dutch de-
stroyed its spirit and energies. It would be an odd coincidence if, as Marsden
has undertaken the cause of Marco Polo, on account of what he said of Sumatra, I
should be the advocate of Pinto from the relation he gives of Java.

“ Your observations respecting the bark of the nutmeg-tree have not passed un-
noticed, and I have now a parcel of the bark preparing for Europe as an experiment :
it does not, however, appear to me to be peculiarly fi'agrant.”

In returning to Bencoolen Sir Stamford had to encounter once more a scene of
trial, sickness, and death. His few remaining friends fell a sacrifice to the chmate ;
his family it pleased God to afflict with illness ; and it seemed as if his life was to
end uith his labours. It is not easy to describe the state of anxiety in which the two
last months were spent : ready and anxious to leave a place in which so many earthly
ties of happiness had been broken, and yet seeing hour after hour pass away, with-
out the means of escape, and with scarcely a hope that fife would be prolonged from
one day to another.

The following letters give a lively picture of the state of his feehngs at this
period.

To the Rev. Dr. Raffles.

“ My Dear Cousin,

“ Bencoolen, November \5th, 1823.

As this may be the last opportunity of writing before we ourselves
embark, I am anxious not to let it pass without endeavouring to repay some part of
the heavy debt standing against me on the score of omissions in letter wviting.

# * * lis-

“ We have suffered much in health and spirits since we said farewell ; but our

PROGRESS OF THE PADRIES.

561

hearts are the same ; and we trust, that, if we can regain our health by a change of
climate, there may yet be many happy days in store for us, even in this sublunary
and transitory scene.

*****

“ I have already informed you that I resigned the charge of Singapore, and of
all questions with the Dutch in June last, as preparatory to my winding up on
this coast and proceeding to Europe. I enclose you a printed copy of the address
presented to me on the occasion by the merchants of the place, with my reply,
which uill shew you the sort of policy I wish to support at that settlement. I have
heard nothing more of the question with the Dutch, but I doubt not that it will be
agitated on my arrival in England. I rely more upon the support of the mercantile
community than upon any hberal views of the ministry, by whom I have been
opposed as much throughout as by the Dutch.

*****

“ Of this place I have nothing at present very particular to communicate, or that
will not as conveniently be left for personal intercourse ; but it will be satisfactory for
you to know that we are doing wonders with our schools, and that our Bible Society
is not inactive : the two missionaries whom we have here, Messrs. Robinson and Ward
are very zealous ; and Reports are now framing to be laid before the General Meeting
on the 1st of January, which will, I hope, prove that we have not been inactive ;
and that the results are as great as we could rationally have expected in so short a
time.

*****
Considerable interest has lately been excited by the progress in Sumatra of
the ISIahomedan sect, usually termed the Padries, or more particularly the Putcho
or Whites, in opposition to the Elaws or Blacks, by which latter term they designate
all who do not embrace their doctrine.

“ It was to the ravages of these people that I alluded in my account of the
journey to Menangkabu, as having repeatedly pillaged and burnt the capital of that
celebrated seat of the Malay empire : and it is with them that the Dutch, since their
occupation of Padang, have been involved in a desperate and relentless war, neither
party girtng quarter, and prices being set upon the heads of the principal Chiefs.
The first notice of this powerful sect, which had its origin near Mount Ophir, was
about ten years ago ; but it has been dirring the last three, and principally since the
occupation of Padang by the Dutch, that it has become formidable, and occasioned
alarm for the safety of the European settlements on the west coast of Sumatra.

“ The policy of the British Government has hitherto been that of neutrality,
considering that the question related principally to peculiar doctrines of Mahomed-
anism, in which the natives might be best left to themselves : but the success of the

4 c

562

PROGRESS OF THE PADRIES.

Padries during the last year, in which they have overrun nearly the whole of the
rich and populous countries of the interior, has at length called for measures of
decision even on the part of the British authority. A considerable force was
detached from Bengal in September last, direct to Nattal; and measures are in
progress for the adoption of offensive operations, should negociation fail. The
tenets of the Padries require, that all Mahomedans shall refrain from the use of
opium, from cock-fighting, and other Malayan vices, that they should wear a pecuhar
dress, and submit to ecclesiastical authority. The Malays, who form the population
of the coast districts, are averse to this change, as altering their habits, and depart-
ing from their ancient customs ; and the European Governments are actually em-
ployed in protecting them against the improvement which would necessarily follow
from their adoption of the tenets of the Padries.

“ It is not to be denied, that with people of so low a state of civilization as
those in the interior of Sumatra must be, success will too often make them wanton ;
and that their practice is fi'equently inconsistent with their doctrines — this is
naturally expected — and the 1 ve of plunder and thirst of revenge over those who
are most obstinate in resisting them is too often predominant.

“ The resources of these people seem considerable ; and their engagements with
the Dutch have taught them to know their own strength. Their power in the
interior of Sumatra may now be considered as completely established : and various
speculations are formed as to the result.

“ We thus see one of the finest islands in the world, on which we have had
establishments for upwards of a century, without once venturing to improve the
condition of the people, or to send one Christian Missionary among them, giving
way before the desolating influence of the false prophet of Mecca, and becoming
rapidly a strong Mahomedan resting ground, with our eyes open, and with scarcely
one effort made by ourselves to oppose them by a purer faith. The Missionaries we
have lately employed in Sumatra are too few in number to do much. That they
will do good, as far as their influence reaches, there can be no doubt ; but that
influence will long be limited to our own immediate stations, unless we increase
their numbers. Instead of three missionaries we ought to have three hundred;
and the object of these three hundred should be to initiate three thousand of the
natives to act as Missionaries in the interior. There are yet hundreds of thousands,
perhaps millions, in Sumatra, who at this moment possess no religion at all, among
whom we may include the Battas. The Padries are now on their very borders,
with the Koran in one hand, and the sword in the other : and the only JVIissionary
whom we have is an isolated individual, residing under the protection of the British
factory at Tappanooly, but who has not the means of penetrating into the interior.
This individual, however, (Mr. Burton,) has translated part of the Scriptures into

DEATH OF CAPTAIN SALMOND.

563

the Batta language, and his success in this respect is highly praiseworthy to his
application and character ; but alone he can do little beyond the influence of our
own factory, which does not extend one mile inland.

* * * * *

It would be useful to draw public attention to this subject now, particularly,
as it has excited much interest in India ; and is the only cause likely to detain me
here longer than I could wish. I cannot well leave the coast till some decisive
measure is adopted ; and yet in politics who can see the end ? My desire is to
avoid all involvement as much as possible ; and if our measures are likely to be of a
protracted nature, I shall not think of waiting the issue.

“ Believe me, &c.”

'' Permattam Ballam, Bencoolen, November 23, 1823.

“ This is a most melancholy day. One of my last letters informed you of the
death of poor Drummond after a few hours illness ; one of the Mr. Days died about
the same time. Two days ago Mr. Halhed was carried off, and I have just received
information that my dear and valued friend Salmond is no more.

This last blow has been almost too much for us, for Salmond was as dear and
intimate with us as our own family. I have just opened his will, and find he has
nominated me as his sole executor in the following words : — ^ I appoint my only
friend Sir Stamford Raffles to be my executor, and I pray to God he will take charge
of my estate and children.’ The loss of poor Salmond is quite a death-blow to the
settlement. How is it that all we love and esteem, all those whose principles we
admire, and in whom we can place confidence, are thus carried off, while the vile
and worthless remain ?

“ Sophia is recovering slowly from her late illness, but she has suffered severely.
I am much the same in health, but we are both low in spirits. Would that a ship
had come out as I wrote for direct, that we might have been off !

We have as yet heard nothing of the Fame, nor is there any opportunity
besides her likely to offer.”

To Dr. Wallich.

“ Bencoolen, November 24, 1823.

“ You will grieve to hear that we have just lost our worthy inestimable friend
Captain Salmond ; he is the second in our family and the fourth in our small society
who has paid the debt of nature within the last month ! W ould to God we were
ourselves fairly out of the place ! Sophia recovers but very slowly from her late
dangerous illness, and these events cast a sad and melancholy gloom over every thing.

4 c 2

564

DEATH OF SIR STAMFORD’S YOUNGEST CHILD.

I write these few lines at her very particular request, to remind you of my picture.
Whether I go home or not, I must, if Lady Raffles sur^'ives, send her home by
an early opportunity.

“ Om' united regards and fervent prayers for your health and happiness. Be.
lieve me always your’s affectionately.”

To Dr. Wallich.

“ Bencoolen, December 10, 1823.

“ We are, I am sorry to say, in gi-eat distress, ha^^ng lost several friends during
the last month, but the worst of all has been the loss of our only remaining child in
this country, at a time when Lady Raffles was herself dangerously ill \rith fever ;
the shock has been too much for us, and I hardly expect she will get over it. We
have indeed been severely afflicted, and what is worse, we are both so ill ourselves
that neither of us dare quit the room.

“ These circumstances will be a sufficient excuse for not writing you more
fully.”

“ Bencoolen, December 20, 1823.

“ You will grieve to hear that we have had another affliction in the loss of our
dear babe, whose birth I formerly announced.

“ She was carried off very suddenly, and at a moment when we were least pre-
pared to meet such a shock. The death of poor Salmond and iSIr. Dmmmond,
besides several other deaths in the settlement, had cast a gloom over every thing,
and Sophia was but very slowly recovering from a severe inflammatory fever which
nearly proved fatal. The loss of an infant only a few months old is one of those
things which in itself perhaps might soon be got over, knowng how uncertain hfe is
at that period, but this loss of our fourth and only remaining child in India has
rerived all former afflictions, and been almost too much for us. Fortunately Sophia’s
fever has not returned since the event, and upon the whole she is in better health
than she was preceding, but she has not yet left the house ; her spirits as well as
my own are completely broken, and most anxious are we to get away fi’om such a
charnel-house, but here we are detained for want of an opportunity. How often do
we wish the Fame had come out direct — we might have saved this last misfortune —
but we have neither seen nor heard of her, and God only knows when the day of our
deliverance will arrive. Either I must go to England or by remaining in India die.

“ If we are to meet again in this world, it must be soon after the receipt of
this — till then farewell, and God grant that you may never be subjected to such mis-
fortunes with your children as we have been. I shall wait a day or two in writing
to Cheltenham, in hope of having better spirits than to-day.

SIR STAMFORD’S ANXIETY TO RETURN TO ENGLAND.

565

As the management of convicts ought to be a subject of consideration, I
inclose you a copy of the regulations established for those of this place. The con-
victs now at Bencoolen amount to eight or nine hundred, and the number is gradually
increasing ; they are natives of Bengal and Madras — that is to say, of those Pre-
sidencies. The arrangement has been brought about gradually, but the system now
appears complete, and as far as we have yet gone, has been attended with the best
effects. I have entrusted John Hull with the superintendence of the department,
and he feels great pleasure and satisfaction in the general improvement of this class
of people.”

“ Bencoolen, January 4, 1824.

We have entered the new year, and as yet no accounts of the Fame. You
can hardly imagine to yourself the serious disappointment to all our hopes and plans
which this occasions. We begin to think we are doomed to end our days here, and
that there is something like a spell upon our movements. After Sophia’s severe ill-
ness and om* last affliction, the delay of a day is most serious, and night and day we
cannot help regretting that you have not ensured a ship on the strength of my
letters to you — I rehed exclusively on what you would do, and still have no other
hope than that the Fame will be in time to save our lives, though we have very little
confidence that this will be the case.”

“ Bencoolen, January 14, 1824,

I have before I embark to wind up all my affairs.

God grant that we may have a happy and satisfactory meeting in old Eng-
land, for which I may in truth say my heart yearneth much indeed and sadly.

" We are such poor creatures, that hke the aspen leaf, we shake with every
breath of air, and are daily treading on the edge of eternity.”

Months having elapsed beyond the time fixed for the arrival of the ship Fame,
which was to carry Sir Stamford and his family to England, without any accounts of her,
he determined to take the cargo out of the Borneo, a small vessel which had touched
at Bencoolen on her passage to England, and in which he had two years before sent
home his infant child ; but the very day the arrangement was to have been completed
(fortunately it was then supposed) the Fame arrived. The Borneo made a safe and
good passage ; of the fate of the Fame Sir Stamford’s own letters give an account ; it
is only necessary to add, that the ship was insured, which prevented any loss to the

566

BURNING OF THE FAME.

owners — that the captain had no interest in her — that the East India Company had
only a few tons of salt-petre on board for ballast — that the loss fell entirely on the
individual, whom it pleased God to humble by the overwhelming calamity.

“ Bencoolen, February 4, 1 824.

“ We embarked on the 2d instant in the Fame, and sailed at day-light for Eng-
land with a fair wind, and every prospect of a quick and comfortable passage.

‘‘ The ship was every thing we could wish ; and having closed my charge here
much to my satisfaction, it was one of the happiest days of my life. We were,
perhaps, too happy ; for in the evening came a sad reverse. Sophia had just gone to
bed, and I had thrown off half my clothes, when a cry of fire, fire ! roused us from our
calm content, and in five minutes the whole ship was in flames ! I ran to examine
whence the flames principally issued, and found that the fire had its origin immedi-
ately under our cabin. Down \\ith the boats. Where is Sophia ? — Here. The chil-
dren ?— Here. A rope to the side. Lower Lady Raffles. Give her to me, says
one ; I’ll take her, says the Captain. Throw the gunpowder overboard. It cannot
be got at ; it is in the magazine close to the fire. Stand clear of the powder. Shuttle
the water-casks. Water ! water ! Where’s Sir Stamford ? Come into the boat,
Nilson ! Nilson, come into the boat. Push off, push off. Stand clear of the after
part of the ship.

“ All this passed much quicker than I can write it ; w^e pushed off, and as we
did so, the flames burst out of our cabin-window, and the wLole of the after part of
the ship w'as in flames ; the masts and sails now^ taking fire, we moved to a distance
sufficient to avoid the immediate explosion ; but the flames were now coming out of
the main hatchw'ay ; and seeing the rest of the crew, with the Captain, still on board,
we pulled back to her under the bow^s, so as to be more distant from the powder. As
we approached we perceived that the people on board were getting into another boat
on the opposite side. She pushed off; we hailed her : have you all on board. Yes,
all, save one. Who is he ? — Johnson, sick in his cot. Can w^e save him ? — No, im-
possible. The flames w'ere issuing from the hatchw’ay ; at this moment the poor
fellow', scorched, I imagine, by the flames, roared out most lustily, having run upon
the deck. I will go for him, says the Captain. The tw'O boats then came together,
and we took out some of the persons from the Captain’s boat, wdiich w'as overladen ;
he then pulled under the bow'sprit of the ship, and picked the poor fellow up. Are
you all safe ? — Yes, w'e have got the man; all lives safe. Thank God ! Pull off from
the ship. Keep your eye on a star. Sir Stamford. — There’s one scarcely \isible.

“ We then hauled close to each other, and found the Captain fortunately had a
compass, but w^e had no light except from the ship. Our distance from Bencoolen we
estimated to be about fifty miles in a south-west direction. There being no landing

BURNING OF THE FAME.

567

place to the southward of Bencoolen, our only chance was to regain that port. The
Captain then undertook to lead, and we to follow, in a N. N. E. course, as well as we
could ; no chance, no possibility being left, that we could again approach the ship ;
for she was now one splendid flame, fore and aft, and aloft, her masts and sails in a
blaze, and rocking to and fi'O, threatening to fall in an instant. There goes her
mizen mast ; pull away, my boys : there goes the gunpowder. Thank God ! thank
God!

“ You may judge of our situation without further particulars. *The alarm was
given at about twenty minutes past eight, and. in less than ten minutes she was in
flames ; there was not a soul on board at half-past eight, and in less than ten minutes
afterwards she was one grand mass of fire.

“ My only apprehension was the want of boats to hold the people, as there was
not time to have got out the long-boat, or to make a raft ; all we had to rely upon were
two small quarter-boats, which fortunately were lowered without accident ; and in
these two small open boats, without a drop of water or grain of food, or a rag of co-
vering, except what we happened at the moment to have on our backs, we embarked
on the ocean, thankful to God for his mercies ! Poor Sophia, having been taken out
of her bed, had nothing on but a wrapper, neither shoes nor stockings ; the children
were just as taken out of bed, whence one had been snatched after the flames had
attacked it ; in short, there was not time for any one to think of more than two
things. Can the ship be saved ? — No. Let us save ourselves, then. All else was
swallowed up in one grand ruin.

“ To make the best of our misfortune, we availed ourselves of the light from the
ship to steer a tolerably good course towards the shore. She continued to burn till
about midnight, when the saltpetre, which she had on board, took fire, and sent up
one of the most splendid and brilliant flames that ever was seen, illumining the hori-
zon in every direction, to an extent of not less than fifty miles, and casting that kind
of blue light over us, which is of all others most horrible. She burnt and continued
to flame in this style for about an hour or two, when we lost sight of the object in a
cloud of smoke.

“ Neither Nilson nor Mr. Bell, our medical friend who had accompanied us,
had saved their coats ; but the tail of mine, with a pocket-handkerchief, served to
keep Sophia’s feet warm, and we made breeches for the children with our neck-
cloths. Rain now came on, but fortunately it was not of long continuance, and we
got dry again. The night became serene and star-light ; we were now certain of
our course, and the men behaved manfidly ; they rowed incessantly, and with good
heart and spirit, and never did poor mortals look out more for day-light and for
land than we did ; not that our sufferings or grounds of complaint were any thing
to what has often befallen others ; but from Sophia’s delicate health, as well as

568

BURNING OF THE FAME.

my o\ni, and the stormy nature of our coast, I felt perfectly cominced we were
unable to undergo starvation and exposure to sun and weather many days, and
aware of the rapidity of the cm-rents, I feared we might fall to the southward of the
port.

“ At day-light we recognized the coast and Rat Island, which gave us great
spirits ; and though we found ourselves much to the southward of the port, we con-
sidered ourselves almost at home. Sophia had gone through the night better than
could have been expected, and we continued to pull on vith all our strength. About
eight or nine we saw a ship standing to us from the Roads ; they had seen the flames
on shore, and sent out vessels to our relief; and here certainly came a minister of
Pro\idence in the character of a minister of the Gospel, for the first person I
recognized was one of our missionaries. They gave us a bucket of water, and we
took the Captain on board as a pilot. The wind, however, was adverse, and we
could not reach the shore, and took to the ship, where we got some refreshment and
shelter from the sun. By this time Sophia was quite exhausted, fainting continually.
About two o’clock we landed safe and sound, and no words of mine can do justice to
the expressions of feeling, sjnnpathy, and kindness wth which we were hailed by
every one. If any proof had been wanting, that my administration had been satis-
factory here, we had it unequivocally from all ; there was not a dry eye, and as we
di'ove back to om* former home, loud was the cry of ‘ God be praised.’

But enough ; and I mil only add, that we are now greatly recovered, in
good spirits, and busy at work getting ready-made clothes for present use. We
went to bed at three in the afternoon, and I did not awake till six this morning.
Sophia had nearly as sound a sleep, and, with the exception of a bruise or two, and
a httle pain in the bones from fatigue, we have nothing to complain of.

“ The loss I have to regret, beyond all, is my papers and drawings, — all my notes
and observations, with memoirs and collections, sufficient for a full and ample history,
not only of Sumatra, but of Borneo, and almost every other Island of note in these
seas ; — my intended account of the establishment of Singapore ; — the history of my
own administration ; — eastern grammars, dictionaries, and vocabularies ; — and last,
not least, a grand map of Sumatra, on which I had been employed since my arrival
here, and on which, for the last six months, I had bestowed almost my whole undi-
Gded attention. This, however, was not all ; — all my collections in natural history, —
all my splendid collection of drawings, upwards of two thousand in number, — "with all
the valuable papers and notes of my friends, Arnold and Jack ; and, to conclude, I
will merely notice, that there was scarce an unknown animal, bird, beast, or fish, or
an interesting plant, which we had not on board : a living tapir, a new species of
tiger, splendid pheasants, &c., domesticated for the voyage ; we were, in short, in
this respect, a perfect Noah’s ai'k.

ORIGIN OF THE FIRE.

569

“ All, all has perished ; but, thank God, our lives have been spared, and we do
not repine.

“ Our plan is to get another ship as soon as possible, and, I think, you may still
expect us in July. There is a chance of a ship, called the Lady Flora, touching
here on her way home, and there is a small ship in the Roads which may be
converted into a packet, and take us home, as I have a captain and crew at
command.

“ Make your minds easy about us, even if we should be later than you expected.
No news will be good news.”

A striking proof of the attachment of those who had no longer any interested
motive to influence them deserves to be recorded. After the boat which contained
Sir Stamford and his family got within sight of the shore, the numerous little native
craft, which were all in requisition at the moment, approached in every direction with
great velocity, and the people put, without exception, this one question ; Is the
Tuan Besar (the great man) safe ?” — receiving an affirmative answer, they darted off
as if there was no other point of interest to them.

In wi’iting to the Court of Directors on this subject. Sir Stamford states :

“ The fire had its origin in the store-room, immediately under the apartments
occupied by myself and family, and was occasioned by the shameful carelessness of
the steward going with a naked light to draw off brandy from a cask, which took
fire ; but I am bound to speak in the highest terms of the conduct of the captain,
officers, and ship’s company, who spared no exertions to save the ship, and when that
was found impracticable, to secure the lives of all on board, acting throughout with
the utmost coolness and self-possession which such a moment would admit of.

“ We had scarcely time to lower two small boats hanging over the quarter,
before the whole of the poop was on fire, and the flames had ascended the mizen-
rigging. So rapid, indeed, was the progress of the fire, that before even a small
canoe could be got out forward, the flames were issuing from the main and fore
hatchways, and we were of necessity forced to trust our fives, forty-one in number,
to the mercy of the waves, in these two open boats, quitting the ship in such haste,
that it was impossible to save a single article, or even to secure a drop of water, or
other refreshment. We were fortunate enough, however, to push off from the ship
before the magazine exploded, when the fire immediately became general over the
whole ship, the masts and sails flaming, and rocking to and fro, till they fell one by
one, affording, in the darkness of the night and in the midst of the ocean, one of the
most truly awful and sublime spectacles that ever was witnessed.

“ We estimated that our distance from the shore could not exceed fifty miles,
and that by steering towards Sumatra, and in the direction of Bencoolen, we might

4 D

570

SIR STAMFORD’S LETTER TO THE COURT OF DIRECTORS.

possibly regain that port, should the weather continue moderate ; and accordingly
adopted this course, the captain leading in the larger boat of the two ; this indeed
was the only chance, for if carried to the southward there was no other landing-
place on the Island, and we must inevitably have perished at sea by the most hor-
rible of all deaths, there not being a drop of water or other refreshment in either of
the boats — not a mast or sail, but imperfect rudders, and most of us \rfthout even a
complete suit of clothes. My wife had been taken from her bed without shoes or
stockings, or other covering but a loose wrapper, and the children under our charge
had been literally snatched from their beds when actually in flames.

“ It however pleased the Almighty Disposer of events to temper his judgments
with mercy, and to allay the storms and currents which so constantly prevail in
these seas during the present monsoon, and through the steady and great exertions
of the men in the boats, we had the satisfaction to make the land in the morninof
within about fifteen miles from Bencoolen. The flames fi'om the ship, which had
served to assist us in keeping a direct course to the land, had hkewise been seen
on shore, illumining a circumference of not less than fifty miles, and boats had been
sent out in every direction to our assistance. By the aid of one of these we reached
Bencoolen about four o’clock in the afternoon of the next day, after having had to
contend vdth an unfavourable current, and latterly a turbulent sea and adverse wind
for upwards of sixteen hours, every moment of which, under om* destitute circum-
stances and the boisterous nature of this coast, was pregnant with a degree of
anxiety and apprehension not to be described. The state both of Lady Raffles and
myself, already worn down by illness and affliction to the last stage of existence,
was ill calculated to support the privations and exposure to which we were sub_
jected, and long before we reached the harbour she had fallen into a succession of
fainting fits, from which we with difficulty recovered her.

It may however be satisfactory to state, in concluding this melancholy ac-
count, that no lives have been lost, and that the whole of the ship’s company
and passengers have reached this port in safety, thankful to the Almighty for his
mercies.

“ Submitting, as it is my duty to do, with patient resignation to this awful dis-
pensation of Prorfdence, I make the following statement, not in the spirit of com-
plaint, for I repine not, but simply as illustrative of my personal circumstances and
prospects, as they stand affected by this dire and unlooked-for calamity.

After a service of nearly thirty years, and the exercise of supreme authority
as a Governor for nearly twelve years of that period, over the finest and most in-
teresting, but perhaps least known countries in creation, I had, as I vainly thought,
closed my Indian life with benefit to my country, and satisfaction to myself ; carrying
with me such testimonials and information as I trusted would have proved that I

ACCOUNT OF THE FIRE TO THE COURT OF DIRECTORS.

571

had not been an unprofitable servant or a dilatory labourer in this fruitful and ex-
tensive vineyard.

“ This lovely and highly interesting portion of the globe had, politically speak-
ing, long sunk into insignificance from the withering effects of that baneful policy,
udth which the Hollanders were permitted to visit these regions, when it fell to my
lot to direct the course of the British arms to the Island of Java, and there on the
ruins of monopoly, torture, and oppression, in all its shapes, to re-establish man in
his native rights and prerogatives, and re-open the channel of an extensive com-
merce. Political events required our secession from that quarter, but the establish-
ment of Singapore, and the reforms introduced on this coast have no less afforded
opportunities for the application and extension of the same principles.

“ In the course of those measures, numerous and weighty responsibilities
became necessary — the European world — the Indian world — (the continental part
of it at least) were wholly uninformed of the nature of these countries, their cha-
racter, and resources. I did not hesitate to take these responsibilities as the occa-
sion required them, and though from imperfect information many of my measures
in Java were at first condemned, I had the satisfaction to find them in the end not
only approved but applauded, far beyond my humble pretensions, and even by those
who at first had been most opposed to me. I need refer to no stronger case than
that of the Marquis of Hastings.

“ During the last six years of my administration, and since I have ceased to
have any concern in the affairs of Java, the situations in which I have been placed,
and the responsibilities which I have been compelled to take in support of the in-
terests of my coimtry, and of my employers, have been, if possible, still greater than
during my former career ; I allude to the struggle which I have felt it my duty to
make against Dutch rapacity and power, and to the difficulties that I had to
contend "with in the establishment of Singapore, and the reforms which have been
effected on this coast.

In addition to the opposition of avowed enemies to British power and Chris-
tian principles, I had to contend with deep-rooted prejudices, and the secret machi-
nations of those who dared not to act openly ; and standing alone, the envy of some
and the fear of many, distant authorities were unable to form a correct estimate of
my proceedings. Without local explanation some appeared objectionable, while
party spirit and Dutch intrigue have never been wanting to discolour transactions
and misrepresent facts.

It was at the close of such an administration that I embarked with my family
on the Fame, carrying with me endless volumes and papers of information on the
civil and natural history of nearly every Island within the Malayan Archipelago,
collected at great expense and labour, under the most favourable circumstances,
during a life of constant and active research, and in an especial manner calculated

4 D 2

572

SIR STAMFORD’S LETTER TO THE COURT OF DIRECTORS.

to throw light not only on the commercial and other resources of these Islands, but
to advance the state of natural knowledge and science, and finally to extend the
civilization of mankind.

These, ^^^th all my books, manuscripts, drawings, correspondence, records, and
other documents, including tokens of regard from the absent, and memorials from
the dead, have been all lost for ever in this dreadful conflagration ; and I am left
single and unaided, without the help of one voucher to tell my story, and uphold my
proceedings, w'hen I appear before your honourable Court.

“ It has always appeared to me, that the value of these countries w^as to be
traced rather through the means of their natiwal history, than in the dark recesses of
Dutch diplomacy and intrigue ; and I accordingly, at all times, felt disposed to give
encouragement to those deser\ing men, who devote themselves to the pursuits of sci-
ence. Latterly, when political interests seemed to require that I should, for a time,
retire from the field, and there w^as little more to be done for this small settlement, I
have myself devoted a considerable portion of my time to these pursuits, and in fonn-
ing extensive collections in natural history : my attention had also been directed in a
particular manner to the geography of the Island of Sumatra.

“ To be brief, I may sum up the collections and papers which I have had the
misfortune to lose, under the following heads. They were carefully packed in no
less than one hundred and tw^enty-twm cases, independent of those for immediate re-
ference, but wdiich last are also lost, not one scrap of paper having been saved, or one
duplicate left.

“ Of Sumatra. — A map on a large scale, constructed during a residence of six
years, from observations made by myself and persons under my authority, European
and native, calculated to exhibit, at one view% the real nature and general resources
of the country, on a very different scale to what w’as formerly supposed, together with
statistical reports, tables, memoirs, notices, histories of the Battas, and other original
races, native and European vocabularies, dictionaries, and manuscripts in the different
languages, contained in several cases.

“ Of Borneo. — A detailed account of the former history, present state, popula-
tion, and resources, of that long-neglected island, already dra^vn out to the extent of
upwards of one thousand pages of waiting, with numerous notes, sketches, details of
the Dayak population, their government, customs, history, usages, &c. with notices
of the different ports, their produce, and commercial resources.

“ Of Celebes. — Nearly a similar account.

“ And of Java and the Moluccas. — The wiiole of the voluminous history, as care-
fully abstracted from the Dutch archives wiiile I w^as in Java, with careful translations
of the most valuable native books, vocabularies, memoirs, and various papers intended
principally to assist in a new^ edition of my History of Java.

“ Of Singapore. — A detailed account of its establishment ; the principles on

ACCOUNT OF THE FIRE TO THE COURT OF DIRECTORS.

573

which it is founded ; the pohcy of our Government in founding it ; the history of com-
merce in the Eastern Islands ; its present state and prospects ; the rapid rise of Sin-
gapore ; its history until I gave over charge ; with all the original documents con-
nected with the discussion with the Dutch, and every voucher and testimony which
could have been required to make good the British claim, and uphold the measures I
had adopted.

“ In Natural Histonj — The loss to myself and to science has been still greater.
The choicest, the cream and flower of all my collections, I retained to take under my
personal charge, together with the manuscripts and papers of my invaluable deceased
friends, Drs. Arnold and Jack. Among these also was that invaluable, and, I may say,
superb collection of drawings in natural history, executed under my immediate eye,
and intended, with other interesting subjects of natural history, for the museum of
the Honourable Court. They exceeded in number two thousand ; and having been
taken from life, and with scientific accuracy, were executed in a style far superior to
any thing I had seen or heard of in Europe ; in short, they were my pride : but as
man has no business to be proud, it may be well that they are lost. Cases of plants,
minerals, animals, &c. &c. I shall not name.

Indeed it would be endless for me to attempt even a general description of all
that has perished, and I will only add that, besides the above, all the papers con-
nected with my administration of Java, as collected and arranged by my deceased
friend and secretary, Mr. Assey, have also been lost, with all my correspondence.

" A loss hke this can never be replaced, but I bow to it without repining.

“ In a pecuniary point of view, my loss has not been less extensive, as may be
perceived by the annexed statement, in which I have assumed the actual cost of the
principal articles which have been sacrificed. Most of them are what no money can
replace; such as the service of plate presented to me by the inhabitants of Java;
the diamonds presented to my family by the captors of Djocjocarta ; the diamond
ring presented to me by the Princess Charlotte on my embarkation for India, a
week before her death. These and many other tokens of regard, friendship, and
respect, during an active and varied life, can never be replaced. Money may com-
pensate perhaps for other losses, but no insurance was, or could be, effected from
home. It rests solely and exclusively with the Court, to consider in how far my
claims, on account of services, may be strengthened by the severity of misfortune,
which has latterly attached itself to my case.

“ The anxiety and fatigue occasioned by the calamitous event which I have
detailed, have been such, that however much I may feel desirous, from motives of
pecuniary necessity, to prolong my stay in India, in the hope of replacing, in part,
some of the personal property which I have lost, I dare not look forward to such a
measure, and I am under the necessity of taking advantage of the first opportunity
that offers of proceeding to Europe, where I shall throw myself on your Honourable

574

SIR STAMFORD’S LETTER TO THE COURT OF DIRECTORS.

Court, to enable me to end my days in honourable retirement, trusting to an all-
bounteous Providence to restore me and my family to health and peace in my
native land.

“ In the mean time I have thought it my duty to resume charge of the Com-
pany’s affairs on this coast, and have advised the Supreme Government accordingly.

“ With a former letter I had the honom* to submit a copy of the address which
was presented to me on the occasion of my departure for Europe, with the reply
w'hich I have felt myself called upon to make on so favom-able an expression of the
pubhc feeling, and it is now with satisfaction that I transmit, for the perusal of
your Honourable Court, the addi'ess of condolence which was presented to me on
my unexpected return under such a sad reverse of fortune.

“ In expressing my deep-felt gratitude to the inhabitants of this settlement, for
their sjmpathy in our sufferings, and genuine hospitality, I can only say, that
having been thrown back on their shores most unexpectedly, — We were naked, and
they clothed us, — hungry and athirst, and they fed us, — weary and exhausted, and
they comforted and consoled us ; and I pray to God that your Honourable Court,-
as the immediate guardian of their interests, will bless this land of Smnatra in
retmn, even for their sakes.

“ I have the honour to be,

Honoiuable Sirs,

“ Your devoted, sincere, and faithful servant,
(Signed) “ T. S. Raffles.

“ Fort Marlborough, February 8, 1824.”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Bencoolen, February 20, 1824.

“ We have just suffered a sad calamity, but as we have been so long iniued to
misfortune, it perhaps falls more lightly upon us than it would otherwise have done.
Time does not admit of my waiting a long letter, and, therefore, I take the hberty
of enclosing a copy of what I have written at the moment, and in gi'eat haste, but
which will afford you all particulars.

“ I have this day engaged another ship, in which we hope to hav^e better for-
tune, but she will not be able to sail till the end of next month.

“ It was not enough that we should have the dangers of storms, rocks, and
seas to contend with ; but another element must rise up against us : earth, air, fire,
water, all combined to oppose our progress ! but I will not despair.

“ Pray excuse the brevity of this. In truth, it is with the utmost difficulty I
hold the pen.”

LETTER TO DR. WALLICH.

575

To Dr. Wallich.

“ Bencoolen, March 28, 1824.

My Dear Friend,

“ Y ou will have heard of our dreadful misfortune long before this reaches
you, and therefore I shall not enter into particulars further than hy stating, that I
have lost all and every thing belonging to me save my wife. We, thank God,
escaped by a miracle, and are grateful to Providence for so wonderful a deliver-
ance.

The whole of my drawings, between two or three thousand ; all my collec-
tions, descriptions, and papers of every kind ; all those of our invaluable friend Jack,
with every document and memorandum that I possessed on earth, fell a prey to the
all-devouring flame.

A subsequent attempt to get home in the Wellington has failed in success ;
for after taking her up and being prepared to embark, the commander most suddenly
and unexpectedly went out of his mind, and is now raving mad.

This, in fact, was the tliird ship we had engaged, and in which something
occurred to check our progress. I have now engaged a fourth, the Mariner, a small
Botany Bay ship, to take home the crew and passengers of the unfortunate ship
Fame, and God grant w'e may be more successful in her. We hope to embark on
her in the course of the week, and once more to trust ourselves to the mercy of the
elements.

“ If it pleases God that we should arrive in England, you will hear from me
ere long, and I shall not fail to inform you of all I think likely to interest you.

“ Adieu ! and excuse haste. All I have time to add is a repetition of what I
have often said before, and will continue to say till my dying day : God bless you,
and be assured of my devoted friendship and affection.

“ Lady Raffles sends thanks for having kept my picture so long, as it otherwise
would have been lost, with every thing else, by the Fame.”

So heavy a misfortune was sufficient to have depressed the spirit and damped
the ardour of the strongest mind ; but it seemed to have no other effect on that
of Sir Stamford than to rouse him to greater exertion. The morning after the
loss of all that he had been collecting for so many years, with such unwearied zeal,
interest, and labour, he recommenced sketching the map of Sumatra, set all his
draftsmen to work in making new drawings of some of the most interesting speci-
mens in natural history, dispatched a number of people into the forests to collect
more animals, and neither murmur nor lamentation ever escaped his hps ; on the
contrary, upon the ensuing Sabbath, he publicly returned thanks to Almighty God,

576

EXTRACT FROM SIR STAMFORD’S MEMORANDUxM BOOK.

for having preserved the lives of all those who had for some time contemplated a
death from which there appeared no human probabihty of escaping. And here the
Editor cannot forbear offering her testimony to the admirable conduct of the sailors.
When Sir Stamford first got into the boat, and they were requested to move to a
little distance, a slight murmur took place at the idea of deserting their comrades,
but on being assured that the only object was to choose the easiest death, they one
and all yielded in perfect silence, and calmly watched the success of an effort to
lower another boat ; nor did they aftenvards indulge in any complaint, but toiled
with the greatest good humour, sometimes laughing at the Purser and the Stew'ard,
on whom they laid the blame of the accident ; sometimes expressing pity for “ the
lady” and comforting themselves with the idea that they were not much w^orse off than
they w^ere before. When the boat approached the shore, they entreated that they
might be indulged in the pleasure of landing the party in safety, only requesting
first — to have some w^ater ; and when a large bucket full was lowered from the side
of the vessel, which came to meet the boats, the eager rush with which they plunged
their heads into it, will easily be imagined when it is recollected that they had been
working for eighteen hours, without intennission against a strong current, and in a
tropical climate. Some idea may be formed of the danger which the boats were in,
when it is stated that there w'as no handle to the rudder ; and that the only way of
stopping the aperture in the bottom of the boat, was by one of the men keeping his
thumb in it ; as he often fell asleep and forgot his office, the w^ater w'ould rush in, and
the boat w^as frequently nearly filled with water and in a sinking state. So crammed
W'as it with people, that none of those W'ho w^ere not engaged in rowing could,
during these many hours, move either hand or foot.

Though Sir Stamford’s health received a severe shock by this calamity, the
following extract from his memorandum book, on his second embarkation, affords
another proof that the energy of his mind w'as not shaken, nor the buoyancy of his
spirit broken.

“ On the 8th April embarked in the Manner, and on the morning of the 10th
w'eighed and sailed for England in that ship, in company with the Lady Flora, Cap-
tain M‘Donnel. She, how'ever, kept to windward and parted firom us during the
night ; a few days afterwards she came in company again, but on the 20th we again
lost sight of her.

“ 20th April. — I this day commenced to apply to study, and devoted the early
part of the morning to Euclid, and the remainder to the arrangement of my papers,
&c. As far as circumstances admit, I propose to divide my time and application as
follows, during the voyage ; appropriating eight hours in each day to study, reading,
or writing, and with an intention of making up one day for any loss of time on
another.

EXTRACT FROM SIR STAMFORD’S MEI\IORANDUM BOOK.

577

“ Breakfast being fixed at 9 and dinner at 4, I appropriate, before

breakfast, from 7 to 9 bonrs 2

“ Between breakfast and dinner, fi'om 10 to 1 and from 2 to 4 . . — 5

“ In the evening, from 8 to 9 — 1

hours . . 8

“ Before breakfast. — One hour mathematics or logic — one hour Latin, Greek,
or Hebrew.

“ After breakfast, from 10 to 11. — In committing to paper and arranging and
revie'wing what I studied before breakfast.

“ From 11 to 1. — '^^h•iting an account of my administration in the East.

“ From 2 to 4. — General reading and reading out to Sophia.

“ In the evening for one hour. — Reading a play of Shakspeare’s, or other enter-
taining productions.

“ By this arrangement, I have in the morning, by rising at 6, one hour for exer-
cise before breakfast, and half an horn' for the same after breakfast. One hour from
1 to 2 for tiffin and exercise, and after dining from 5 to 7, three hours for exercise
or relaxation in the cool of the evening. As the servants are always behind-hand in
furnishing the meals, I may freely trust to their affording me time for dressing by
such delays, which wall only eventually break in on the proposed three hours
relaxation for the evening, a portion of which may well be spared ; or half an hour
may be added to the day by going to bed at half past 9 or 10, instead of 9 as
proposed.

“ My object in making this memorandum is, that I may hold the rule as invio-
lable as I can, and by frequently recm’ring to it, revive my sleeping energies, should
I at any time be inclined to indolence. I should not, however, omit to add, that all
reading and study on a Sunday is to be confined to the Bible and rehgious subjects.
The Greek and Hebrew, however, as connected, may nevertheless form a part of
the study of that day.

“ 25th June, 1824. — Arrived at St. Helena on the afternoon of the 25th June,
after a passage of eleven weeks from Bencoolen, and encountering constant and
severe gales off the Cape of Good Hope during three weeks of that period. The
gale was so severe that during this period we were unable to leave our cots, the sea
poured through the decks into our cabin, and the war of the wind was such that
we could not hear each other speak. Lady Raffles, though boarded up in her
couch, was obhged to have ropes to hold by to prevent her knocking from one side
of it to the other ; the ship lay hke a wreck upon the ocean at the mercy of the
winds and waves, and we resigned om’selves to the feeling that our pilgrimage in
this world was soon to close.”

4 E

578

STORM OFF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE,

Those who have never experienced such a scene can form no idea of the
severity of the gale. Captain Young, who had passed the Cape nineteen times,
declared he had never witnessed any thing like it ; nor can the Editor ever forget one
night, on which Captain Herbert, (for all on board were worn out with fatigue and
watching,) as he retired to take a little rest, desired the officer on the watch to
observe in one particular direction, and call him the moment he saw the smallest
speck in the horizon ; the Captain then came to tell Sir Stamford that the ship still
held well together. It was a dreadful night, the sky appeared a heavy dense arch,
threatening to fall with its own weight, and crush every thing beneath it, save in
one spot, w^here a full moon of the deepest blood red shed an unnatural crimson hue
that just rendered the darkness risible. It w as not long before the expected mark
appeared, and before the Captain could get on deck, the fury of the wind was
sweeping away all before it.

“ Landed the evening of the 25th of June, and the next morning were kindly
received by General and Mrs. Walker, with whom we remained at Plantation-house
during our stay.

“ Sailed from St. Helena the 3d of July, and crossed the Line the 12th of July,
1824.

There are some souls bright and precious, which, like gold and silver, may be
subdued by the fiery trial, and yield to a new mould ; but there are others firm and
solid as the diamond, which may be shivered to pieces, yet in every fragment retain
their indelible character.”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ St. Helena, June 26, 1824.

“ Thank God, w'e are once more on the right side of the Cape of Good Hope,
with a fair prospect of a favourable passage home. After being eleven wrecks at sea,
and suffering a dreadful gale of three whole wrecks off the Cape, w^e landed here
last night. ^ ^ ^ *

“ I have neither time or spirits to say more than that w^e are alive and tolerably
well, and have a hope to reach England in August. My health and strength are
entirely gone, but I trust I have yet enough spirit to bear up for the voyage. To
complete om* sorrow, I have just received an account of the death of my dear mother,
an event for which I had for some time been prepared, but wJiich has been a sad
stroke at such a moment, just as I felt the possibility of once more embracing her,
and cheering her latter hours ; but God’s w ill be done.

“ We propose, wind and weather permitting, to land at Plymouth, and from
thence to cross the country, through Exeter and Bath to Cheltenham, where Lady
Raffles’ family are at present residing.

ARRIVAL AT PLYMOUTH.

579

“ I mention this because, next to the duty and inclination I feel to place my
dear wife in the bosom of her anxious family, I am led to look towards you and
yours.

^ ^ ^ ^

“ Pray excuse this hasty scrawl ; my eyes are quite blinded with tears, and my
hand is so nervous that I can scarcely hold my pen.”

To Mr. Marsden.

“ St. Helena, July 3, 1824.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ After our dreadful misfortune you will, I am sure, be glad to hear that
we have at length reached this place in safety, and that with the blessing of Provi-
dence we hope to be with you in the course of the next month. My constitution is
sadly broken, and the last accident has given both Lady Raffles and myself so severe
a shock, that we have with difficulty been able to bear up ; but the change of scene
within the last few days, and the kind attentions of General and Mrs. Walker, added
to the near prospect of home, have again cheered us, and we will yet hope that there
may be many happy days in store for us.

“ As the account of the loss of the Fame by fire will, no doubt, have reached
England before this can arrive, I will not distress you by recurring to the particu-
lars of that dreadful event, by which, though we fortunately escaped with our lives,
I have been a sufferer beyond what it is in my power to express. Nearly one-third
of the ship was occupied by my collections and packages, and I fondly, but vainly,
flattered myself that I would astonish you with the extent of our exertions and
research, particularly in the departments of natural history, to which my attention
had latterly been so much directed. Our friends. Sir Everard Home and Dr. Hors-
field, will have to regret the loss of many interesting subjects, as I had endeavoured to
comply with all their wishes, and succeeded beyond my expectations. You too, my
dear Sir, will suffer no less, for without vanity I may say, that I had collected a body
of information regarding Sumatra, that would have been highly interesting to you.
I had completed a general map of the whole Island, with more detailed particulars
of the principal divisions, extensive vocabularies, &c., and I regret to say, that I had
not taken the precaution of leaving duphcates behind : of most it would have been
difficult to have done it. It is, however, of no use to repine. I have set to work
again upon the map, but I fear it will very imperfectly supply the place of the one
I intended for you.”

To .

“ Plymouth, Sunday, August 22, 1824.

“ Here we are, thank God, safe and sound. We made the land on the 20th,

4 E 2

o80

ARRIVAL AT PLYMOUTH.

and landed here this morning, I am happy to say, in better health than could have
been expected. Your’s of the 20th has just been put into my hands, so that
you will perceive I have neither lost my punctuality nor my activity. I have a sad
head-ache fi-om the fatigue of landing, and therefore you must excuse my saving
more to-day ; but as we shall reach Exeter to-moiTow, I will write more fully from
thence.

“ Mr. Rosedew is with us, and we shall sleep at Beechwood to-night. Sophia
will speak for herself, and Nilson is well. My hand is so cramped that I cannot
hold my pen.”

CHAPTER XX.

Sir Stamford lands at Plymouth — Interview with his ehild — Resumes his labours — Interrupted by ill health
— Views of the civilization and conversion of the heathen — Retrospect of the proceedings of the Bible
Society in Sumatra — Malay schools preparing the way for the Scriptures — Translation of St, John’s
gospel — Effect of the transfer of the island to the Dutch — Access to China — Singapore institution —
Sir Stamford’s life at home — The magistracy — Sudden illness — Purchase of Highwood — Judgment of
the Court of Directors on his administration of Java, Sumatra, and Singapore — His death.

Sir Stamford Raffles landed at Plymouth with health and strength greatly reduced,
and after remaining one night with Mr. Rosedew at Beechwood, in whose house
he had last enjoyed the pleasures of social intercourse previous to his departure
seven years before, he hurried on to Cheltenham. The following letters describe
his feehngs at this period.

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Cheltenham, August 24, 1824.

“ Once more we are safe at home, and I trust it will not be long before I have
it in my power to overcome the short distance which separates us.

“We are safe, but, I am sorry to say, far from sound; for my constitution is
terribly shattered ; nevertheless, I live in confidence that, as the spirit is good, the
body will yet mend. How happy shall I be to see you once more.

* * * *

“ Your letter must have arrived at Plymouth the day after I left it. We were
most anxious, as you may well suppose, to throw ourselves into the arms of our
family as soon as possible, and did not remain at Plymouth above three hours ; but
what with assizes, horse-races, air-balloons, and other festivities of the season, we
got on so slowly for the first two days, that I was obliged to push the post-boys from
Bath to this place at about thirteen miles in the hour, until our front wheel caught
fire, in order to satisfy Sophia’s impatience to see her child. This has rather fatigued

582

SIR STAMFORD’S INTENDED OCCUPATIONS.

US ; but you mil I am sure be happy to hear that we have found her all that our
fondest wishes could have desired.

“ I am unfortunately so troubled mth cramp, that I can scarcely hold my pen ;
therefore, pray excuse my mating all that my heart and feelings dictate.

“ How pleasant it is to be near one’s friends; for what are a hundred miles
after fourteen thousand !

“ Of my future plans in life I cannot say that I have fixed any * * »

I confess that I have a great desire to turn farmer, and have the vanity to think I
could manage about two hundred acres as well as my neighbom's. With this, I sup-
pose, I should in time become a country magistrate, an office of all others which I
should delight in ; and if I could eventually get a seat in parliament, without sacrifice
in principle, I should be content to pass through the rest of my life without aiming
at any thing further, beyond the occupation of my spare time in promoting, as far as
my humhle means and talents admitted, the pursuits of knowledge and science, and
the advancement of philanthropic and religious principles.

“ Your Grace will, perhaps, say, that I have chalked out for myself a very
varied and diversified course ; but what is fife without variety ? and what is existence
without occupation ?”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Cheltenham, Oetoberd, 1824.

“ Your advice is so good, so friendly, and so kind, that I will at once pledge
myself to follow it in every thing. My only wish is not to be idle, but to be useful
to the extent of my means. * ^ ^ ^

“ I have been engaged for the last two or three days in di*awing out a brief
review of my public administration during the last twelve years. After the loss of
all my documents and records, a paper of this kind becomes the more interesting.
I hope I shall not be found to have said too much in favour of my own services and
])retensions ; and yet the countries in which I have been placed have been so new,
untrodden, and interesting, and the situations in which I have been thrown have
been so peculiar and trying, that unless I state them myself, few will either know or
understand any thing about them. I feel confident that my course has been so
straight forward, that the more light may be thrown upon it, the more obvious it will
aj)pear, and the more creditable it will be to my character.”

To Mr. Marsden.

“ Cheltenham, October 22, 1824.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ I have been so unwell since I had the pleasure to receive your kind
letter, that I have been quite unable to answer it till now ; not that I have, on the

SIR STAMFORD'S ILL HEALTH.

583

whole, cause to complain as to the general improvement of my heath since my arrival,
which, I am happy to say, has been gi*eater than I expected ; but I am still occasion-
ally subject to severe attacks in the head, and have been confined for days together
to my bed, from this and a severe cold, which for the time incapacitated me from
wi'iting. I am, however, on my legs again ; and you will, I am sure, be happy to
hear that both Lady Raffles and myself already feel some confidence that we may
weather the winter, and look forward to next summer for the full re-establishment
of our health. Our dear little one we have found every thing the fondest parents
could desire ; and I would hope we have at length come to the tennination of the
long series of misfortunes, with which it has pleased an all-wise Providence to afflict

us of late, and that there is still much comfort and happiness in store for us.”
*****

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Cheltenham f October, 9.S, 1824.

“ Your Grace will have been surprised at my long silence ; I have been ill and
confined to my bed almost ever since I received your last letter, and I am only able
to-day to refer to the date, and apologize for not acknowledging it. When Lord
Seymour was with us, I had entirely lost my voice from a violent cold ; so that we
had some difficulty in communicating ; but he had hardly left us, than I had one of
those severe attacks in my head that nearly deprived me of reason ; and I began to
think I must bid you a long farewell. Thank God, however, I am better ; though
I am hardly able to hold my pen, and which I dare not trust except within very
close limitation ; for I believe it was in consequence of using it too much on the
paper I was drawing up that I have to attribute this unfortunate relapse ; which has
throw n me back in point of health at least two months ; and as Avinter is fast
approaching time is precious.

“ I have finished the paper I was writing some time ago, and it is now at the
printer’s — it is not exactly what I could have wished, and the state of my health
obliged me to contract it within very narrow limits, and bring it to a conclusion
rather suddenly, and with less spirit than I could have wished. Such as it is, you
shall have it in a few days.”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Cheltenham, November 2d, 1824.

“ I have corrected the proof of the paper which I am sending in to the Court
of Directors, and have desired a copy to be sent to you. I am afraid you w'ill not
find it very interesting ; but as it takes a general view of my services and the
situations in which I have been placed, it may amuse you for half an hour during a
dull November day. You must bear in mind to whom it is addressed, and the

584

MAPS OF SUMATRA AND SINGAPORE.

necessity of my keeping within bounds ; as well as wth reference to a body so con-
stituted, as on account of my oum health, which does not admit of my enlarging on
the subject. You will see that I have pledged myself to give the public a memoir
on Singapore. I hope you will not disapprove of my taking so much blame to
mvself as I have been willing to do. I am ready to justify every act of my ad-
ministration, and feel perfectly easy on that score, but it is for others to judge — not
me ; and all I am anxious to do is to get the question agitated, as I am ready to
stand or fall by the result.

“ I am veiy sensible of the Duke’s kindness, and am only sorry that I give you
so much trouble and so little satisfaction. Time was when I wanted not strength to
second my will ; but I am now, alas ! shattered, and altogether unequal to one-
thousandth part of all I would wish or desire to do.

“ Promising, uith God’s help, to be a better coiTespondent during the next
than I have been during the last week,

“ I am, &c. &c.

T. S. R.

“ I have put the maps of Sumatra and Singapore into the hands of an artist
this morning, to be constructed and engraved on a scale to suit a quarto volume”

To the Duchess of Somerset.

“ Piccadilly, December 9th, 1824.

I have been following yom' kind ad^^ce — idhng and playing the fool with
my time as much as possible.

“ W e are beginning to get a httle more to rights than when you left us, but I
have only been able to unpack two cases out of one hundred and seventy-three in
course of transport to the house.”

As soon as Sir Stamford was settled in London, he commenced an examination,
as intimated in the last letter, into the week of the immense collections which he
had made during the twenty years he had passed in India. He also designed to
arrange his papers ; and whilst India, with all its varied interests, was fresh in his
memory, to record whatever he thought would promote the general improvement of
mankind, or the particular advantage of his country ; but his health was so delicate,
that he was prevented from applying himself as he wished to the objects and pur-
suits which he had most at heart ; the least exertion of mind or body was followed
by days of pain and sickness, and he was continually regretting how much he was
losing time — how little he was doing for the good of others.

The following letter is to the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible

BRITISH AND FOREIGN BIBLE SOCIETY.

585

Society. Sir Stamford always conceived that the idea of converting the natives of
India by preaching only was fallacious, and that the miraculous outpouring of the
Holy Spirit which attended the first preaching of the Gospel, and by which its nume-
rous converts were so multiplied, was not now to be looked for. It was his conviction
that the best means of securing this object was to civilize and instruct the people,
and, together with cirilization and instruction, convey to them the blessed truths
of the Gospel, trusting that God in his own good time would bestow upon them that
faith in a Redeemer, without which all knowledge is vain, and which alone is for the
“ healing of nations.”

To the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society.

“ February, 1825.

“ In compliance \rith the desire expressed by the Committee, I now have the
honour to report generally on the state of the Sumatran Auxiliary Bible Society at
the period of my quitting Bencoolen, and to offer such suggestions as occur to me,
with a view to the continuance of its operations under the political changes in that
part of the East.

“ Detailed reports of the proceedings of this Society from its commencement
until January, 1824, w'ere entrusted to me for the Parent Society in England ; but,
unfortunately, the w'hole of these w'ere lost by the destruction by fire of the ship
Fame, on w^hich I had embarked for England: and, during the confusion attending
my second embarkation fr-om Bencoolen, I am sorry to find that I was by no means
furnished with a complete series to supply their place ; nevertheless, I will endea-
vour to convey to the Committee an outline, as far as I bear them in recollection,
w'hich I hope will be sufficient to prove that it has not been without its usefuhiess ;
and that if owing to the pecuhar circumstances of the place, much may not have
been done in the actual distribution of the Scriptures, the w^ay had been paved to a
considerable extent ; and that time alone w^as w^anting to ripen into effect the opera-
tions of those who had entered on the undertaking.

“ I cannot charge my memory with the exact number of Bibles distributed by
means of the Auxiliary Society ; I believe it was inconsiderable wdth reference to the
extent of population ; but when it is considered that previous to its establishment
few’, if any, could read, or had any idea of the existence of such a book, or that
Christians had such a boon to confer upon them, this will not be surprising.

At an early period of the Society, my attention w’as directed more especially
to the necessity of introducing letters, and, with them, moral and industrious habits
were gradually attended to. The rapid progress made by the childi'en in the dif-
ferent pubhc schools, afforded an earnest that perseverance alone, for a few years,
was necessary to effect a complete change in the condition of the people, and to
place within their comprehension the leading truths of the sacred volume.

4 F

586

BRITISH AND FOREIGN BIBLE SOCIETY.

Although the progress and success of these schools may not be considered as
falling directly within the immediate objects of the Bible Society, yet, as without
them we never could have expected that the Bible could have been read, I may
perhaps be permitted to annex to this memorandum the last report of our School
Committee, which shews that in the immediate vicinity of Bencoolen, the number
of boys who had been taught to read, and who had been disciplined in regular habits,
amounted to some hundreds ; and that in the dependent districts along the coast of
Sumatra, among a population of not less than 60,000 souls, a considerable anxiety
prevailed for the extension of the system.

“ I may add in truth that I never witnessed a more animating and interesting
spectacle than the pubhc examination of the children of Bencoolen. It was one in
which all classes of people united to express their admiration and sui*prise ; and the
fair promise which the children afforded, was the most satisfactory earnest of their
future advancement in ci\ilization and happiness, if good seed were sown, and the
tiller were not idle.

Order and industry were more generally introduced among the adults than
in former times ; and I have reason to beheve, that throughout the beneficial
changes effected were considered as springing directly fi*om the pure motives of a
Christian Government, whose principles the people could not but revere.

‘‘ Thus far, in connection with, and under the auspices of, the Bible Society,
has the way been prepared for the reception of the sacred volume on the west coast of
Sumatra. In other parts, perhaps, little has been done, owing to the want of means.
The Island itself probably contains a population of not less than three milllions ;
and these are for the most part under independent and worse than semi-barbarous
Chiefs.

“ One of the most interesting and promising estabhshments, however, foraied
in furtherance of these objects, was at Tappanooly, in the heart of the Batta country;
where Mr. Burton, a Baptist Missionary, has been successfully established under the
protection of the British Government. This gentleman has already made himself,
in a great measure, master of the Batta language ; and after translating several
tracts into it, was engaged at the period of my leaving Smnatra, in a plan with the
Missionaries at Bencoolen, for translating the Gospel of St. John. Mr. Burton has
since that period penetrated, in company with Mr. Ward, into the interior of the
Batta country ; the particulars of their discoveries in this part of Sumatra will, I
doubt not, soon meet the public eye. In the mean time, it may be satisfactory to
state that they found the population more extensive, and the productions more
valuable than they expected ; and that, instead of finding obstacles and difficulties
thrown in their way, they were universally treated with kindness and hospitality.
They entered the country without disguise, as Englishmen and Missionaries, and w^ere
treated with respect.

BRITISH AND FOREIGN BIBLE SOCIETY.

587

But if, on the one hand, the friends of the Society at Bencoolen were anxious
to open the eyes and ears of the ignorant to a knowledge of the Word of God, they
were no less active in endeavouring to prepare the sacred word in such a form as
might most readily and most correctly meet their conception.

" Superior knowledge of the languages into which it was to be translated became
indispensable ; and without entering into the difficulties which stood in the way in
this respect, I will merely take the liberty of adverting to the state of the question, as
concerns the Malay Bible, and which was, I believe, the first specimen of a transla-
tion into any of the Eastern languages. The Rev. Mr. Robinson, whose exertions
in promoting the great objects of the Society, and in cultivating the waste and barren
soil of the native mind with indefatigable industry, entitle him to the highest praise,
has, among his other publications for the use of the schools, recently edited a work
on Malay orthography ; in the preface to which he has introduced some observations
on this translation, which may deserve the attention of the Committee ; and I am in
consequence induced to annex the volume ; and at the same time to refer to the
note at the end of the 36th page of the Introduction.

I take this opportunity of forwarding a few copies of the Gospel of St. John,
as rendered into Malay by Mr. Robinson ; on the merits of which it would be
desirable that a decision should be formed as early as circumstances admit. The
only step, with this view, taken on the spot was, to submit it to a Committee of two
of the senior civil servants on the Bencoolen establishment, and who were considered
to be the best versed in the Malay language ; who gave their opinion generally in
favour of the translation, and more particularly in support of the orthography adopted
by Mr. Robinson. — I do not feel myself prepared at the present moment to offer any
decided advice on the subject ; but as there is every reason to hope that the Insti-
tution, recently established at Singapore, may prosper and become efficient, I should
think this a point which might well be considered and adjudged by the collective
knowledge which will be assembled within its walls.

“ I now turn to the probable state of the Auxiliary Society at Bencoolen, as it
will be affected by the transfer of that settlement to the Dutch, and from the British
withdrawing from the whole of Sumatra on the 1st of March last, conformably to the
treaty.

When the last accounts left Bencoolen, the official advice of the intended
transfer had not reached that settlement ; but sufficieiit intimation of the probability
of such an event had been received to throw the whole country into a state of the
greatest confusion and alarm.

“ The following is an extract from one of the latest letters, which may serve in
some degree to convey an idea of the apprehension.

^ What the effect of this change may be upon our mission, it is impossible fully
to conjecture ; — but there seems just cause to fear that it will be attended with some

4 F 2

588

BRITISH AND FOREIGN BIBLE SOCIETY.

present evil. The Bible Society, which was to have supported our translation, will
exist no more ; and the liberal sum which we have hitherto enjoyed for the support
of the native schools will also be withdi'awn.’

“ I introduce this extract to shew, that, on the spot, little hope is entertained
that, after the British flag is lowered, there will be any chance of the society at Ben-
coolen holding up its head, and to submit whether, considering that the British
Government has agi'eed to withdraw itself in toto from all futm-e concern in the
administration of Sumatra, and has left that Island to the exclusive control of the
Netherlands’ Government, it might not be advisable to concert with the Bible So-
ciety of the Netherlands, to receive its especial control and care.

“ I should be loth to recommend the abandonment of any interest by the British
and Foreign Bible Society, however distant the hope of success, and more particu-
larly of one, ^^^th the rise of which I had the satisfaction to take some pains, and
with which I was in a great measure personally connected ; but when I reflect on
the local discussions and difiiculties which may arise among contending authorities,
jealous even of each other’s good name, I feel that I am taking a higher and a safer
ground, when I look rather to the Netherlands’ authority, and to the zeal of their
Bible Society, for carrying into effect the plan which we have begun in Sumatra.

“ If the Committee should view the question in the same light, I would suggest
the advantage of an early and candid communication being made to the Netherlands’
authorities, and that it should be clearly understood, whether the four missionaries
(Baptists) now in Sumatra will be permitted to remain, and to continue their labors
on the same principle as heretofore, on an assurance of protection on the part of
the Dutch Government ; or if not, whether any and what countenance will be given
to them under the change of circmnstances which has taken place ; or otherwise,
whether the Netherlands’ Society itself will undertake the whole duty, and they may
withdraw.

“ It would be highly ad\isable that such an understanding should be effected as
would effectually prevent the possibility of clashing on the spot. The Government
at home as well as the Parent Societies, are actuated but by one common and social
cause, and will mutually aid each other ; but the same spirit is not always predomi-
nant abroad ; and at all events we ought to do every thing in our power in Europe
to prevent the possibility of misunderstanding them.

“ On the restoration of Java to the Dutch, the Auxiliary Bible Society estab-
lished there by the Enghsh was allowed to decline and go into decay ; and it was
not until an offer was made to Mr. Bruchnor, at Samarang, to print a version of the
Javanese Bible at Bencoolen under his revision, that the Dutch Government came
forward and assisted in the prosecution of the work ; in which, I am happy to say,
he is now successfully employed.

“ In the Moluccas, the Netherlands’ Government have afforded considerable

BRITISH AND FOREIGN BIBLE SOCIETY.

589

countenance and assistance ; and it is to be hoped that the subject will he taken up
in the Netherlands with the same liberality and spirit. The religion of Christ will
then not long be prevented from exercising its improving and resuscitating influence
over this long-neglected portion of the globe.

“ At the same time that I feel myself hound to offer an apology for the length
of this communication, I am induced to make one observation more, for which I
crave yom' indulgence.

“ In the last Annual Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, notice
was taken of the labours of Dr. Morrison, and particularly of the advantage that
might arise in appointing an agent to proceed to Singapore, and from thence to
China and different parts of the East, with the \iew of distributing the Scriptures in
China. I take this occasion to offer my entire concuiTence and unreserved testi-
mony in support of the suggestion of Dr. Morrison ; and to state that, situated as
we are now on the threshold of China, and surrounded by perhaps half a million of
that people, who have emigrated and settled around us in the adjacent countries,
with almost constant intercourse, and means of communication even with the heart
of China itself, Loochoo, and Japan, I consider this the most favourable oppor-
tunity that could be embraced, for furthering the objects of the Society in that
quarter. I ought also to add, that Siam and Cochin China are now, for the first
time, open to our commerce ; and that, whatever may be the result of the present
contest in the Birman country, a field seems to be opening in that quarter, from
which we shall no longer be debarred entrance. India beyond the Ganges, or
Eastern Asia, at no former period of its history seems to have been pregnant with
gi'eater changes than at present : and, though all good and great works must be the
work of time, yet I trust I may stand excused in suggesting whether the time has
not arrived, when a knowledge of the languages and character of the people ought
to be cultivated, in order that we may have agents prepared to act whenever safe
openings offer. Instead of one or two persons learned in the Chinese, should we
not at least have a dozen ? Siam and Cochin China are extremely populous ; and
I am not aware that any Protestant missionary has ever been among them ; or that
any versions of the Scriptures in their languages has been attempted.

“ With the view of affording to the Committee every information as to the pre-
sent state of Eastern Asia, I have taken the liberty to transmit herewith a memo-
randum of the Institution at Singapore ; an institution which in its degree will, I
trust, be found essentially conducive to the civilization and adv^ancement of the
countries by which it is surrounded.”

Sir Stamford had not been many months in England when he suggested a plan
to Sir Humphrey Davy for the formation of a Zoological Society, which should com-
bine with the pursuit of science the introduction and domestication of such quadru-

590

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

peds, birds, and fishes, as might be most hkely to prove useful to agricultural and
domestic purposes.

The following letters allude to this subject.

To Sir R. H. IngUs, Bart.

April 28th, 1825.

My Dear Sir Robert,

As Sir Humphrey has gone out of town, leaving with me the list of
names in support of the plan for extending our zoological researches, &c., to add the
names of as many of my friends as might be desirous of promoting it, I am induced
to ask if I may have the honour of putting down your name.

Mr. Peel’s name is at the head of the list, and those of Lord Spencer, Lord
LansdowTie, Lord Stanley. Mr. Keber, and many others of weight follow.

When the list is completed to a hundred, which I conclude it will be in a day
or two, it is proposed to appoint a committee, when the objects of the society \riU be
more clearly defined. In the first instance, we look mainly to the country gentle-
men for support, in point of numbers ; but the character of the institution must of
course depend on the proportion of men of science and sound principles which it
contains. I look more to the scientific part of it, and propose, if it is established on
a respectable footing, to transfer to it the collections in natural history which I have
brought home uith me.

Yours sincerely,

T. S. Raffles.”

To the same.

“ Grosvenor-street, June 16tk, 1825.

My Dear Sir Robert,

I have duly registered Sir Thomas Acland’s name on the list of sub-
scribers to the proposed society, which I am now happy to find is to be honoured
and benefited by his support.

A meeting is proposed to be held next week, when some kind of form or con-
stitution will be given to it ; at present it is almost ‘ without a local habitation or a
name.’

In the mean time I enclose you the last prospectus, with a list of the names
as they stood a week ago, since which there have been several accessions.

“ The state of my health has been such, that I have found it impossible to caU
at Manchester Buildings, notwithstanding many attempts, and I am now forced to
fly from town rather suddenly. We go as far as Hornsey on Saturday, and expect
early in next month to remove to High Wood, which I have purchased; at pre-
sent, hoivever, 'we have some difficulty about the period of possession, on account
2

REQUESTED TO ACT IN THE MAGISTRACY.

591

of delay in making out the title ; and, as the case stands, I have been obliged to
say, that unless I can remove at an early date, our agreement must fall to the
gi'ound. " Yours, &c.

“ T. S. Raffles.”

To Sir Stamford the enjoyments of a country life were peculiarly delightful,
indeed almost necessary ; and when he found himself once more at liberty to cultivate
his garden, to attend to his farm, and to interest himself in those simple pleasures in
which he had always delighted, he hoped to regain that health and strength which
alone were wanting to his happiness. Here he could indulge the feelings of his
heart without restraint; and it was his intention, had not God ordained better
things for him, to have passed the greater part of his time in the happy retirement
which the spot he selected for his residence promised to secure to him.

To Sir R. H. Inglis, Bart.

“ High Wood, December 31, 1825.

My Dear Sir Robert,

“ The application I am about to make to you will be the best proof I
can give that I am recovering my health, and feel some confidence in my future
exertions.

My neighbours here have urged me strongly to act as a magistrate, and the
necessity of such an authority is unquestionable. We are more than four miles
removed from our parish church, and the exercise of any thing like police ; and the
consequences are as might be expected : the poorer classes, left to themselves with-
out control in this world, and neither checked by moral or any other authority, are
in a sad degraded and irregular state. We are just on the borders of another
county, not famous for the moral character of its inhabitants, in the vicinity of
Barnet and Whetstone, which is a further reason for my undertaking the office.

“We are now concerting a plan for the erection of a Chapel of Ease ; and the
next object is an efficient magistracy. For some time I resisted the entreaties of
my friends that I should endeavour to get into the commission, not feeling my
health equal to the duties, and apprehensive that, although during the longest part
of my public life, I have been acting on the principle, and directing others how to
execute similar offices, I might myself be deficient in the details ; but from the im-
provement in my health, and from a desire to be useful to the extent of my ability,
added to the consideration that it may afford me the means of becoming 'practically
acquainted with the real state of our society, and of much regarding our laws and
usages, which it is impossible for me to know otherwise than theoretically, I no
longer hesitate.

o92 PLAN FOR PROMOTING THE STUDY OF THE CHINESE LANGUAGE.

“ I have, in a great measirre, recovered my health, by being quietly in the
country', and avoiding public or large parties, and the benefit of a pure air ; but we
propose going into town in the coiu-se of a few months.

“ Yours, &c.

“ T. S. Raffles.”

To the Rev. Dr. Raffles.

“ 23, Loner Grosvenor Street, Mareh 9, 1825.

My Dear Cousin,

“ I have been intending to wiite to you for the last three weeks, and par-
ticularly in answer to your reference to Sophia respecting the Singapore Institution ;
but I have been far from well, and not able to communicate with Dr. Morrison and
other friends so fully as I could have wished.

“ It is now detennined that he does not return to China this season ; and he
has for the present established himself at Hackney, where he lectures twice a w’eek,
and affords instmction in the Chinese language. His object is to introduce the
study of it into this country ; and a plan is in progi*ess for appointing a professor in
Oxford.

I am decidedly of opinion, that the interests of the Institution uill be better
foiAvarded by considering it as a whole ; it being of course optional with subscribers
to give their assistance either generally, or to either of the three departments —
literary, Chinese, or Malay. Dr. Momson looks piincipally to the Chinese, but he
by no means \nshes to throw the other departments into the back-gi'ound ; and I
believe he is fully convinced that we must uphold the literary and scientific depart-
ment, as most essential for the well-being of the whole. *

I propose after Easter to take it up, and will then unite you more fully.

“ It uill I think be advisable to move in the first instance in London, wiiere I
propose appointing a Committee. Dr. ’Morrison does not appear sanguine about
pubhc meetings, and seems to think we can do more by committees.

“ My health has improved, but I am still dehcate and imsomid ; so much so,
that I am unable to bear the fatigue of going into the city, or attending to any
thing like business. I look forward with no httle anxiety to May and June, when
we may hope to quit London and riualize.

“ I am much interested at present in estabhshing a gi'and Zoological collection
in the metropolis, uith a Society for the introduction of living animals, bearing the
same relations to Zoology as a science, that the Horticultural Society does to
Botany. The Prospectus is drawn out, and when a few copies are printed I will
send some to you. We hope to have 2000 subscribers at £2 each ; and it is further

ON THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

59.3

expected we may go far beyond the Jardin des Plantes at Paris. Sir Humphrey
Davy and myself are the projectors ; and while he looks more to the practical and
immediate utility to the country gentlemen, my attention is more directed to the
scientific department. More of this, however, hereafter.

# # * *

" T. S. Raffles.”

To the Rev. Dr. Raffles.

“ Lower Grosvenor-street, May 18, 1826.

My Dear Cousin,

You are kind, indeed, to be thinking of me and my prospects, at a time
when I fear I shall have given you too much reason for accusing me of neglect.
My conscience has for many a-day told me that I ought to have written to you more
than I have done ; and the only way in which I have been able to satisfy it, has
been by reflecting on your kindness and consideration to make allowance for all my
sins of omission ; — and which in the way of con'espondence have latterly accumu-
lated most frightfully. I feel in the light of an unfortunate debtor, with but httle
prospect of ever discharging my arrears.

“ My health, thank God, is upon the whole improved : — and I am happy to
say both Sophia and my little one are quite well. Necessity has compelled me to
go much into society ; and I am almost surprised, that, at this gay season of festhity,
I have been able to carry on the war. Seldom a day passes without an engagement
for dinner, and for many weeks I have not been able to command an hour’s leisure.
It is true I have not attended very closely to any thing, hut all is so new, varied,
and important in the metropohs of this great empire, after so long an absence in the
w'oods and wilds of the East, that like the bee, I wander from flower to flower, and
drink in delicious nutriment from the numerous intellectual and moral sources which
surround me.”

****** sif

“ The few copies of the Zoological plan which were struck off were soon dis-
persed ; and I did not think of sending some to you until I found I had not one
left for myself. Some idea has been entertained of throwing the prospectus into a
new form ; and at this very time I am a little at issue with Sir Humphrey Davy, as
to the share which science is to have in the project. As soon as I have a copy of
the plan resolved upon, I will send it to you : and in the mean time I shall take the
liberty, save permission, of placing your name with the lionorahles w'ho support it.

“ Do you know of any layman who w^ould go to Singapore and China as an
Agent to the Bible Society ; — or w^ho would devote himself to the cultivation of the
Chinese language? He w^ould have a salary of £100 per annum, and all expences

4 G

594

ILLNESS OF SIR STAMFORD.

for travelling, &c. paid. I am looking out for such a person, at the suggestion of
the Bible Society ; and considering the great opening, and the extent of the field,
surely there must be sufficient interest in the country to rouse some one into ac-
tion. I think it likely that you will see some notice on the subject in the next

monthly extracts published by the Society.

* * * * *

“ T. S. Raffles.”

To the Rev. Dr. Raffles.

“ Lower Grosvenor-street, May 24<A, 1826.

“ My Dear Cousin,

“ Thank God I can return a tolerably satisfactory answer to your kind
enquiry, by saying, that though still rather weak and nen^ous, I am again getting
about. My attack was sudden and unexpected, but fortmiately was not apoplectic
as was at first feared. I was inanimate for about an hour ; but, on being bled, got
better, and I have had no return.

“ It has reminded me, however, that I have been quite long enough in London,
and its dissipations and excitements ; and we are now making arrangements for retreat-
ing as soon as we can. Nothing has yet been determined respecting the property
at Hendon ; but we are still in treaty ; the difference being about a thousand
pounds.

* * iif 5if * *

“ I am afraid of writing much as my head is not quite what it should be.

“ Your’s most affectionately,

“ T. S. Raffles.”

Sir Stamford alludes to an illness in the foregoing letter ; he had been to call
on his friend Mr. Murdoch ; and after leaving his house was suddenly seized uith a
fainting-fit, and brought home by a surgeon who happened to be passing at the
time. The hope that it was not an attack of apoplexy was, alas ! fallacious ; but
how often are the warnings of God rendered of no avail by the reluctance of man to
apply them. In this instance those near and dear to him refused to listen, because
to have done so would have been to yield up every hope of earthly happiness.

To the Rev. Dr. Raffles.

“ Lower Grosvenor-street, June 6th, 1826.

“ My Dear Cousin,

“ I sent you by the coach of Saturday a few of the copies of the
Prospectus of the Zoological Society. It is a subject on which much has been
said, and more might be written ; but it has been thought best in the present state

PROSPECTUS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

595

of the speculation to confine the notice to a few words. The names are coming in
fast ; and I shall be happy to receive a list of any of your friends at Liverpool, who
may be desirous of becoming subscribers. The amount of the sum will not ruin
them, neither Avill they find themselves in bad company : and no pecuniary call will
be made until the plan is advanced, and we can shew them something for their
money.

It is proposed to have a general meeting of the subscribers who may be
in town, in course of the present month, in order to appoint a Committee, and
proceed to business.

“ We expect to have at least 500 members to begin with, and that Government
will provide us Avith ground, &c.

“ I am happy to say that I continue tolerably Avell ; although the last serious
attack, in reminding me of my mortahty, has throAvn me back considerably both in
strength and spirits ; so much so, that I am obhged to forego society in a great
measure, and to come to the resolution of quitting London almost immediately.
We have fixed on the 15th to moA’e to Hornsey, for a Aveek or tAvo, Avhence Ave shall
remove to oiu* neAv dAvelhng at High Wood. This place I have just purchased, and
Ave are to ha\"e possession at IMidsmnmer. It is in the parish of Hendon, and on
the borders of Hertfordshire, but in Middlesex, eleven miles from London, and
three from Barnet, so that Ave shall be at least ten miles nearer to you than Ave are
in London. The house is small, but compact, and the grounds Avell laid out for
appearance and economy. The land, 112 acres, in grass; and, as I have taken the
groAAing crops, I must begin hay-making Avhile the sun shines. There is a very good
farming estabhshment on a small scale ; and I am noAv rejoiced that I can offer you
and Mrs. Raffles and the children comfortable beds and accommodation Avhenever
you can pass a feAv Aveeks with us. I anticipate, Avith the blessing of God, great
adA^antage fi'om the change of air and occupation. We have noAV been nearly
eight months in London, and most heartily am I tired of it ; indeed, I do not think
I could stand a month longer at the rate we have been obhged to five, Avithout quiet
or retirement for a day.

* ^ ^ ^ ^

“ The last attack has so shaken my confidence and nerves, that I have hardly
spirit at the present moment to enter upon pubhc fife ; and prudence dictates the
necessity of my keeping as quiet as I can, until I completely re-establish my

health. A feAv months in the country, and on the farm, may set me up again.

* * « *

" Sophia unites in kindest love to Mrs. Raffles and yourself.

And I remain,

Your’s, most affectionately,

“ T. S. Raffles.

4 G 2

596

ESTABLISHES THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

“ I am not sure that I mentioned in my former letter that my attention was
directed to High Wood, in the first instance, by our respected friend, Mr. Wilberforce,
who has purchased the estate adjoining, so that we are to be next door neighbours,
and to divide the hill between us.

“ I am happy to say that his health is improving. — Do you not almost envy us
such a neighbour ?”

It vnW be seen from the notices in this and some of the preceding letters, that
Sir Stamford had at this time the gratification of carrying into execution in London
his favourite plan of an establishment similar to the Jardin des Plantes at Paris. His
own taste led him, as he has stated himself, to consider the scientific department as
the one of the greatest interest and advantage to his country.

The Zoological Society now possesses that portion of the collections which he
made during his last government, and sent home previously to his return from Su-
matra. A more detailed account of this subject Avill be found in the Appendix,
as well as the Prospectus of the Society to which in the last letter he had alluded,
which shews the objects contemplated on its establishment.

To the Rev. Dr. Raffles.

High Wood, Middlesex, June 15, 1826.

“ My Dear Cousin,

“ I have just received your welcome letter of the 12th, and should send
this immediate acknowledgment to Liverpool, if it did not appear that I should best
ensure its delivery and meet your arrangements by forwarding it to Highbmy Place.

“ We are here, thank God, once more out of the trammels and disorders of a
London life. We came dovm last week, and are looking forward to the hope of
remaining some time. We have nearly dismantled the house in Grosvenor-street
so that I fear you would find but poor accommodations there : here we cannot have
you too much vith us ; and from the nature of the house you can best judge the
accommodation we can afford.

“ We have the same dread of the measles that you appear to have. Neither
of the children have had them ; and, as they have had a sad hout, and are only just
recovering from the hooping-cough, which I caught from them, we cannot be too
particular.

“ As to my engagements for the next three weeks, I know but of one or two
likely to interfere with any aiTangement which we can make for being together, as
much as possible, while you are in the Hcinity of London.

“ We are daily waiting a summons from Lady Harcourt to go to St. Leonard’s,
where we have promised to take the children for a week. W e are also under the

DIFFICULTIES OF SIR STAMFORD’S PUBLIC LIFE.

597

necessity of going into Essex after the Midsummer holidays, to put Charles to
school, and spend a few days with Mr. Sotheby, the poet, and our friend Mr. Ha-
milton ; with these exceptions the coast is clear.

You do not say the time that Mrs. Raffles proposes coming to town : but I
hope you will arrange for her coming to us when she does come : and that, at all
events, we may be able to make a comfortable family circle, previous to your trip
to Hamburgh.

“ Let me have a line from you when you reach Highbury, should you not stop
by the way at Barnet, and first look in upon us. I generally go into town once a
week, and we must lose no time in meeting.

“ I have had a great deal to annoy me since I saw you last ; but it is a worldly
affair, and I trust will not materially affect our happiness.

“ Sophia is quite well, and desires her kindest love.

“ Yours affectionately,

“ T. S. Raffles.

“ We suffer a little from the heat; but, as we hope to make our hay in the
com'se of next week, I don’t complain ; High Wood is now in its best dress, and will,
I am sure, please you.

“ My neighbom', Mr. Wilberforce, takes possession to-morrow, and will pre-
viously spend the day with us.”

This is the last letter from which the Editor can present any extract, and her
duty now approaches to its close.

Through fhe whole course of the narrative it will have been obvious, that from the
first period of public action, preceding and during the expedition to Java, Sir Stamford’s
course of duty forced him to act on his own responsibility ; that, in very few instances,
were his superiors pleased to view in the same hght the interests of the charge en-
trusted to his management ; that in the absence of instructions solicited, and of replies
to his frequent references, he was impelled onwards by the course of events ; that
in the administration of the Government of that Island, and in his subsequent Govern-
ment of Bencoolen, and the important estabhshment of Singapore, unfortunately,
when his superiors did interfere, it was in general only to raise objections, and to
suggest a different course of measures, when, by their own delays, the time was past
in which their views could have been adopted. This may be supposed to have
arisen more from their ignorance of the subjects, on which they thought it necessary
to decide, than from any intention of being unjust or harsh towards the individual
whose merits and services many of them, no doubt, justly appreciated. Among the
Directors of the East India Company, — Sir Stamford had the happiness to possess
the friendship of Sir Hugh Inglis, Mr. Grant, Mr. Edmondstone, Mr. Money, and Mr.

598

DECISION OF THE COURT OF DIRECTORS

Edward Parry, to every one of whom, indmdually, he would have referred with the
greatest confidence for an opinion on any and every point of his public life.

The second period of his services in the East, his government in Sumatra, placed
him in a predicament equally trjdng ; every act which tended to benefit his country
generally, and to promote the interests of the people more immediately subject to his
authority, interfered in the same degree with the principles of monopoly on which
the East India Company have founded their policy.

It was the opinion of Sir Stamford, that during the infancy of our intercourse
with India, the union of merchant and legislator might exist without injury to the
general interests of the country; but that it was a short-sighted policy which induced
the reluctance to share with competitors those benefits formerly enjoyed by the
Company alone ; and that, as it is impossible for the Company to compete with the
private trader, it would be for their honour and advantage to withdraw from this
field. By being known as Legislators and Governors only ; by encouraging general
trade, and removing all obstacles to general intercourse, they would in reality in-
crease their revenue, and secure the support of the public.

Sir Stamford, as a servant of the Company, was bound indeed to promote their
peculiar and corporate interests, but he looked beyond the mere question of the
profits of a retail trade ; and he felt that no Government could prosper unless it
went hand in hand with the improvement of the people. That the Company have
not reaped the results of his labours, cannot be imputed to him.

It remains only to state the judgment of his superiors upon his general mea-
sures. On the 12th of April, 1826, the Court of Directors gave their opinion of the
services of Sir Stamford under the three heads of Java, Sumatra, and Singapore.

Of Java — the Court admit, that the success of the expedition to Java was pro-
moted by the plans and information of Sir Stamford Raffles.

That the representation of Sir Stamford Raffles as to the financial embarrass-
ment of Java on the outset of his government is correct.

That those financial difficulties were enhanced by the inevitable hostihties *
with Palembang and Djojocarta.

That of the measures introduced by Sir Stamford Raffles for the removal of the
financial embarrassments ; ^iz. the sale of lands, withdrawal of Dutch paper currency,
and a new system of land revenue ;

The sale of lands f is considered to have been a questionable proceeding.

The entire series of measures for the reform of the currency are conceded to
have been well adapted to their object.

* Measures approved hy the Bengal Government.

t Pronounced hy the Governor General to have been an able expedient in a moment of great emer-

gency.

ON SIR STAMFORD’S GOVERNMENT.

599

With regard to the system of revenue introduced by him, the Court state that
they would have been inclined to augur favourably of the success of his measures,
and consider it highly probable that the colony would have soon been brought at
least to hquidate its own expenses by the lenient and equitable administration of Sir
Stamford Raffles’ system.

The regidations for reform in the judicial department and police, the Court
consider entitled, both in their principles and in their details, to a considerable degree
of praise.

On the measures respecting Borneo, Banco, and Japan, the Court remark, that,
under a permanent tenure of Java, and a different system of policy, the measures in
question (promoting intercourse and enlarging the British power) would have been
valuable service.

Sumatra. — The measures of internal reform introduced by Sir Stamford Raffles
are generally approved.

In his political measures he incurred the strong disapprobation of the Court ;
but the motives by which he was actuated were unquestionably those of zealous
solicitude for the British interests in the Eastern Seas, and form a part of a series of
measures which have terminated in the establishment of Singapore.

Singapore. — It is allowed that Sir Stamford Raffles developed the exclusive
views of the Dutch, and the measures ultimately carried into effect are to be attri-
buted to his instrumentality, and to him the country is chiefly indebted for the
advantages which the settlement of Singapore has secured to it. The Court con-
sider this to be a very strong point in Sir Stamford Raffles’ favour, and are willing
to give him to the full extent the benefit of their testimony respecting it.

His administration of Singapore has been approved by the Bengal Go-
vernment.

The Court’s opinion with regard to the general services of Sir Stamford R.affles
is summed up in the following terms : —

“ The Government of Sir Stamford Raffles appears with sufficient evidence to
have conciliated the good feelings of, at least, the great majority of the European
and Native population ; his exertions for the interests of literature and science are
highly honourable to him, and have been attended with distinguished success ; and
although his precipitate and unauthorised emancipation of the Company’s slaves,
and his formation of a settlement at Pulo Nias, chiefly with a \iew to the suppres-
sion of a slave traffic, are justly censured by the Court, his motives in those pro-
ceedings, and his unwearied zeal for the abolition of slavery, ought not to be passed
over without an expression of approbation.”

It is unnecessary for the Editor to comment on these opinions.

The period of two years which Sir Stamford had now spent in England, had

GOO

HIS DEATH.

rapidly passed away ; for who takes note of the days of happiness ? It was his often-
expressed hope that he had experienced sufficient trial to purify his soul ; and it is
humbly trusted that the many and heavy afflictions, vith which he was visited, were
sanctified by the grace of God, and were made instrumental, through faith in a
Saviour, to prepare him for the world where sorrow and sighing are no more.

The few letters which have been introduced in the last pages, are sufficient to
prove tliat the death-blow had been struck — the silver chord was broken at the
wheel. His sense of enjoyment, indeed, was as keen as ever, his spirit as gay, his
heart as warm, his imagination still brighter, though his hopes in this world were
less. He was contented with the happiness of the present moment, and only prayed
for its continuance. That his prayer was not gi'anted is his everlasting gain ; yet
even here, and after so many trials and privations, he enjoyed no common pleasmes;
the delight of being united to fi’iends from whom he had been so long separated ; the
charms of society ; the interests of literature and science ; the general improvement
of man ; and, above all, the nearer charities of domestic life, all combined to engage
and occupy his mind. His heart was full of enjoyment ; and in the retirement for
which he had so long sighed, and surrounded by all the ties which it had pleased
God to spare to him, he indulged his happy spirit. In the midst of all these best of
worldly treasures, in the bosom of his family, that spirit which had won its way
through a greatly chequered course, was suddenly smnmoned to the throne of
God, on the day previous to the completion of his forty-fifth year, the 5th of July,
1826.

“ Be ye therefore ready also, for the Son of man cometh at an hour when ye
think not.”

FINIS.

The following is a memorandum of an intended Work, which was found
after Sir Stamford’s death.

NOTES ON THE EASTERN ISLANDS.

Comprehending an account of the British Administration of Java ; the Proceedings of the Local Autho-
rities on the Restoration of that Colony under the Convention of 1815 ; the Establishment of the Settlement
of Singapore, and the final adjustment of differences with the Netherlands’ Government under the Treaty of
1824 ; with Observations on that Treaty, and its probable effects with reference to the present condition and
circumstances of the Archipelago.

By Sir T. Stamford Raffles.

To be printed in one volume quarto, uniformly with the History of Java by the same Author, to which
work it may be considered supplementary.

Also, (in connexion with the above, and as introductory to the publications of Dr. Horsfield,) Notes
illustrative of the Natural History, and more especially of the Geology of the Malay Islands, containing
geographical and geological notices, with an account of some of the more remarkable vegetable productions,
and the outline of a Fauna Malayana ; With Plates:

By the same Author, — Assisted by Dr. Horsfield.

Contents. — Introduction. Geographical and geological outline of the Archipelago. Ditto of Java, with
plates. Ditto of Sumatra, with ditto ; and journey to Menangkabu. Banca, with map and abstract memoir ;
principal vegetable productions, and their distribution and localities. Fauna Malayana. Larger animals.
See. ; distribution and account of, generally, as introductory to the descriptive catalogue. Catalogue arranged
scientifically with relation to the order of nature.

The following letter from Dr. Horsfield is in reply to a request from the Editor
that he would give her some account of Sir Stamford’s efforts to promote the
objects of science during the period of the British Government in Java.

“ When you were pleased, in your letter dated 3d ult., to intimate to me your wish, that I would
‘ draw up a short memoir on the subject of what was done during Sir Stamford's administration,
in the promotion of science, from the period of my researches in Java to the presentation of his
collection to the Museum of the Zoological Society in Bruton Street; ’ I was for some time in
doubt as to the manner in which I might most appropriately meet your views. A mere catalogue
of objects of natural history, collected during the British government of Java, even if it were in my
power at the present period to furnish it complete, in the various branches to which my attention
had been directed, appeared to me little adapted to the nature of your memoir. After some deli-
beration, I therefore determined to prepare a historical sketch, exhibiting concisely the various
investigations, journeys, and employments in which I had been engaged, with occasional extracts
from Sir Stamford’s correspondence, relating to those subjects in which he took a peculiar interest.
With these I resolved to combine various prominent instances both of Sir Stamford’s general attach-
ment to science, and of my knowledge of the liberality of his views, commencing with that early
measure of his public administration, which was the means of bringing my personal investigations to
his notice.

“No sooner had the officers of the new Government of Java been appointed, and the regula-
tions required at Batavia and its immediate vicinity been established, than Sir Stamford directed his
mind to the whole of that valuable Island, which had been conquered by the British arms. Accord-
ingly he determined in November, 1811, scarcely two months after the restoration of peace and
tranquillity, to visit in person the capitals, residencies, ports, and establishments along the whole of
that part of Java which is situated eastward of the Batavian Regencies, and which, by the Dutch,
was pre-eminently distinguished by the name of Java. In this tour his attention was particularly
directed to Samarang and Surabaya, two places of incalculable importance in the domestic and
political relations of the northern coast and eastern extremity of the Island. In my opinion, this

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

603

measure laid the foundation of those important improvements and entire modifications of the system
of the administration of Java, which reflect so much honour, not only on Sir Stamford’s character,
but on the British nation, and which was so much admired by the natives themselves. It was the
means, in the very commencement of his government, of affording the practical information which,
in an Island so differently constituted in the character of the natives, and in the nature of its internal
resources, from the Company’s possessions in continental India, was so essentially important.
This early and personal inspection of a country so imperfectly and so unfavourably known by pre-
vious accounts, and so recently conquered, must always be considered indicative of a peculiar energy
of mind and comprehensive correctness of design. It likewise afforded the means of bringing under
effectual observation and study the character of the natives of all ranks and conditions, and of
attaching to the British nation the Regents of provinces, or domestic native sub-governors, a class
of intelligent and influential officers. From his perfect acquaintance with the Malayan language.
Sir Stamford was eminently qualified to derive every possible advantage from such an enterprize ;
and his future regulations, as well as his works, show how well he profited by the excellent oppor-
tunities which his high station afforded him.

“ In the course of this tour he made, about the end of December, 1811, a digression to the
territories of the native Princes, which brought him, the 23d of the month, to Suracarta, the capital
of the Emperor of Java. Being at this time established at this place, in the prosecution of a series
of inquiries into the natural productions of the Island, under the auspices of the existing Colonial
Government, I had the honour of being invited to the solemnities of the day, and to the assembly
convened according to custom at the dwelling of the Resident. The Emperor went in person
several miles from his capital to meet the Lieutenant-Governor, at a public station where he was
accustomed to receive the Dutch Governors of the east coast of Java, and conducted him in state to
the Residency. As soon as the ceremonies of reception were completed. Sir Stamford left his seat,
and saluted many of the persons convened on the occasion. He also came up to me, and with an
affability and suavity of manner peculiar to himself, offered me his acquaintance without the forma-
lity of an introduction. On the following day, after a visit to the palace, he proceeded to my
dwelling, where he devoted several hours to a patient examination of the objects of natural history,
drawings, maps, and illustrations which had been collected and prepared during my excursions
through the central and eastern territories of Java. He expressed his satisfaction at the result of
my inquiries, determined my relation to the Honourable Company’s Government, and fixed the
allowances for my services. He afforded me his sanction to extend my inquiries to all divisions of
natural history, without limitation or restriction, and likewise recommended to my attention, in an
official communication, various subjects of general curiosity and utility.

“ Before his departure from Suracarta, he favoured met with several private interviews, in
which he received, with much interest, many minute details on the subjects of my researches ; he
strongly encouraged me to continue my inquiries with unwearied diligence, promised me his

4 H 2

604

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

assistance whenever I might require it, and approved of a plan which I submitted to him of de-
voting several months to the more minute investigation of the Priangan Regencies. He men-
tioned the vicinities of his own residence at Buitenzorg, where a friendly co-operation with Dr.
William Hunter promised a successful result to a botanical excursion.

“ In conformity with his instructions I devoted the early part of the year 1812, to the pre-
paration of several essays from the notes and materials collected during my travels. In one of these
I gave a concise account of the medicinal plants which I had observed in Java. The second forms
the commencement of a series of projected essays on the Geology and Mineralogy of that Island.
In the third I detailed my experiments and observations on two native poisons, the Anchar axiH the
CJiettik, to which the name of Upas is indiscriminately applied. These essays were presented by
Sir Stamford to the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences, and have subsequently been published
in the 7th and 8th volumes of their Transactions.

“ While I was employed on these essays, and in the occasional extension of my collections, in
the early part of the year, 1812, I had an opportunity of observing a measure which afforded a
striking proof, both of the enlightened views and of the liberality of Sir Stamford. The defects,
errors, and abuses of the former government having early been noticed by him, he determined, soon
after his return from the eastern districts of Java, to concentrate such a body of information from
all the documents which were accessible, relating to the statistics, domestic economy, and internal re-
sources, the laws and judicature, and the peculiarities of the former administration, as w'ould enable
him to establish an improved system of internal government, and a more equitable administration of
justice. A Committee, consisting of several of the best informed functionaries of the late government,
was accordingly appointed for this purpose, and Colonel Colin Mackenzie was selected for the
presidency. It is not my intention to offer any remarks on the operations of this Committee, but
it is quite consistent with my plan to state, from actual observation, that the course adopted reflects
a lasting honour on Sir Stamford in a two-fold point of view ; I allude to the political wisdom of
the measure itself, and to the singular liberality of his views and principles. The primary object of
that commission, unquestionably, was to collect a mass of statistical and general information, and
the result has proved how essentially their labours contributed to Sir Stamford’s subsequent im-
provement ; but the instructions and powers afforded to Colonial Mackenzie were so ample and un-
controlled, that they enabled him to accumulate at a most favourable juncture, immediately after the
conquest, a mass of information relating to the antiquities, history, internal administration, cha-
racter, manners, and peculiarities of the Javanese, to an extent entirely surprising. And it must
always be considered that it is, in a great measure, to be ascribed to the liberality of Sir Stamford
exemplified in the unlimited extent of his indulgence to that officer. Indeed, in all his measures
his ruling object was general usefulness and the public good. His countenance and pati’onage
were generous, and divested of personal or ambitious feelings. Although he followed in person
the same route afterwards, and may be supposed, even at that period, to have contemplated an im-

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

()05

dertaking for which similar materials were essentially important, he interfered not with the efforts
of his friend, but afforded him full scope in the indulgence of his favourite pursuits. It is at the
present period an agreeable reflection, that the whole Javanese treasure collected at this auspicious
crisis, by the perseverance and industry of Colonel Mackenzie, is now securely deposited in the
library of the East India Company ; to which repository a large portion of the Colonel’s collections,
made during a long period of years in peninsular India, has likewise been removed, and where a
considerable part still remaining in Calcutta is in due time expected; the Honourable Court of
Directors having crowned many partial and successive acts of munificence, during the meritorious
labours of this gentleman, by the purchase of his entire collection, consisting of books, manu-
scripts, drawings, maps, coins, Indian statuary, and more than 8000 ancient inscriptions. I cannot
close this hasty notice on one of Sir Stamford’s friends, and on his visit to Suracarta, without stating,
that although I had but few opportunities of contributing to his more immediate purpose, yet I
shared much of his friendship ; and at a later period of the year, I had the pleasure of accompany-
ing him to the summit of one of the principal volcanoes of central J ava.

“ In the month of July, I submitted to Sir Stamford a proposal to prepare a collection of
objects of natural history, for despatch to the museum of the Honorable East India Company.

“ To this I received, through the secretary, the following reply: ‘ The Lieutenant-Governor
highly approves of the proposal; he is convinced that it will be satisfactory to the Honorable Court
to receive specimens of the natural history of an Island respecting which so little is known in
Europe, and he will have much pleasure in recommending to the favourable notice of the Court,
the zeal, knowledge, and ability which have been displayed in your researches.’ . . . ‘ I am

desired to point out to you most particularly, that a description of the peculiarities and habits of
such animals as are of new species will be almost necessary to complete the value of the collection.’
In the course of this year I likewise communicated to the Lieutenant-Governor some remarks on
an entomological subject, which had been advantageously employed in medical practice as a sub-
stitute for the Spanish fly. To this I received an answer, through the secretary, stating that the
Lieutenant-Governor had considered the discovery worthy of being made known to the public at
large, through the medium of the Java Government Gazette.

“ In the month of September of the same year I obtained Sir Stamford’s official sanction for
undertaking the projected tour through the western districts of the Island of Java, generally called
the ‘ Priangan Regencies.’ I arrived at Buitenzorg in the early part of October, during his absence,
but was most hospitably received, agreeably to his instructions, at his residence. I followed him
to Batavia, and at an early interview with his Excellency, he notified the intention of Government
to despatch a commission to Banca, for the purpose of making an accurate inquiry into the affairs
and resources of that Island, and expressed his particular desire that I should be added to the
projected commission. Although my favourite plan of traversing the fair regencies of Western
Java was, for the present at least, delayed by this appointment, yet I cheerfully acceded to his

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LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

wish, and prepared my small establishment, consisting of a draughtsman, an assistant, and various
native collectors, with the requisite materials, for an excursion to Palembang and Banca. The
nature of this commission will most satisfactorily appear from his instructions to us, and I have
accordingly inserted the document at large, as it affords an example of his practical energy and
comprehensive views. The commission consisted of Colonel Bales the Resident, Lieutenant Han-
son, and myself.”

To Colonel Bales, Lieutenant Hanson, and Dr. Horsjield.

“ ‘ Gentlemen,

“ ‘You are hereby appointed a commission, for the purpose of examining and reporting
on the Island of Banca, now Duke of York’s Island.

“ ‘ 2. The object of your appointment is to obtain the fullest possible information on its former
connection with the Government of Palembang, and on the mode on which it was governed pre-
viously to its becoming a British possession — on its commerce and commercial advantages — on its
climate, population, and inhabitants — and on its relative connection and value with the neighbour-
ing Eastern states.

“ ‘ 3. In the course of this inquiry your attention is particularly directed to the following
points, on which the most authentic and detailed information is desired, together with a statement
of the sources from which such information is derived.

“ ‘ (a) What were the rights of the Sultan of Palembang over Banca ?

“ ‘ {b) Was he full Sovereign, or only the feudal superior of the Island?

“ ‘ (c) Did he possess or claim the absolute property of the soil, or was he compelled to make
conventional arrangements with the owners of the mines ?

“ ‘(rf) In what degree w'ere those connections more beneficial than a treaty which might be
made by the British Government with the Sultan, or with those individuals themselves?

“ ‘ (e) Do the inhabitants of Banca acknowledge our dominion and submit to it willingly?

“ ‘ {f) In a contrary event what means do the population, the character of the people, and
the nature of the country afford for resistance, and what force w'ould be required to keep them in
subjection ?

“ ‘ {g) W’hat is the lowest establishment, under the existing circumstances of the Island, with
which in your opinion the civil and military duties can be performed with efficacy ?

“ ‘ {h) In any event, the most favourable that can be supposed, will one or at most two mili-
tary posts to be held by inconsiderable detachments, suffice for the protection, tranquillity, and
service of the Island ?

“ ‘ 4. On the result of the above inquiries will depend the decision of the following proposi-

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

607

“ ‘ (a) That nothing should be assumed or extorted in Banca by force, which was not included
in the prior and legitimate rights enjoyed by or justly belonging to the Sultan of Palembang,

“ ‘ (6) That Banca should not be annexed to our dominions, unless upon full investigation a
reasonable expectation should be shown, that by our occupation of the country upon that footing the
revenue which it can afford, or in other words the produce and proceeds of its tin, will defray all
the charges, civil and military, and yield a nett balance, the excess of which, above the profit
that might be derived from a treaty either with the Sultan or the people of the country supported
by a suitable force, would justify the policy of annexing it to the British dominions.

“ ‘ 5. On these inquiries also a comparison will be made between the advantages to be derived
respectively from the two modes of enjoying the tin trade, whether by convention with the Sultan
as formerly, or by the occupation of Banca as at present.

“ ‘ 6. From this view of the subject you will observe, that your attention is especially directed
to the tin mines ; that you will be required to report particularly on the nature and extent of them ;
on the mode in which they have heretofore been, and are now worked ; on the extent to which
they have been, or may be worked ; on the description of people employed therein, and the mode
in which they are remunerated for their labour. You will also suggest such general observations
and improvements as may occur to you on the subject.

“ ‘ 7. In the course of your investigation, every point connected with the tenure and regulation
of landed property, and cultivation on the Island of Banca, as well as the laws, habits, manners
and customs of the inhabitants, and the nature of the soil and description of the country, will be
desirable. And it is fully expected that your report will be drawn out in that detailed, comprehen-
sive, and authentic form, which will enable Government to decide permanently on the regulations
best adapted to secure the welfare and prosperity of the Island, and to establish its relative con-
nection with the British possessions.

“ ‘ 8. Although it is by no means the wish of Government to urge an earlier period for the
close of your report than the nature and importance of your personal inquiries may justify, you
will be careful not to prolong the same beyond what is absolutely necessary, and you will not fail
to transmit by every opportunity a report of your progress.

“ ‘ 9. It is further indispensably necessary, that in the course of your inquiry no alarm should
be given to the inhabitants, nor any idea received of a change being contemplated in the arrange-
ments now existing in Banca ; but if you find it necessary to proceed to Palembang, in order to
rectify any particular facts, or to ascertain more exactly the former relation and present connection
of the two countries, you are at liberty to do so.

“ ‘ 10. The latest accounts received from Minto are very unfavourable with regard to the
healthiness of the garrison; and it becomes the serious consideration of Government, whether
under the circumstances of that unhealthiness and the present state of Palembang, it would not be
desirable to remove the principal part of the garrison to the latter place, retaining only at

608

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

Minto a sufficient force to protect the factory against the attacks of pirates. As, however, the
season of the year will prevent an immediate report on this subject, the Resident has been
authorized and directed to use his discretion in the removal of such part of the force as he may
judge expedient ; and in the event of any alteration therein, you will in your calculations make such
reduction in the existing establishment as the change may admit.

“ ‘ 11. Your particular attention is directed to the native government, and in the course of
your inquiries you will inform yourselves fully respecting the character and ability of Raden Ma-
homed and Syed Abo Bakker, persons who were in the first instance employed as agents, who
naturally look forward for advantageous employment under the British Government, and whose
interest it is the wish of this Government to promote, unless they are found disqualified or unfit to
be trusted.

“ ‘ 12. Authority has been granted to the public officers at Batavia to afford you access to the
records of government relating to the objects of your commission ; and the Resident at Palem-
bang and Minto has been directed to afford you every aid and assistance in the prosecution of your
inquiries.

“ ‘ 13. The brig Minerva is placed under the order of the Commissioners, but is to return to
Batavia as soon as her services can be dispensed with.’

“ ‘ Buitenzorg, October 22, 1812.’

“ We left Batavia on the 1st of November. After a short visit to Fort Nugent on Banca,
we proceeded to Palerabang in order to obtain, at that Court, the information on which our future
proceedings would essentially be founded. Our proposed visit having been notified to the Sultan,
we were met at the mouth of the river of Palembang by an embassy from that Prince, and mag-
nificently conveyed in boats to the capital, situated about 120 miles from the coast. The facility
and rapidity of the conveyance were really surprising. The boats or canoes consist of excavated
trunks of trees of great length : they are narrow, flat-bottomed, and rest lightly on the surface.
They are moved by natives sitting in alternate rows in the anterior part, who, by a regular impulse
with their oars, cause the vessels to ascend the stream with an uniform but rapid motion. We
were delighted and amused by the appearance of the capital. The houses rest on rafts of immense
timber, floating in the stream, removable at the pleasure of the inhabitants, and skirting the sides
of the river, for several miles, in successive rows. The palace alone and the European Fort stand
on solid ground. An impenetrable forest, rising from an extensive marsh, stretches along the
banks for many miles, and there is no possible access to Palembang but by means of the river.
The situation has been selected for the convenience of trade. Brigs of moderate size can approach
the town ; and the river commands the produce of an extensive portion of Southern Sumatra. The
interior is fertile, and the supplies of the necessaries of life, as well as of various articles of traffic,
are very considerable.

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

GOO

“ Having accomplished our object, and obtained the required details and documents regarding
the former relation of Banca to the princes of Palembang, we returned to Fort Nugent. Here our
first duty was to afford all the assistance in our power to the relief of the garrison. The situation
of Fort Nugent, although selected with every prospect of healthfulness, was, on experience, found
to be the very reverse. It was dry and elevated, and to appearance, beyond the reach of marshy
exhalations : but the nakedness and exposure of its site afforded no shelter from the violent gusts
of wind, which were impregnated with the effluvia of distant marshes. The military removed
hither on the formal cession of Banca to the British Government, had no other accommodation in
the commencement than their tents, and soon became very sickly. A more salubrious and sheltered
situation was selected with the advice of the best informed natives a few miles to the east of Minto,
the commercial capital of Banca. Here at a small village named Rangam, a temporary hospital
was established, which appeared to answer every expectation, and the invalids speedily recovered.
At this place I likewise formed a temporary domicil, and enjoyed, for several months, uninterruj)ted
health.

The Resident, however, being confined by official duties to Fort Nugent, soon became
ill, and his return to Batavia was found advisable. Lieutenant Hanson also was seized with
the prevailing fever, in consequence of excessive fatigue, and he likewise resolved to visit
Batavia for the recovery of his health. At this period the medical duties of the garrison and
hospital required my active attentions. Under such circumstances little progress could be made in
the objects of the commission. I had, however, the satisfaction to be informed by Major Robison,
who succeeded Colonel Eales, in March, that my exertions met with the approbation of the Java
Government. He likewise informed me, that it was left to my own determination to return to

Batavia, or to prosecute those inquiries, which were expected of me when I was appointed a

member of the commission. I resolved without hesitation not to lose so favourable an opportunity
to make a general survey of the Island in a mineralogical point of view : and the prospect which I
entertained of extending my researches to Zoology, and particularly to Botany, afforded a strong
incitement to my resolution. I had already, with the assistance of the most intelligent natives
residing at Minto, together with that supplied by occasional visitors from Palembang, formed a
sketch of a route throughout the Island, which would enable me to examine every valuable mine
and establishment, exclusive of several of minor importance at the southern extremity. In the
inquiries, which I prosecuted as far as circumstances allowed during my residence at Rangam

and Minto, I had obtained considerable information on the general state of the Island, the

administration of the mines, and the relations of the Chinese miners to the former government ;
these I communicated in the form of a short essay to Major Robison at his arrival.

“ I commenced my journey in March, and in June I completed the plan originally proposed.
The information which I collected was submitted to Sir Stamford in form of a Report on Banca.
This is occasionally referred to in his correspondence, and he has likewise mentioned it in very

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610

LETTEH FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

favourable terras in his address to the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences. Soon after ray return
to Rangara I had the pleasure of receiving a coraraunication from Sir Stamford, which forms the
commencement of a correspondence from which I shall give more copious extracts in future. In
the present instance I shall restrict myself to a few minor paragi’aphs.

“ ‘ In j)rovisionally persevering in the system which appears to have been lately adopted in
Banca, it is not to be inferred that w'e have any doubts of the propriety of finally establishing it.
On the contrary, it appears in every point of view the best, but I am anxious to be in possession
of your full Report, before the final arrangement is decided upon, and as that Report must soon be
forthcoming, no inconvenience is likely to arise from provisional measures only being adopted in
the meantime.

“ ‘ You will perceive that the Literary Society of Batavia has attempted the publication of a
seventh Volume of its transactions. It will be completed, how'ever, principally with your papers ;
but these are fully sufficient of themselves to render the volume valuable and interesting. The
loss of our late secretary. Dr. Hunter, has been severely felt : Dr. Ainslie for a time has supplied
his place, but is now on the eve of departing for Japan, and we have not at hand a person compe-
tent to fill the office.

“ ‘ Colonel Mackenzie is closing his Reports, and calculates upon leaving Java for Bengal
in the course of the present month. He has some idea of touching at Banca, when he will pro-
bably have the opportunity of seeing you. This, however, will materially depend on circumstances,
and the route which the ship will take.’

“ In the month of August I returned to Batavia, where I prepared a concise abstract of
the iriformation, of a general political nature, obtained at Palembang and Banca, in conformity with
the first part of the instructions imparted to the commission. The chief object of this was to place
in a distinct point of view the former connection of Banca with Palembang, and to illustrate the
authentic rights which the Sultan of Palembang possessed over Banca. Having completed these I
proceeded to Buitenzorg, where I again met wdth a most cordial reception. The Lieutenant-Go-
vernor had now fully matured his plans of a general reform in the internal administration ; and in
many parts his system of an improved land-revenue was already in operation ; his Excellency was
pleased to give me many circumstantial details on this subject in those interviews in which I
personally related my proceedings in Banca.

“ After a short abode at Buitenzorg, I obtained Sir Stamford’s consent to prosecute my journey
to Suracarta. On my passage through the province of Cheribon I already found the new system
in complete operation. The feudal services had been abolished. Instead of applying, as was for-
merly the custom, to the native governor for an allowance of carriers to convey my baggage on
public account, I sent to the bazaar wdiere the carriers, or ‘ coolies,’ were ready to afford their
services for a regular payment. I may be allowed to adduce this as a prominent instance of Sir
Stamford’s energy. Many persons even among his friends entertained doubts as to the immediate

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

611

practicability of establishing his new system in Cheribon, which was considered to be one of the
most refractory districts, and most likely to be unfavourably swayed by the influence of the native
chiefs. He however determined to commence the execution of his plan at a point where most
obstacles presented themselves, or to make use of his own expression on the subject, ‘ to take the
bull by the horns.’

“ In the month of September 1 safely reached my residence at Suracarta. At my departure
I had made my arrangements for an absence of four months ; I had in prospect a tour through the
‘ Priangan,’ the most romantic and perhaps the most interesting portion of Java, where the natives
are characterised by honesty and simplicity of manners, and by a distinguished attention to Euro-
pean travellers. Instead of this excursion, promising to my hopes much rational delight, I spent
many months among rude and boisterous Chinese miners — among Malays, scarcely approaching a
state of civilization, many of whom lead a roving life in forests, and among Rayads, or Ichthyophagi,
who gain their subsistence on the ocean, form no fixed dwellings on land, but pass their life in their
boats, feed almost exclusively on fish, and are emphatically designated in the Eastern world ‘ Orang
lout,’ men of the sea. Java is universally famed for its abundance in every necessary of life : in Banca
the most common provisions can often scarcely be obtained for money. In Java the roads, in
many parts, bear a resemblance to those in England : in Banca the traveller can in most cases
advance with difficulty on foot, and his progress is frequently stopped by marshes and rivers. In
addition to these, circumstances of a public nature afforded much uneasiness. The affairs of Pa-
lembang became again perplexed by the machinations of a fugitive prince. The garrison intended
to give countenance to the Honourable Company’s establishments in Banca, was required at the
capital of the new sultan. When I returned to Rangam I found our infant hospital, which I had left
under favourable auspices, without an inhabitant. The only source of real consolation which had
supported me under many privations was destroyed during the last days of my journey. I had
been, upon the whole, successful in my geological and botanical researches. My herbarium was
extensive, and many new and intei’esting plants had been hastily sketched, the completion of which
promised to afford a delightful relaxation on my return to Rangam. The day before I intended to
embark at Kotta- War ingin, the last post which remained for examination, my draughtsman was
imprudently involved in an affray with the natives, and fell a victim to their ferocity. Many of my
geological and botanical acquisitions were destroyed in the confusion occasioned by this unforeseen
event, and I retreated to the boats, which fortunately had already been prepared for our convey-
ance, and after several anxious days returned to my deserted hamlet at Rangam.

“ After ray return to Suracarta, I devoted several months to the preparation of a geogra-
phical and mineralogical description of Banca, from the documents and materials collected during
my tour. I enlarged more particularly on those practical subjects to which the attention of the
Commission had been directed by Sir Stamford’s instructions.

“ In the early part of 1814, we were honoured at the native courts, by a second visit from the

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612

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

Lieutenant-Governor. Many very pleasing reflections are associated with this visit. Its tenor
was very different from the former, which immediately followed the conquest of Java. In the
government districts the improvements projected by Sir Stamford in the administration, were already
established to a considerable extent. The commotions which had for many years distracted the
neighbouring Court of Djocjocarta had been set at rest. Peace, and a large share of prosperity
prevailed generally throughout the Island. The affairs of the capital likewise were in an orga-
nized state, allowing the temporary absence of the Lieutenant-Governor; Sir Stamford, there-
fore, had full opportunity to devote some days to a studious observation of the manners and pecu-
liarities of the natives, in a place where they prevail in their purest state, and to the inspection of
those public attentions and festivities which the Princes are proud to exhibit when they are visited
by persons of high political rank.

“In the com'se of this visit I had an opportunity of submitting to the inspection of the
Lieutenant-Governor, the result of my excursion through Banca, which was now in an improved
state of arrangement, and also the additions which had been made in Java in the interval since his
former visit. A few days later I handed to him at Samarang, a considerable portion of my general
report on Banca, with the illustrations accompanying it : in all these I had the satisfaction to receive
decided marks of his approbation.

“ Being desirous of resuming my researches in Java, before the farther advancement of the dry
season, 1814, 1 submitted to Sir Stamford, in June, the plan of a journey through the western por-
tions of the teiTitories of the native princes. He was pleased to afford me his approbation, in a
very interesting communication, and as it is characteristic both of his zeal for science and affability
of manner, I have transcribed a considerable part of it.”

“ ‘ To Dr, Horsjield.

“ ‘ Buitenzorgy June 18, 1814.

“ ‘ My Dear Sir,

“ I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 1st instant, and to offer an
apology for not previously replying to your several interesting communications respecting Banca,
which have been duly received; the late important events in Europe have come in upon us so thick
and unexpectedly, as almost to preclude the possibility of attending to other subjects.

“ ‘ I request to assure you of my entire concurrence in the plan you propose, of laying by for
a time the completion of your Report on Banca, in order that you may be able to avail yourself of
the favourable season to visit the southern districts of Java. A part of your Report on Banca, with
the minerals wdiich you forwarded to me at Samarang, has already been sent to Europe ; but your
later communications, with the drawings of the plants, still remain on my table. I had intended to
forward them by one of the ships now under despatch ; but the risk from American cruizers, and the
change of affairs in Europe, have determined me to delay them until I can know your sentiments.

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

61.3

“ ‘ The charts of Banca I forwarded by the Isabella, under charge of Captain Travers, with
directions that they might be engraved at my own expence. Every preparation, therefore, for the
printing of the paper will be made.

“ ‘ In the despatches from the Court of Directors, they simply acknowledge many of my letters
— this is the case with those forwarding your Reports.

“ ‘ It is most probable, nay, almost certain, that a peace will soon take place ; and it is clear
to my mind, that these colonies will, in such an event, revert to the Dutch. Under this impression,
I naturally look forward to the close of my administration in Java. Calculating upon such an
event in the course of the next twelve or eighteen months, it has occurred to me, that I can per-
sonally do more towards the establishment of the correspondence which you wish, and also in super-
intending the printing of your Banca work, than can be expected from friends at a distance.

“ ‘ I am naturally deeply interested in the publication of your merits, and in obtaining for you
a just and appropriate acknowledgment for your labours. And if such an event should happen, as
the restoration of this colony to the Dutch, I shall be still more interested in making known the
attention which has been paid to science during the short period of the British dominion ; at least,
I shall be anxious for it to be known, that our pursuits in useful knowledge, have kept pace with
our other more ordinary pursuits. And it is not impossible that I may be tempted to give a short
sketch of the political history and statistics of the Island myself, in which case I should have the
opportunity of bringing your claims forward to public notice.

“‘lam inclined therefore to propose to you, that in our present uncertainty, the transmission
of the further parts of your Report be delayed. A few months must decide the fate of Europe
and with it the fate of this colony. Should it remain to the English Government as a permanent
possession, then they can be forwarded regularly as opportunities offer ; otherwise I propose to
you to take charge of them myself, together with any other communications which may be pre-
pared at the period of my leaving this colony.

“ ‘ I request you will consider the opinion which I have given you regarding the possible
and probable transfer of this colony as confidential — as yet I have no certain information, and my
opinion arises from the natural inference to be drawn from the state of European politics at the
present moment.

“ ‘ I shall be happy to receive your further collections, and to forward them by safe oppor-
tunities.

“ ‘ I remain. My dear Sir,

“ ‘ Your attached friend.

“ ‘ Thos. S. Raffles.’

614

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

” In the course of this journey, while employed in the capital of Banyumas, in examining
tlie collections made in the southern districts of this province, I received another communication
from Sir Stamford, which, at a time when I was left to the resources of my own mind, afforded
me inexpressible delight, and of which I shall always retain a pleasing remembrance. It likewise
was the means of bringing my feeble efforts to the notice of Sir Joseph Banks, and of opening
a con-espondence, which had a considerable influence on my pursuits. Having given me various
scientific details, which I shall notice in the sequel, Sir Stamford proceeds : — ‘ In addition to the
above communications, I have received a letter from Sir Joseph Banks, of which I think it best
to enclose you a copy, in the hope that you will be able to assist me in meeting his wishes. You
are aware that he takes the lead in England in every branch of natural history, and I shall be
truly happy in being the medium of introducing to him, and to the society in wdiich he moves,
your pretensions and meritorious exertions.’ He then offers his kind services in commencing a
correspondence ; I was not dilatory in embracing it, but on my return to Suracarta prepared a
series of specimens for Sir Joseph, the catalogue of which was returned to me wth Mr. Brown’s
elucidations and remarks, which in my distant situation were really invaluable. This letter further
contains very copious extracts from the communications of Sir Stamford’s friends in England, relating
to the objects in which I was engaged : it affords a striking instance of the admirable industry and
friendly zeal of the Lieutenant Governor, who, amidst the multifarious and important duties of
his public station, did not regret the trouble of writing, on this occasion, three full sheets on sub-
jects purely scientific.

“ After an absence of several months I returned to Suracarta, and immediately communi-
cated to Sir Stamford a sketch of my route, and an abstract of my more interesting observations.
In reply to this I received the following letter.

“ ‘ To Dr. Horsfield.

“ ‘ Buitenzorg, December 15, 1814.

“ ‘ My Dear Sir,

“ ‘ I have to thank you for your interesting communication of the 3d instant, and I am
happy to find your recent tour has been so satisfactory.

“ ‘ I have taken due care to comply with your wish respecting the books which you require
from England.

“ ‘ I am glad you have seen Gunung Prau ; some time since I had an intimation of the valu-
able ruins which you mention, and directed Mr. Cornelius to survey them and take drawings.

“ ‘ At your leisure it would be useful if you w'ould correct the map according to the informa-
tion you received — the districts, or rather provinces, in the native parts of the Island are very ill
and irregularly defined in all the maps which I have seen. A sketch of the native provinces, with

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

615

the principal places laid down as you have found them on your tour, would be interesting, as no
actual survey has taken place, or is likely to take place, for many years.

“ ‘ I hope in describing the Karrang Bolong Rocks you will favour us with some accounts
of their inhabitants. Whatever naturalists may know on the subject, the public in general
are very much divided in opinion regarding the process by which the edible nests are pro-
duced ; perhaps, indeed, you might prefer a separate paper on this subject. On what do the birds
subsist, or is any peculiar food or nourishment required to produce the substance of which the
nests are composed? Is there any foundation in the opinion, that certain scum produced by the
surf of the sea is in request by them, or can the birds equally well build their nests inland, where
they can have no immediate communication with the sea? The process itself I apprehend to be
something like honey making. There is also said to be a difference between those of the cock
and of the hen ; the former I apprehend to be resting places made for convenience ; but, on the
whole, I have to confess myself very ill informed on the subject, although it is one of very general
conversation and enquiry.

“ ‘ I remain, My Dear Sir,

“ ‘ Very faithfully your’s,

“ ‘ Thos. S. Raffles.’ ”

“ In the following months I prepai'ed a more copious description of my route, with an accurate
account of the districts and provinces of the western part of the native princes’ territory ; a detailed
enumeration of all the villages which I had visited or observed, a catalogue of the plants discovered,
and a notice of the geological specimens added to my series. I likewise prepared a general map,
geographical and geological, of the whole of this western portion of the territory, extending from
the longitude of Suracarta to the boundary of the Priangan Regencies, The geographical notices
I had collected agreeably to my injunctions were, in the sequel, usefully employed in the construc-
tion of the general map of Java given in Sir Stamford’s history of that Island. The materials
collected during this tour formed the basis of an essay which was printed in the 8th volume of the
Batavian Society’s Transactions.

“ The latter part of 1814, and the commencement of 1815, were characterized by ‘a series
of domestic afflctions,’ which are pathetically alluded to in Sir Stamford’s address to the Batavian
Society, delivered on the 11th of September. Some weeks before this period of sufferings he
received from his friends in England a number of queries relating chiefly to those natural produc-
tions of Java, which are important in a commercial or economical point of view, in respect to which
he desired my detailed communications. My replies were forwarded in February, and on the 7th
of March he wrote the following letter.

616

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

“ ‘ To Dr. Horsfield.

“ ‘ Buitcnzorg, March 7, 1815.

“ ‘ My Dear Sir,

“ ‘ I have to convey to you ray acknowledgments for your letter of the 3d ultimo, giving
cover to your very interesting replies to the queries which I had formerly transmitted ; I request
you w'ill accept my thanks for the trouble and attention which have been required on the
occasion.

“ ‘ The replies are so full that there are only two points on which I feel an anxiety to derive
more detailed information, and which, after the trouble I have already given you, I am almost
ashamed to notice. I allude to the natural history of the teak-tree, and some account of the Java-
woot ; the former I hope (and indeed as you have stated) you reserve for a separate paper ; the
latter, I believe, is not mentioned amongst the list of grains.

“ ‘ The natural history of the teak-tree, with an account of the different species growing on
this Island is highly interesting in a public point of view, and would form a fair subject for a paper
in the Transactions. I should also like to possess the information to communicate it to the
authorities at home.

“ ‘ The grain, which the Javanese call Java-woot, and from which they pretend the name of
Java for this Island to have been derived, cannot be unknown to you: I have it growing in my
garden, and possess specimens of the flower and seed. The Javanese support the opinion, that
the seed of this plant was the principal article of food before rice was introduced ; and I feel some
curiosity to ascertain if it be a grain peculiar to this Island, or a grain already described, and com-
mon to Western India — the grain has much the appearance of millet, and the ears are peculiarly
rich and beautiful. You will oblige me by noticing the classical name, if already described, and if
not, by classing it yourself, as it is a plant which seems unknown to Europeans at this end of the
Island.

“ ‘ Every care shall be taken of the boxes of plants, &c. they are daily expected from Sama-
rang in the Mary Anne.

“ ‘ To change the scene : I was lately induced to ascend the Gunung Gidi, which I accom-
plished with some difficulty; we found some parts extremely steep, at 12 o’clock (noon) the ther-
mometer was at 55° (Fahrenheit), at six in the evening it fell to 47°, and soon to 46°, at which it
continued until we retired to rest, about 9 ; at daylight in the morning, we found it at 45° ; but the
night was foggy and damp, and in clear weather, 1 have no doubt the tliermoraeter is some degrees
lower. The barometer was out of order, and we did not take it ; but calculating on the principle
which has been adopted in the ascent of balloons, that 16 degrees difference of the thermometer
gives a height of 3500 feet; we cannot estimate the Gidi at less than 7000 feet, the difference in
the thermometer being at the least 32 degrees. The hill at Penang, has been repeatedly measured.

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

617

and the average results give 2750 feet, the difference in the tliermometer averages 12 degrees,
which on the above principle gives 2755. I shall endeavour to have the height of the Cede ascer-
tained from below ; and if you have not already ascertained the heights of the other principal hills
shall be happy to prosecute the inquiry throughout the Island. I conclude you are aware that
Mr. Heyland ascended Sindoro last year, and in the night observed the thermometer below freez-
ing point.

“ ‘ We had a most extensive prospect from the summit : — Batavia roads, with the shipping so
distinct that we could distinguish a ship from a brig on one side, and Wine Coops Bay still more
distinct on the other ; the Islands all round were quite distinct, and we traced the sea beyond the
southernmost point of Sumatra; the surf on the south coast was visible to the naked eye; to the
eastwai’d we included Indi’a Mayu point in the prospect, and Cheribon Hill rose high above the
rest. I think we may say that we had nearly within our range all that part of the Island which
by the former Government was not called Jam.

“ ‘ I remain, my dear Sir,

“ ‘ Very sincerely yours,

“ ‘ Tho. S. Raffles.’

“ Soon after this Sir Stamford projected a tour to the Eastward, on a novel and previously
unattempted route. He determined to pass through the interior and mountainous parts of the Island,
regardless of the difficulties attending such an enterprize. Before he left Buitenzorg I was favoured
with the following communication.

“ ‘ To Dr, Horsjield.

“ ‘ Buitenzorg, April 17, 1815.

“ ‘ My Dear Sir,

“ ‘ I have to thank you for your very interesting and instructive letter of the 15th

March.

“ ‘ You will probably have heard that I purpose a visit to the Eastward early in next month ;
and as my intention is to go to Solo, I shall defer entering into particulars until I have the plea-
sure of a personal communication. I will only notice that I have sent instructions to England for
the barometers agreeably to your wish, and have requested Sir Joseph Banks to examine them
before they are sent off ; my agents in England will defi’ay all expences.

“ ‘ My plan is to proceed by the middle road from Sukapura through Banyumas to the
Kedu ; afterwards to Solo, and down the river to Gressic. As there will be time to receive your
reply before I leave Bandong, which will be about the 3d of May, I shall be obliged for any hints

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LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD,

or notices regarding particular objects which may deseiwe attention in passing by this route. I
hope to pass by Gunung Prahu.

“ ‘ 1 remain, my dear Sir,

“ ‘ Very faithfully yours,

“ ‘ Thos. S. Raffles.’

“In the month of May the Lieutenant-Governor reached the capital of Suracarta. He was
accompanied by Lieutenant M'atson, Lieutenant Baker, and several other military officers, who
gave us a full account of the difficulties of the enterprize, and of the beauties of the country.
Some particulars of this tour, which was truly characteristic of Sir Stamford’s energy and persever-
ance, are preserved in a short diary kept by Lieutenant Watson, which has been printed in the first
volume of the Asiatic Journal, (see vol. i. 124.) After leaving the Priangan Regencies and Cheribon,
the party entered the district of Dayu-luhur, situated at the western extremity of the territory of
the native princes ; and it may be interesting to preserve a specimen of this route, by an account of
the passage through this district, in the words of Mr. Watson. — ‘ On the following day (after
entering the dominions of the Emperor of Solo) we performed a long and arduous journey of
nearly fifty miles, through the forest of Dayu-luhur, a route which has never before been attempted
by Europeans. On leaving Maganang, the road entered at once into a thick forest of bamboos,
which grow in clumps at some distance from each other, leaving the space between perfectly unoc-
cupied with any kind of vegetation. At a considerable height the trees branch off and meet,
giving a mutual support, and forming a canopy so close and thick as almost to exclude the light at
mid-day. Each clump forms, with the adjacent ones, on every side, natural lofty gothic arches,
which in the deep gloom that surrounds them, except from the partial light of torches, present as
grand and awfully romantic a scene as can be well imagined. The road, or rather path, through
the forest is so seldom passed, that it was frequently hardly distinguishable. In some places it
lay over steep mountains and almost abrupt precipices; and, in others, followed the courses of
rivers, or wound through the mazes of deep ravines. Our horses were fortunately excellent, or we
could not possibly have surmounted the difficulties we had to encounter. As it was, our journey
was completed by twelve o’clock in the day, when we arrived safely at Adji Barang. The road we
travelled that day is much infested by tigers, leopards, &c. ; and a follower of ours was actually
seized by one of these destructive animals, and much torn before he could be rescued by his com-
panions.’

“ Having visited, in the year preceding this tour, the village x\dji-barang, on the confines of
the province of Dayu-luhur, I am enabled, from personal experience, to estimate the difficulties
of this enterprize : at the same time, it is a gratifying recollection, that in my return to the capital

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

610

I prosecuted the same route which Sir Stamford afterwards followed : but he traversed in a few
days a distance which occupied, at the rate of my usual progress, several weeks.

“ This journey was in every point of view truly gratifying to Sir Stamford’s mind. The scenery
is in no part of Java more diversified or beautiful: part of the road winds through an extensive
valley, in which one of the largest rivers of the Island flows to the southern ocean ; it then passes
over the elevated ridges connected with Gunung Prahu : subsequently enters the extensive plain of
the Kedu, which is bounded on the north and south by two of the most majestic volcanic peaks of the
Island ; and finally leads between the Merapi and Merbabu to the extensive plain of Suracarta.

“ This journey likewise afforded Sir Stamford an opportunity of examining in person those stu-
pendous monumental remains of a hierarchy long since obsolete, which are promiscuously scattered
through all parts of the Island. In the dominions of the native princes they exist, however, in
greater abundance, and possess a more important character. They consist of ruins of Hindu temples
or pagodas, and of images, sculptures, and inscriptions ; and the route which Sir Stamford pursued
from Cheribon to the capital of Suracarta afforded a very convenient opportunity of inspecting those
of Gunung Prahu, Boro-budur, Brambanan, and Chandi-sewu. Many of these had previously
been surveyed and delineated, under his orders, by proper officers ; but his personal examination
was required, to enable him to determine the accuracy of their plans and delineations, and to add
those practical details which w'ould give full authenticity to the descriptions. From the capital he
subsequently proceeded to the grotesque antiquities at Suku, which possess a very peculiar cha-
racter, and the existence of which had been communicated to the Resident at the Emperor’s court
but a few weeks before the visit of the Lieutenant-Governor. On his further route to the east-
ward he also inspected the remains of Majapahit, and the beautiful edifices of Singo-Sari in the
province of Malang. It fell to my lot to examine, in the course of this year, many other ruins of
a similar description, which are found in the distant eastern provinces of the native princes ; a
concise notice of them is contained in Sir Stamford’s general account of the Javan antiquities.
Various details on particular ruins were likewise communicated to the Lieutenant-Governor by his
friends, from which collectively he has been enabled to give, in the 9th chapter of the History of
Java, those copious details, accompanied by beautiful illustrations, which add a peculiar interest to
his work, enhanced by the consideration, that, during the short period of the British possession of
Java, these stupendous remains of antiquity, the history of which has not been preserved among
the present inhabitants, w-ere either discovered or rescued from the obscurity in which they
had been buried for many centuries. Indeed, Sir Stamford has largely contributed to the gratifi-
cation and instruction of the present generation, by his labours in this department ; and it is but
justice to allow, that in this particular both his personal exertions and his general liberality have
been very great.

“ During this visit to the native courts I had the satisfaction to perceive that Sir Stamford’s
interest in my pursuits was undiminished; he received with attention ray details, and exa-

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620

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

mined carefully the collections, drawings, maps, &c. prepared since the period of his former
visit. I submitted to him a plan of an extensive excursion through the eastern provincss of the
native princes’ territory, and he fully approved of my design. In accordance with this, I com-
menced my journey soon after the Lieutenant-Governor’s departure ; I proceeded in an eastern
direction, and skirting the northern declivities of the mountain Lawu, traversed the provinces of
Sukkowati, Jogorogo, Madiun, and Kediri ; at the capital of the latter I remained some days
to work up my drawings, and to arrange my collections. I then went on to Srengat, an exten-
sive and important district at the eastern confines of the princes’ dominions, and abounding in
extensive and interesting remains of the former Hindu race of inhabitants. Leaving this place, I
passed through desolate tracts to the southern coast, then northward again to Pronorogo, and finally
returned to the capital along the southern declivities of the mountain Lawu, where I devoted a few
days to the examination of the astonishing ruins at Suku. Immediately after my return to the
capital I sent Sir Stamford an abstract of my route, which he acknowledged without delay, and
from his letter, which was dated the 25th of November, I give the following extract.

“ ‘ To Dr. Horsjield.

“ ‘ Buitenzorg, November 25, 1815.

“ ‘ My Dear Sir,

“ ‘ I wrote you a few hasty lines by Major Johnson, who left this for Solo a few days ago.
I have now more particularly to thank you for your communication regarding your late tour ; it is,
perhaps, fortunate that yon availed yourself of the present season, as we may certainly expect the
Dutch before the next, and I conclude that you will now be pretty soon prepared for a trip to
Europe, happen what may.

“ ‘ The transfer of these colonies being now no longer doubtful, and there being fair grounds for
expecting the arrival of the Dutch authorities in the spring of next year, I am desirous of making all
my arrangements for the voyage home ; and I have requested Major J ohnson to communicate to you
the outline of my plans. Should you determine to attach yourself to me in proceeding to England,
you may rest assured of the exertion of all the influence which I may possess in bringing forward to
notice and reward, those exertions and talents, which only require to be known to be acknowledged.

“ ‘ In the meantime, as favourable opportunities occur during the succeeding months, I think
it would be advisable for you to send your collections to Batavia as early as possible, in order that
they may be sent to Europe at once.

“ ‘ I take this occasion to enclose to you a copy of my last discourse to the Society, in which
you will perceive that I have indented pretty largely on your stores. My object has been to bring
your labours forward as much as possible ; and I have availed myself of your accurate style ; in
many instances I have used your own words — it is very incorrectly printed, and since it has come
from the press, I perceive many errors which did not previously occur.

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

621

“ ‘Your first paper is through the press, and the essays on the western provinces are in pro-
gress. I am very anxious to get the eighth volume out before we leave J ava, and to lay the foun-
dation of a ninth, to be printed in India.

“ ‘ Yours sincerely,

“ ‘ T. S. Raffles.’

“ Not many weeks after the date of this letter. Sir Stamford was suddenly summoned to the
Eastward, in consequence of a conspiracy among the Sepoys serving in Java. As this conspiracy
had originated at the native courts, he likewise proceeded to Suracarta, in order to regulate in
person, several important points on which the future tranquillity of the Island materially depended.
His visit was short and abrupt, and I mention it chiefly as a pi’oof of the great activity and energy
which characterized his public conduct. Of this mysterious event, the European inhabitants fortu-
nately I’emained almost entirely unapprized, although their existence probably depended on the prompt
decision of a moment, which under Providence, was displayed by the British officers in the garrison
of Djojocarta. And as Sir Stamford has himself mentioned this transaction in the History of
Java, it may properly be stated that the confidential friends of the Susuhunan of Suracarta, a prince
who possessed many distinguished talents, and much amiableness of disposition, were peculiarly
gi’atified by the promptness and mildness of Sir Stamford’s conduct, which essentially contributed to
save this Prince from the ruin, which in all probability his weakness, in listening to the insinu-
ation of the treacherous conspii’ators, had otherwise entailed on him. On the occasion of this visit
of His Excellency, I was enabled to make in person, several preparatory dispositions towards a
despatch of my collection to England, in the event of the transfer of this colony, which had already
been intimated to me.

“ This arduous enterprize to the eastward, undertaken in the most insalubrious season of the
year, appears to have unfavourably affected the constitution of the Lieutenant-Governor ; after a
lapse of two months, I received the following letter.

“ ‘ Buitemorg, February 28, 1816.

“ ‘ My Dear Sir,

“ ‘ I should have written to you some time since, had I not been confined to my bed from
serious indisposition. I am happy, however, to say that I am now on my recovei'y, and in a tew
weeks I trust to be restored to a better state of health than I have enjoyed for some years : at any
rate, if complete salivation is likely to have that effect, I ought to have every confidence.

“ ‘ You will, no doubt, have heard of the expected changes in the administration of this colony.
It seems the authorities at home have no idea of its immediate resumption by the Dutch, and have
been induced to believe, that it may be more economically managed than at present. My period of

LETTER FROM DR, HORSFIELD.

()22

five years is nearly expired, and by appointing me to the charge of the settlements on the West
coast of Sumatra, they consider they have adequately rewarded my services — be this as it may, it
is clear you are to expect a new Governor, (Mr. Fendall, who came to India in 1778), in the course
of the ensuing month, a new Commander in Chief, Sir Wm. Keir, and a new civil member of
Council, Mr. Abrahams.

“ ‘ The state of my health has been such, that with reference to the possibility of Java
remaining for some time in English hands, I had almost determined on going home direct; but
unless I could get away before the end of March, I should have the risk of a winter passage round
the Cape, which the weak state of my constitution could not stand. I have therefore nearly made
up my mind to proceed to Bencoolen.

“ ‘ At Bencoolen, although my emoluments will be nearly equal to what I receive here,
I shall comparatively have nothing to do in a public capacity ; and therefore my whole time will
be devoted to the arrangement of the materials which I have collected, regarding the history, lan-
guages, and antiquities of Java, It is possible I may take a more correct view of the subject
at a short distance, than actually on the spot; as a man cannot judge of the shape of a mountain
when close to it, so well as he can at a distance.

“ ‘ It may be of use to your researches that I collect the different mineral appearances of Su-
matra, and forward them to you, with a description of the situations in which they are found. I
request you will call upon me without reserve for any assistance which an wwscientific man can
afford.

“ ‘ I regret to say that I have not yet succeeded in decyphering the inscription, of which you
sent me a fac-simile. The Panumbahan was only able to make out a few letters : although he
acknowledges that the characters are, in many points, like the Kawd, he observes, that either the
stone must have been injured, or the characters not exactly taken off ; but this may be only an
excuse to cover his ignorance ; the contents, therefore, can only be looked for at Solo from Yuso
Dipuro, to whom I hope you have entrusted the others. Major Johnson will, at your request,
give him an order which he must attend to immediately ; and should we fail in this quarter, I think
we may at all events conclude with the satisfaction that the characters are at this day unintelligible
on Java. I confess, however, that I do not expect this result; I calculate much on Yuso Dipuro,
and particularly respecting the dates, which are the most important points.

“ ‘ I believe that I mentioned to you when at Solo, that I purposed submitting my drawings
of the antiquities to the persons most versed on this subject in Europe, and subsequently to
engrave at my own expence such as might be selected, on account of their peculiarity and refer-
ence to the history of the country ; those which you possess of the Eastern Provinces are entirely
new to me ; some of them are magnificent, and at any rate rank with the most remarkable on the
Island, and most of them evince considerable peculiarity, differing in form and structure from those
generally observed elsewhere. Cojiies of such as you can spare will be very acceptable, and if

LETTER FROM DR. FIORSFIELD.

623

eventually engraved, the full credit of the discovery, and of the attention paid in taking the copies,
will be given to you. It is far from my wish to interfere in any branch which you may be inclined
yourself to take up, but knowing your determination to confine yourself generally to natural his-
tory, it has occurred to me, that the means I now offer may tend more immediately to bring your
exertions in other pursuits sooner to light, and more advantageously than otherwise ; while, at the
same time, it will be a great object to bring all the remains of antiquity into one view.

“ ‘ As far as I can at present judge, Mr. Fendall may be expected about the 10th or 15th of
March, if not earlier ; and I may remain here about a fortnight after his arrival. I should be
happy to have it in my power to introduce you to him personally. From what I hear, I think you
will find him inclined to continue to you every protection and assistance ; and I need not add, no
exertion of mine shall be wanting to ensure it.

“ ‘ Arrangements will soon be made for conveying the birds’ nests to Batavia, and the same
conveyance will answer very well for sending to Batavia the collection which you may have prepared
for Europe, as the object will be to prevent their delay at Samarang.

“ ‘ I remain, my dear Sir,

<• « Very sincerely yours,

“ ‘ Thos. S. Raffles.’

“In the course of a very few days I was favoured with the following communication :

“ ‘ Buitenzorg, March 2, 1816.

“ ‘ My Dear Sir,

‘ Since last writing you, the turn of my illness has been such, that I have been induced
to relinquish the idea of going to Bencoolen, and have resolved to take passage for Europe direct.
I shall certainly quit Batavia in the course of the present month, and therefore lose no time in com-
municating this point to you, in the hope that I may still have the pleasure of seeing you before I
go, and, at all events, of receiving a full communication of your wishes in Europe, in order that I
may promote your views to the utmost; make use of me in any way, and depend upon every atten-
tion being paid to your memorandums.

“ ‘ Adverting to the advantage which may be derived by any of your collections of birds, ani-
mals, &c., which may be ready, going in the same ship with me, on account of the care I can take
of them on the voyage and delivery, I have sent a circular order to the Residents, desiring them to
forward whatever boxes you may have ready, by land, night or day ; they can easily be secured
from the weather, and if sent off immediately, will arrive in time. Should there be a cruizer or any
good sea conveyance at Samarang, Captain Bidwell will avail himself of it ; otherwise forward them
on by coolies.

62i

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

“ ‘ Should you have at hand a collection of rare seeds, or any thing else likely to be acceptable
to Sir Joseph Banks, send them on.

“ ‘ In the hope of seeing you at Batavia, I shall prepare some boxes for plants, which you can
perhaps select on the spot, as it is too late to receive them from Samarang.

“ ‘ Whatever you do send on, let them be despatched quickly, otherwise they may arrive too
late. I have written particularly to Major Johnson on the subject.

“ ‘ Yours sincerely,

“ ‘ Thos. S. Raffles.’

“ This was followed on the 6th of March by more precise notice of the prospects of the
colony.

“ ‘ Buitenzorg, March 6, 1816.

“ ‘ My Dear Sir,

“ ‘ The fate of Java is no longer doubtful; a Dutch ship arrived yesterday, having on
board Major Nahuys and twenty other passengers. She sailed from the Texel on the 29th of
October, in company with the expedition for taking possession of this colony, on board which the
Commissioners, Governor General, and 3,500 troops embarked. The ship parted from the fleet
off the Land’s-End, and, giving them time for stopping at the Cape, they may be expected in a
month or six weeks ; so that the duration of the English Government cannot now be of many
months’ duration.’

“ In conforming with the recommendations contained in the preceding letters, I prepared, \vith
every possible dispatch, complete series of all my collections of plants, of mammalia, and of birds ;
these were forwarded to Batavia in the manner pointed out by himself: and although they did not
reach that place before Sir Stamford’s departure, yet they followed him without delay, and arrived
at their destination without accident.

“ The last communication I received from Java was written after his embarkation.

‘ “ On hoard the Ganges, off Anjer, March 26, 1816.

“ ‘ My Dear Sir,

“ ‘ We have had so quick a run to this place, that I have only now time to say, that
prior to my embarking from Batavia yesterday morning, I had the pleasure to receive your letter,
accompanied by three packages — the seeds, the Upas, and the drawings of plants and antiquities ;
the other collections had not arrived.

“ ‘ I have communicated very fully with my successor, Mr. Fendall, on the subject of your
undertaking ; and I am authorized to assure you, that he will continue to you every protection and

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

625

assistance which has heretofore been afforded ; and that when the Dutch authorities arrive, he will
be ready to adopt any arrangement which may be conducive to your views. Captain Watson, who
will continue on Mr. Fendall’s staff, will take care that all your collections are carefully forwarded
jo Europe. Direct them to Mr. Cobb ; but desire Captain Watson to inform me, in duplicate, of
the ships by which they are sent, that on their arrival in England I may look out for them, and
take care they are not neglected.

“ ‘ I have not time to say more than that all your wishes, as far as I know, shall be most scru-
pulously attended to. I will write you very fully after my arrival in England ; and in the hope
that you will not fail to WTite me very frequently,

“ ‘ I remain, my dear Sir,

“ ‘ With much esteem,

“ ‘ Your very sincere friend,

“ ‘ Tiios. Raffles.’

“ The sentiments of sorrow I naturally and deeply felt on the receipt of this letter, which
closed for the present a correspondence that had afforded me so much encouragement and delight,
were soon followed by a train of soothing and exhilarating reflections. As far as these regarded
Sir Stamford in person, it was consolatory to anticipate that the voyage would restore his health ;
and to consider that he was returning to his native country with prospects and recommendations
which are rarely the portion, even of the most meritorious and successful public functionaries. On
the other hand, when I adverted to my own situation, I could reasonably entertain the hope that
the departure of my distinguished patron would have no injurious effect on my pursuits. By his
kind exertions and recommendations, the countenance and support of his successor were fully
secured to me, so that I was enabled to resume my inquiries without interruption. I accordingly
determined to employ the period that might still be allotted to me, as advantageously as possible.
Among many other objects of examination, the mountain Prahu appeared at this time the most
important. My former visit had been very hasty, and had rather awakened than satisfied my
attention in regard to its high interest, both in a geological and botanical point of view. As soon
as my preparations were completed, I proceeded thither, and spent nearly one month in those
elevated regions. I then took a southern direction, and after a short abode at Djojocarta, once
more visited the sea-coast of the medial portion of Java. Soon after my return to the residency of
Suracarta, the Island of Java, and consequently the Government establishments at the native
courts, were restored to the Dutch : the British garrison took its final departure at a period much
earlier than I had flattered myself would be the case; but by the friendly relation existing at this time
between the two nations; by the liberal exertions in my behalf of the Honorable John Fendall,
and by the active zeal of the Secretary, Mr. Assey, who was minutely acquainted with every thing
regarding my pursuits, I obtained, through an official communication, the assurance of the protec-

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626

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

tion and support of the Netherlands’ Government, in the prosecution of my researches. I was,
therefore, enabled to devote another year to the desirable object of bringing my labours to a satis-
factory conclusion. The plan I accordingly formed embraced principally the following objects : —
First, the examination of various localities in the territory of the native princes, more particularly
interesting in a botanical and geological point of view ; secondly, the extension of my observations
on the metamorphosis of Javanese Lepidopterous insects, and of the series of drawings in progress
for their illustration ; thirdly, the Flora of the immediate neighbourhood of the capital of Suracarta,
and the description of the agriculture of this district ; fourthly, the completion of various miscel-
laneous notices of the native courts, the statistics of their territories, the manners and domestic
arrangements of the Princes, their amusements, and public spectacles ; fifthly, the working up of
an extensive series of drawings in all departments of natural history, as well as of views, maps,
and plans.

“ Accordingly, I undertook another visit to the confines of the two principal volcanos of this
part of the Island, and examined in detail the summit of mountain Merapi. I then proceeded to
the districts of Pajittan and Kalak, near the Southern Ocean, in order to examine the geological
constitution of the ridges along the coast, and to devote the most productive season of the year to
general entomology, and to the metamorphosis of Lepidoptera, in a tract abounding with a most
luxuriant vegetation. After my return to the capital, early in the year 1817, I employed several
months to the third and fourth points above enumerated, namely, the peculiarities of the natives,
and the flora and agriculture of the central districts. I then secured my collections for a voyage to
England, forwarded them to Samarang, and prepared for a final departure from my long and
favourite place of sojourn. I concluded my investigations of the native princes’ territories by a visit
to the antiquities of Boro-budur, in the Kedu, and to those of Brambanan and Chandi-sew'u, in Mat-
taram, thence proceeding in an eastern direction, I traversed the provinces of Sukkowati and Gro-
bogan, surveyed once more the mud-fountains of Kuwu, then directing my course westward through
Damak, reached the capital of Samarang on the 1st of January, 1818.

“ In the course of the year just closed, and wdiile I was preparing for my departure from
Suracarta, I received a proof that Sir Stamford had not been unmindful of me or of my interests
since his arrival in England. A very opportune despatch from him reached me in perfect safety :
it consisted of several well preserved mountain barometers, and a variety of books and literary
notices of great interest. The letter which accompanied these was peculiarly exhilarating at the
moment I received it, when I w'as actually employed in securing my collections for the voyage to
England: it contained the pleasing intelligence that the former despatch had arrived in safety, and
in an excellent state of preservation. I was therefore encouraged to make every possible effort, in
securing the most important portion which still remained under my charge, together \vith my draw-
ings and manuscripts.

“ With this letter I shall close my extracts from Sir Stamford’s correspondence.

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

627

“ ‘ London, February G, 1817.

“ ‘ My Dear Sir,

“ ‘ Referring you to my former letters, I will now only repeat that the scientific world
are looking forward with the gi’eatest anxiety for your safe arrival in England, and that you may
be assured of receiving every assistance and encouragement in your intended publications which
your most sanguine wishes could have anticipated. I have the satisfaction to inform you that the
whole of your collections, I mean the twelve chests which were intended to have accompanied me,
have arrived safe, and have been examined by the custom-house officers in my presence. The
whole are in the best preservation, and I can assure you that your exertions have not only delighted
but astonished every one who has been made acquainted with them. I have the opportunity of
seeing Sir Joseph Banks very frequently, and he will be ready to give you the warmest welcome on
your arrival here. I have delayed writing this letter until the last moment, in the hope of having
a communication to make to you from him, and yet hope his packet will be in time ; it will contain
two lists of the Herbaria you formerly sent to him, with his notes on each subject. He seems
particularly desirous of further information on the Pine of Java, which is noticed in one of the
volumes of the Transactions, and which I conclude to be that found on the Teng’ger mountains.

* * * *

“ ‘ You will perceive by the public prints that I am under engagement to prepare an account
of Java. In the introductory chapter I shall endeavour to pave the way for your more valuable and
interesting publications.

“ ‘ It is most probable I shall be again returning to the East in the course of the present year ;
and if I am likely to reach the Eastern Islands before the time you proposed remaining elapses, I
shall be tempted to touch at Batavia, in the hope of seeing you ; it is possible that I may in conse-
quence be at Batavia by next Christmas ; but on this point, you shall hereafter hear from me more
fully.

“ ‘ Believe me, my dear Sir,

“ ‘ Most truly yours,

“ ‘ Thos. S. Raffles.’

“ In the early part of 1818, I proceeded towards the western extremity of Java. The inti-
mation contained in Sir Stamford’s letter, and the necessity of terminating my labours at the present
juncture, concurred in directing me in this determination. Any opportunity of adding to my re-
searches still afforded me, would be employed most advantageously in the Priangan Regencies.
At Buitenzorg I received the liberal protection of the Dutch authorities, with many personal atten-
tions most politely offered me by their Excellencies the Governor-General and the Commissioner
M. Elhout. My time was, for some weeks, profitably employed, and I resolved to make an excur-
sion to the province of Bantam.

4 L 2

628

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

“ In prosecuting this tour I passed through Batavia, and while expecting the local assistance
to proceed, Major Travers ai’rived, in the ship ‘ Lady Raffles,’ with intelligence that Sir Stamford
had reached Bencoolen, and wdth a cordial and pressing invitation to accompany the Major on
his return, with all my collections and appendages. The accomplishment of this was facilitated
by the destination of the vessel on the coast of J ava ; instead therefore of proceeding to Bantam,
I accompanied the commander to Samarang, where my collections were safely conveyed on board ;
and not many days after this auspicious event, I had the pleasure and satisfaction of saluting Sir
Stamford at Bencoolen, and of being introduced to the acquaintance of your Ladyship.

“It was peculiarly gratifying to observe, that the visit to England had not only increased the
zeal and ardour of Sir Stamford in the promotion of every useful object, but had also directed his
attention to many specific subjects of curiosity and interest in science. In natural history par-
ticularly he had resolved not to rest satisfied in patronizing the labours of others, but likewise
to afford his personal co-operation. When we arrived he had already performed an extensive
excursion to the Passumah district, situated south-eastward of Bencoolen, during which that
remarkable vegetable production, which has since been named after him, was discovered; and
one of the first objects of curiosity I observed, on ray arrival in his hospitable residence, was a
di'awing of this plant in the hands of Dr. Arnold.

“ Sir Stamford had further projected a voyage along the w’est coast of Sumati’a, and a visit
to Padang: the vessel on w'hich my collections were embarked was engaged for this voyage,
and as her subsequent destination was to return to Java, for the purpose of receiving a cargo for
England, I readily embraced the opportunity of inspecting an interesting portion of the Island of
Sumatra.

“ During the voyage to Padang, which was uncommonly placid, I submitted to Sir Stamford
the entire result of my previous labours. The bulk of my collections was on board, and a
number of chests had intentionally been left accessible ; he therefore inspected so many of the
quadrupeds, birds and insects, as well as of the botanical and geological specimens, as enabled
him to form an adequate estimate of the extent of the collection in these departments, and of the
state of its preseiwation. He likewise examined the drawings, maps, and manuscripts, with
patient attention, and was therefore enabled subsequently to describe the whole from personal
inspection.

“ It is foreign to my object to extend this hasty sketch by any remarks on the expedition to
Padang, or on the visit to the interior of Sumatra, which was subsequently undertaken from that
place. I may, however, be allowed to state, that this journey afforded me a striking opportunity
of noticing the beneficial and invigorating effects of European atmosphere and society, in the
example of Sir Stamford and of your Ladyship, and of contrasting it with the debilitating and
apathetic influence of a long residence in an equinoctial climate, as exhibited in my own person.
Indeed, while prosecuting this route, I was frequently at a loss whether most to admire the energy

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

(J29

and enterprise of Sir Stamford in surmounting obstacles, and in employing every practicable effort
towards obtaining new and valuable information ; or the patience, perseverance, and fortitude dis-
played by your Ladyship, under circumstances of difficulty and danger, which would have presented'
insurmountable terrors to most female minds.

“ On our return to Bencoolen, Sir Stamford added several very important acts of kindness to
the favours already conferred on me ; he made the necessary arrangements with the commander
of the vessel in which my passage to England was engaged; he supplied me with letters of
introduction to his numerous friends; and he added to the official communication to the Ho-
nourable Court of Directors which accompanied me, a copious description of all the collections
under my charge. The vessel being destined to receive part of her cargo at Surabaya, I was
enabled to employ several months very advantageously in Java. From Batavia I made an excur-
sion in a western direction to Bantam. I then proceeded, through the interior, to the Priangan
Regencies. At Chianjur I left the road for an excursion to the mountain Gede ; and along the
further route to Samarang, I had many opportunities of correcting and extending my former
observations. In the month of January, 1819, I went on board at Samarang, and in July I arrived
in London.

“ The recommendations and letters of introduction with which, as already stated, I was
copiously provided by Sir Stamford at my departure from Bencoolen, procured me a most cordial
reception from his friends ; and although a perfect stranger in England, I obtained, through their
means, those kind offices and friendly attentions which gi'eatly facilitated and encouraged the com-
mencement of my career. And here I have more particularly to record the favourable manner in
which he was pleased to bring the nature of my employments and researches to the notice of
the Honourable Court of Directors of the East India Company. By the liberality of that honour-
able body, an effectual px’ovision has been made for my collections in the Museum at the India
House ; and by the bountiful support granted to me, I have been enabled to commence and prose-
cute the primary and essential object of all my labours — the communication of the discoveries which
have resulted from them to the scientific public ; and although ray progress hitherto has been
retarded, yet I am not discouraged in persevering in the attempt. But scientific details are not the
object of this communication ; and I can, therefore, only refer to the works already published from
ray materials, or to those in progress. It is, however, a vety gratifying consideration, that our
friend, Mr. Vigors, has undertaken to supply any deficiency in this department, which might be
expected in your Memoir. For this purpose he has prepared a nomenclatural abstract of the col-
lections presented by Sir Stamford to the Zoological Society in Bruton Street, so far as regards the
vertebrated animals, with more concise notices of the insects, while he I’eserves a detailed descrip-
tion and a full account of all these subjects, to a more extensive work which he has projected, with
the title of ‘ Museum Rafflesianura.’ In this undertaking, to which Mr. Kirby, Mr. Bell, Mr.

()30

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD,

Bennett, and myself will lend our aid, full justice will be done to Sir Stamford’s zeal and suc-
cess in this branch of natural history.

“ In the mean time, the collection in Bruton Street, as far as yet examined, will form a very
appropriate basis of a nomenclatural abstract for the present publication ; to this Mr. Vigors will
further add the names of all the quadrupeds and birds which were deposited in the Museum of the
Honorable East India Company on my arrival in England. The combination of these will exhibit
a tolerably extensive view of the zoology of the Eastern Islands in these departments; and if it
be compared with the animals from this part of the world, enumerated in Pennant’s Indian
Zoology, [the most complete synopsis, which towards the close of the last century was before
the public,] it will afford an instructive specimen of the accessions to natural history in later
periods.

“ On this occasion it may not be quite irrelevant to advert to the history of those investiga-
tions, which have been carried on since the commencement of the present century in the Islands
of the Indian Archipelago ; especially as some notice may be expected of the nature of my
researches, and of the means by which they were carried on, prior to the period when they received
the patronage of Sir Stamford.

“ Until the latter part of the last century, little comparatively was known of the natural
productions of this part of the world. In the year 1779 the Batavian Society of Arts and
Sciences was established, and from this period the commencement of a more regular train of
investigations may be dated. The first six volumes of the Transactions of this Society, pub-
lished between the years 1779 and 1792, contain various interesting and valuable communi-
cations on natural history, besides many incidental remarks on this subject in the geographical
essays.

“ Soon after the commencement of the present century, Mons. Leschenault de la Tour, a
distinguished naturalist and pupil of J ussieu, who accompanied Captain Baudin on his voyage of
discovery, determined, on the return of that expedition, to devote some time to the investigation of
Java, and having obtained the patronage of the Honourable N. Engelhard!, Governor of the
East Coast, he successfully explored the middle and eastern portion of the Island, and made exten-
sive collections in all departments of natural history. On completing his engagement, a large
portion of the collection became his property, and he returned to France with this acquisition about
the year 1806. The collections were deposited in the National Museum, and many of his disco-
veries in Zoology have been successively published by Geoffroy St. Hilaire, Frederic Cuvier, and
M. A. G. Desmarest.

“ Very near the same period, when Mr. Leschenault entered on his researches in the eastern
part of Java, in the course of the year 1802, I commenced a similar enterprise in the western
portion of the Island, in the vicinity of Batavia. The effectual prosecution, however, of the

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

«31

design I had particularly in view, rendered it necessary that I should enter the service of the Dutch
East India Company. I was accordingly appointed a surgeon; commenced my inquiries in
tliat capacity, and after the lapse of about a year reported to the Colonial Government the result.
This was submitted to the Batavian Society, and through the recommendation of that body, I was
engaged for a more extensive enterprise, which comprised a general investigation of the natural
productions of the Island, and particularly of those which might become useful articles of Materia
Medica. Having laboured some time in the neighbourhood of Batavia, I was desirous to take a
wider range, and obtained permission to visit the eastern provinces, and to proceed to the farthest
extremity of Java. After some years spent in continual peregrinations I was desirous of obtaining
a more permanent place of abode, and, with the consent of the Colonial Government, established
myself provisionally at Suracarta as a central situation, from which I might conveniently visit the
neighbouring provinces. To this place I removed the whole of my collections, in order to await
the destination of Government, as soon as the communication with Holland should be re-esta-
blished ; when, in the course of events, Java surrendered to the British arms, and the Commissioner
from the Commander of the Forces in the eastern parts of the Island came to the Emperor’s
court, the enterprise in which I was engaged, and the collections I had made, for the former Go-
vernment, came under consideration ; and the Commissioner was pleased to direct that I should
persevere in my pursuits until the pleasure of the Right Honourable the Lord Minto should be
known. I therefore continued my researches for several months in a state of suspense, until Sir
Stamford came to Suracarta, when he made those dispositions regarding my future employment and
my relation to the Honourable East India Company, which have been detailed in the com-
mencement of this communication, and this liberal determination was the means, not only of
preventing the dispersion of the labours of many years, but also of preserving a private establish-
ment for the purpose of my investigations, which I had accumulated with considerable pains and
expense.

“ By my residence in England my intercourse with Sir Stamford was not intennpted. He
continued to take an earnest and affectionate interest in my progress, and to afford his liberal
patronage to my publications. I have likewise an extensive series of letters from Bencoolen,
Penang, Calcutta, and Singapore, which contain many valuable remarks on the natural productions
of the Eastern Archipelago, and on the enterprises in which he was engaged while he con-
tinued in India. But I shall not extend this hasty sketch. My object throughout has been to
record as simply as possible, from personal observation, and from the correspondence with which
I have been favoured, the zeal, ardour, and liberality with which Sir Stamford both pursued and
patronised science.

“ Your Ladyship requires from me no apology on behalf of the imperfections of this com-

632

LETTER FROM DR. HORSFIELD.

munication, nor any assurance of the sincerity of the sentiments expressed ; I therefore request
you to make that use of it which may best suit the important and laudable object which you have
undertaken.

“ I am, most respectfully,

“ Your Ladyship’s faithful and obliged servant,

“ Thos. Horsfield.”

December 3 1st, 1S29.

To Lady Sophia Raffles.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

The following catalogue contains the names of the animals collected in Sumatra, under the imme-
diate superintendance of Sir Stamford Raffles, and now exhibited in the Museum of the Zoological
Society; as well as of those previously collected by Dr. Horsfield in Java, and deposited in the
Museum of the India House. To these are added the names of a few species which are reported
by Sir Stamford in the Linnean Transactions to be natives of Sumatra, but of which specimens
have not as yet been observed in either collection.

The native names of these animals have been added, where accurately ascertained, to the more
important scientific names. The latter have been selected with due deference to the law which
should prevail in all such cases — that of priority.

The habitat of each animal is given according as it has been found in Sumatra or Java, or
both countries. In this reference to its native place, it is not inferred that the species is exclusively
found in such locality, but that it has been actually either collected or observed there. The refer-
ence to the Museum in which the specimens are exhibited comes under the same observation.

MAMMALIA.

Ordo I Fer^, Linn.

Tribus Plantigrada.

Genus Helarctos, Horsf.

Hel. Malayanus, Horsf., Zool. Journ., Vol. II. p. 221, pi. 7.

Ursus Malayanus, Raffies, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. pj. 254. — Horsf, Zool. Re-
searches in Java, No. 4. pi. 2.

Bruang of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceis Societatum Zoologies et Ind. Orientalis.

This species of bear was discovered by Sir Stamford Raffles in Sumatra, and first described
by him in a Paper read before the Linnean Society in the year 1820 on the Animals of Sumatra,
and afterwards published in the Society’s Transactions. It was subsequently figured in Dr. Hors-

4 M

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

«3T

field’s “ Zoological Researches," from a specimen sent by Sir Stamford to the Museum of the
India House.

Genus Mydaus, Fred. Cuv.

Myd. Javanensis.

Mephitis Javanensis, Desmarest, Mammalogie, p. 187. sp. 288. — RafH.,
Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 251.

Mydaus Meliceps, Fred. Cuv., — Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. 2. pi. 1.

Le Telagon, Fred. Cuv., Mammiferes.

Teledu of the Javanese.

Setig-gung of the Sunda Javanese.

Teleggo of the Sumati-ans. Marsden, Hist, of Sumatra, p. 117.

Telagu of the Malays. Raffl., Linn. Trans.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Soc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Linn.

Genus Gulo, Storr.

Gulo Orientalis, Horsf, Zool. Researches, No. 2. pi. 2.
Mydaus Macrourus, Kuhl.

Nyenteh of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Ictides, Valenciennes.

(Arctictis. Temminch.)

let. ater.

Le Benturong noir, Fred. Cuv., Mamm.

Binturong of the Malays. Raffl., Linn. Trans.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

Li Musccis Soc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

We are indebted for the discovery of this species to the researches of another of our country-
men, Major Farquhar, who communicated an account of it, together with a drawing and a speci-
men, to the Asiatic Society. (See Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 253.)

Tribus Digitigrada.
Genus Mustela, Linn.

Must, nudipes, Fred. Cuv.

Furet de Java. Fred. Cuv., Mammif.

Marte de Java, Desm., Mamm., Supp. p. 537. sp. 828.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

This species, although supposed by the French writers to have been sent from Java, whence
they gave it the above names, was never met with by Dr. Horsfield in his extensive researches in
that Island. It is probable that the specimen sent by M. Diard from Batavia had been originally
imported from Sumatra.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

035

Genus Viverra, Linn.

Viv. Musanga, Rnffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. 252. — Ho7\'sf., Zool. Researches, No. I.

pi. 2.

Musang, Marsden, Hist, of Sum. p. 118, pi. 12, No. 2.

Miisang-bulang of the jMalays.

Luicalc of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Soc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Viv. Rasse, Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. 6. pi. 2.

Rasse of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceis Soc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Viv. Zibetha, Linn.

Tangalung of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Viv. Genetta, Linn.

Musang sapulut of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

No specimen of this animal was found in the Sumatran collection sent home to this country,
although the species is included in the catalogue of the animals collected by Sir Stamford in Su-
matra.

Genus Mangusta, Olivier.

(Ichneumon, Lacepede. Herpestes, lUiger.)

Mangusta Javanica, Horsf, Zool. Researches, No. 5. pi. 2.

Ichneumon Javanicus, Geoff., Description de VEgypte, Mem. d'Histoire Nat.,
Tom. II., p. 138. n. 5.

Herpestes Javanicus, Desm., Mamm., jj. 118. s/>. 326.

Mangouste de Java, Fred. Cuv., Mammif.

Garangan of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumati’a et Java.

In Musceis Soc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Lutra, Linn.

Lutra leptonyx, Horsf, Zool. Researches, No. 7. pi, 2.

Simung of the Sumatrans.

Anjing-ayer of the Malays.

Welingsang, or Wargul, of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Soc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

A second species, supposed to be the Barang of Sir Stamford Raffles, is in the Sumatran col-
lection, but its chai’acters have not as yet been sufficiently ascertained.

4 M 2

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

()36

Genus Prionodon, Horsf., Zool. Researches, No, 5.

Prion, gracile. Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. 1. pi, 2.

Viverra? Linsang, Hardwicke, Linn, Trans,, Po/. XIII. ja. 235. Tab. 2^.
Delnndung of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musa;o Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Feus, Lhin.

Fel. Tigris, Lhui.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Fel. Leopardus, Linn.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Felis Macroscelis, Horsf, Zool. Journ., Vol. I. p. 542. pi. 21. — Temm., Monographie de
Mamm. p. 102.

Rimau dahan of the IMalays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Sir Stamford Raffles was the first who discovered and described this animal. His description
is in the thirteenth volume of the Linnean Transactions, p. 250, under the Malayan name of Rimau
dahan.

Felis Javanensis, Desm., Diet. d'Hist. Nat., Vol. VI./?. 115. — Mamm.,j). 229. sp. 358. —
Horsf, Zool. Researches, No. \. pi. 1.

Chat de Java, Ctw., Annales du Mus., Tom. XIV./?. 159. n. 26.

Kurwuk of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Fel. Sumatrana, Horsf, Zool. Researches, No. 2. f. 4.

Rimau bulu of the Malays, Raff., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. /?. 249.
Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceis Soc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Fel. Temminckii, Vigors and Horsf ., Zool. Journ., Vol. III. /?. 451. pi. Sitpp. 25.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

This new species was one of the results of Sir Stamford Raffles’ researches in Sumatra. A
specimen is in the collection presented by him to the Zoological Society. It is remarkable by the
uniform red colour which pervades the body.

Felis planiceps, Vigors and Horsf, Zool. Journ., lol. 111. /?. 450. pi. 12.

Habitat in Sumatra
In Musceo Soc. Zool.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

()37

This species also, distinguished by the flat shape of the head, is among the discoveries of
Sir Stamford. Three specimens are in his Sumatran collection, all agreeing in this singular
formation.

Felismelas? Peron et Lesueur.

Le Melas, Cuv., Annales du Mus., Tom. XIII. 152. No. 10.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Soc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

The specimen in the Zoological Society’s collection is young. Doubts exist as to this species
being distinct from Felis Leopardus.

Genus Canis, Linn.

Can. familiaris, Linn. var. Sumatrensis.

Wild Dog of Sumatra, Hardwicke, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. jo. 236. Tab, 23.

Can. rutilans, Temm.

Habitat in Java,

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Tribus Insectivora.

Genus Gymnura, Vigors and Horsf.

Gym, Rafflesii, Vigors and Horsf., Zool. Journ., Vol. Ill, />. 248. pi. 8.

Viverra gymnura. Raff,., Linn. Trans., Vol. III. p. 272.

Tikus Ambang bulan of the Malays ?

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

This new form of animal is among the most conspicuous of Sir Stamford Raffles’ discoveries in
zoology. Doubts exist as to there being two species in the specimens contained in his collection.
The native name given above is that of an animal brought to Major Farquhar from the interior of
Malacca, some time previously to the discovery of the Gymnura in Sumatra, which Sir Stamford
believes to be identical with it.

Genus Tupaia, Raffes.

Tup. Tana, Raff., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 257. — Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. 3.
pi. 2.

T upai-tana of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Tup. Javanica, Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. 3. pi. 1.

Bangsrmg, or Sinsring, of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Tup. ferruginea. Raff., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 256.

Tupaiypress of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

638

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Science is indebted to Sir Stamford Raffles also for the discovery of this new form among the
Insectivorous animals, two species of which he described in the Linnean Transactions. An attempt
has been made by some of the French naturalists to supersede the name of Tupaia. No less than
four different writers have given separate names to the genus. There can be little doubt that the
law of priority, as well as the justice of the case, will eventually prevail here, as in similar
instances.

Genus Sorex, Linn.

Sor. Indicus, Geoff., Ann. du. Mas., Tome XVII. p. 183. sp. 8.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Sor. Myoxurus, Pallas.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Ordo II Primates, Linn.

Tribus Cheiroptera.

Genus Pteropus, Brisson.

Pter. Javanicus, Desm., Manim., p. 109. sp. 136. — Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. 4. 2)1. 4.
Kalong of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatrd et Java.

In MuscEis Soc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Pter. marginatus, Desm., Marnm., p. 111. s}i. 146.

Habitat in Jav^.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Pter. Titthoecheilus, Temm., Monogr. de Mamm., p. 198.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Macroglossus, Fred. Cuv.

Macroglossus rostratus.

Pteropus rostratus, Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. 3. pi. 4.

Pteropus minimus, Geoff.

The name of 7ninimus being inappropriate where but one species belongs to a genus, that of
rostratus is here adopted.

Genus Nyctinomus, Geoff.

Nyct. tenuis, Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. 5. pi. 1.
Lowo-churut of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Nyct. dilatatus. Id., Ib., No. 4.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

(),39

Genus Megaderma, Geoff.

Meg. Lyra. Geoff., Ann. du Mas., Tome XV. pj). 190. 198. pi. 12.

Habitat in Java.

In Musoeo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Ruinolopiius, Geoff.

Rhin. affinis. Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. 6.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Rhin. minor. Id., Ib.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Rhin. nobilis. Id., Ib., No. 7. pi. 4.

Kebblek of the Javanese.

Habitat in J ava.

In Musoeo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Rhin. larvatus. Id., Ib., No. 6. pi. 3.

Lowo-sumbo of the Javanese.

Habitat in J ava.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Rhin. vulgaris, Id., Ib., No. 6.

Habitat in Jav&.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Rhin. deformis, Id., Ib.

Habitat in J av^.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Rhin. insignis, Hors/., Zool. Researches, No. 6.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Oi'ient.

Genus Nycteris, Geoff.

Nyct. Javanicus, Desm., Mamm.,p>. 129. sp. 192.

Nyctere de Java, Geoff., Mem. sur VRgypte, Hist. Nat. Tome II. /;. 123.
Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Vespertilio, Auct.

Vesp. Temminckii, Horsf ., Zool. Researches, No. 8. pi. 3.
Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Vesp. adversus, Id., Ib., No. 8.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

640

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Vesp. Hardwickii, Id., Ib.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Vesp. tralatitius, Id., Ib.

LoiL'o-manir of the Javanese.

Habitat in Javi.

In MmcBO Soc. Ind. Orient.

Vesp. imbricatus, Id., Ib.

Loivo-lesser of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Vesp. pictus, Pall. Spie., \\\.p. 7.

Lowo-Kembang of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Tribus Quadrumaka.
Genus Simia, Auct.

Simia Satyrus, Linn.

Orang Utan of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In MiuiCEO Soc. Zool.

Genus Hylobates, III.

Hyl. syndactyla.

Simia syndactyla, Raf^.,Linn. Trans. ,*Vol. XIII.^;. 241 . — Horsf., Zool. Researches,
No. 3. f. 3. '

Siamang of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceis Soc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

This species is one of the results of Sir Stamford Raffles’ researches in Sumatra, and was first
described and named by him in the Linnean Transactions.

Hyl. agilis, Fred. Cuv., Mamm.

Hylobates variegatus, Desm. ?

Ungha puti of the Sumatrans, Rajjfl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 242.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

This species also was first pointed out as new by Sir Stamford Raffles, who described its cfis-
tinguishing characters in the Linnean Transactions, under its native name of Ungha puti. M.
Fred. Cuvier afterwards figured the animal, and gave it the scientific name of agilis. Doubts are
entertained of its being specifically distinct from the Hyl. variegatus of M. Desmarest.

Hyl. Lar, Geoff.

Simia albimana. Vigors and Horsf ., Zool. Journ., Vol. IV. 107.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

(Ml

'Fwo species have hitherto been confounded under the name of Simia Lav, Linn., whicli
differ from each other cliiefly by the hands of one being whitish, while those of tlie second are of
the same black colour as the rest of the body. The species were first distinguished as quoted
above in the Zoological Journal, the black species being considered the type of the Linnean
species Lar, and the present animal with the white hands being designated as distinct under the
name of alhimanu. M. Geoffi’oy de St. Hilaire has subsequently reversed the disposition of the
species, and has selected the present animal as the typical Lar, while he calls the black species
Hyl. RqfflesiL This order of nomenclature may well be adopted in the present instance, although
it is contrary to the usual practice by which the courtesy of naturalists, and indeed the justice of
the case, secures to the first distinguisher of a species the name which he confers upon it. In
superseding the prior name conferred on the present species by that of Rajfflesii, M. Geoff, de
St. Hilaire has made an appeal to the feelings of the first describers, which cannot be resisted.

Hyl. Rafflesii, Geoff., Coins de I'Hist. nat. des Mamm., Le^. 7. p. 34.

Simia Lar, Vigors and Horsf., Zool. Joimi., Vol. W . p. 106.

L’Ounko. Fred. Cuv., Mamm.

Ungka etam of the Malays, Raffes, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. 242.

Habitat in Malaccae Peninsula.

Although this species is indicated in Sir Stamford’s catalogue of the Sumatran animals, no
specimen was found in the collection. The specimen in the Zoological Collection, accurately
agreeing with his description in the Linnean Transactions, is fi'om the continent of India.

Genus Lasiopyga, III.

Lasiopyga Nemaeus, Rl.

Le douc, Buff-
In Musceo Soc. Zool.

A specimen of this species belongs to the Rafflesian collection; but it is believed that it was
brought from Borneo, whence Sir Stamford obtained some valuable subjects of Natural History,
particularly the two following subjects.

Genus Nasalis, Geoff.

Nas. larvatus.

Simia nasalis, Shaw.

Guenon a long nez. Buff.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Nas. recurvus. Vigors and Horsf., Zool. Journ., Vol. IV. p. 110.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

This animal, brought from Borneo with the preceding, may probably be the young of the
species, as suggested by the Authors quoted above. No proof, however, of the fact has as yet
appeared.

4 N

642

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Genus Semnopithecus, Fred. Cut.

Semn. Maurus, Fred. Cut. — Horsf., Zool. Researehes, No. 4. f. I.

Simia Maura, Schreh.

Lotong of the Malays, Raffles, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII., p. 247.

Budeng or Lutung of the Javanese.

Habitat in Suinatrd and JavS.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Immature specimens of this species, exhibiting different gradations of colour from bright red
to entire black, are in the Sumatran collection.

Semn. cristatus.

Simia cristata, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. 244.

Chingkau of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatrd.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

This species, together with the succeeding, are among the discoveries of Sir Stamford
Raffles.

Semn. melalophos.

Simia melalophos, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 245.

Simpai of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Semn. femoralis, Horsf.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Semn. Pyrrhus, Horsf, Zool. Researches, No. 7. pi. 3.

Lutung of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Semn. ? fascicularis.

Simia fascicularis, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 246.

Kra of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

No specimen of this species, although it appears to be frequent in the forests of Sumatra and
the Malay Islands, was found in Sir Stamford’s collection. It is of course doubtful whether it is a
true Semnopithecus.

Genus Macacus, Lacepede.

Mac. nemestrinus.

Simia carpolegus? Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. jo. 243.
Bruh of the Malays ?

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

64.1

It is probable that the Briih of Sir Stamford Raffles’ Catalogue is referable to the above
species.

Genus Loris, Geoff.

Loris tardigradus.

Lemur tardigradus, Linn.

Kukang of the Malays.

This species has been described by Sir Stamford as inhabiting the Malay Islands, but no
specimen is in the Sumatran collection.

Loris Javanicus.

Nycticebus Javanicus, Geoff.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musoeis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Tarsius, Storr.

Tars, spectrum?

Lemur spectrum, Pall.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Tars. Bancanus, Horsf , Zool. Researches, No. 2, pi. 2.
Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Galeopithecus, Pallas.

Gal. variegatus, Cuv.

Gal. rufus, Pall?

Kubung of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

This species of M. Cuvier is generally considered to be the young of the Gal. rufus of Pal-
las. This supposition is chiefly founded upon the inferior size of Gal. variegatus. [See Aude-
bert, Histoire des Galeopitheques, p. 37.] But there are several specimens in the Rafflesian
collection of different sizes, some of which considerably exceed the dimensions assigned to Gcd.
rufus. The question is by no means set at rest.

Gal. rufus, Pall.

Kubung of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

4 N 2

G44

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Ordo III Pecora.

Tribus Edentata.

Genus Manis, Linn.

Man. pentadactyla, Linn.

Pangoling .sisik or Tangiling of the Malays, Roffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII./;. 249.
Habitat in Sumatra et Jav^.

In Museeo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Manis Javanica, Desmarest, Mamm., p. 376. sp. 596.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Museeo Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Tribus Pachydermata.

Genus Elephas, Linn.

El. maximus, Linn.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Museeo Soc. Zool.

The teeth and tusks only of this animal are preserved in the Sumatran collection.

Genus Rhinoceros, Linn.

Rhin. Sumatrensis, Cut.

Sumati’an Rhinoceros, Bell, Phil. Tra?is. 1793.

Badak of the Malays, Raffi., Linn. Tra?is., Vol. III. p. 268.
Habitat in Sumatra.

In Museeo Soc. Zool.

Rhin. Sondaicus, Cui\ — Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. VI. pi. 4.
Warak of the Javanese.

Badak of the Malays.

Habitat in Java.

Genus Tapirus, Briss.

Tap. Indicus, Desm., Mamm., p. 411. sp. 646.

Tap. Malayanus, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 270. — Horsf., Zool. Re-
searches, No. 1. pi. 4.

Le Maiba, Fred. Cuv., Mamm.

Saladang, Gindol, Babi Alu, and Tennu of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Miiseeis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Sus, Linn.

Sus scrofa, Linn.

Babi of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Museeo Soc. Zool.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

()45

Tribus Ruminantia.
Genus Moschus, Linn.

Mosc. Javanicus, Pall.

Napu of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Inch Orient.

Mosc. Kanchil, Raffl., Linn. Traits., Vol. XIII. p. 262.
Kanchil of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

A third species of the Musk deer has been mentioned by Sir Stamford as inhabiting Sumatra,
which he calls Pelandok, but no specimen has appeared in the collection.

Genus Cervus, Linn.

Cervus Muntjac, Schreh. — Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. VI. pi. I.

Muntjac of the Sunda Javanese.

Kidang of the Javanese.

Kljang of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Cervus Tunjuc?

Rusa ubi, Rusa sapid, and Rusa Tunjuc of the Malays, Raffi., Linn, Trans., Vol.
XIII. p. 266.

Habitat in Sumati'd et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

This species, very nearly allied to the Muntjac, which is probably the same as that mentioned
by Sir Stamford Raffles in the Linnean Transactions, under the above native names, is in the Su-
matran collection. It appears to be undescribed; but the horns not being sufficiently grown, it is
deemed advisable not to enter into further particulars until more extensive information has been
acquired on the subject.

Cervus Axis, Er.xl.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Mus(Co Soc. Zool.

The horns only of this animal have been sent home in the Sumatran collection.

Cervus Hippelaphus?

Rusa of the Sumatrans
Menjangan of the Javanese.
Habitat in Sumatra et Java.
In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

(>16

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Genus Antilope, Pall.

Antilope Sumatrensis, Penn.

Cambtan, Fred. Cue., Mamm.

Camhing Utan, JMarsden. — Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. 266.

Ordo IV Glires, Linn.

Fam. ScruRiD.E.

Genus Sciurus, Linn.

Sciur. maximus, Schreb.

Tupai Jinjang or Tankrawa of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

Sciur. bicolor, Sparm. — Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. 8. pi. 1 .

Jelarang of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et J ava.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Sciur. Leschenaultii, Desm.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Sciur. affinis, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 259.

Habitat in Sumatrd.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Sciur. vittatus, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 259.

Sciur. bivittatus, Desm.

Ecureuil Toupaye, Fred. Cuv., Mamm.

Tupai of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Sciur. nigrovittatus, Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. 7.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Sciur. Plantani, LJung. — Horsf, Zool. Researches, No. 7. pi. 1.

Sciur. bilineatus, Geoff.

Bajing of the J avanese and Malays.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Sciur. insignis, Fred. Cuv. — Horsf, Zool. Researches, No. 5. pi. 3.

Le Lary, Fred. Cuv., Mamm.

Bokkol of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Oi'ient.

Sciur. Rafflesii, Vigors and Horsf., Zool.Joum., Vol. IV^. p. 113. pi. 4.
Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

()47

Sciur. tenuis, Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. 7.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Museis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Pteromys, Cuv.

Pter. nitidus, Desm.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musais Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Pter. sagitta, Cuv.

Sciurus sagitta, Linn.

Habitat in Sumati’a.

In Musa.0 Soc. Zool.

Pter. lepidus, Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. 4. pi. 4.
Habitat in Java.

In Musao Soc. Ind. Orient.

Pter. genibarbis, Id., Ib., No. 4. pi. 3.
Kechubu of the Javanese.
Habitat in JavL
/« Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Fam. MuRiDiE.

Genus Mus, Linn, et Auct.

Mus setifer, Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. 8. pi. 2.

Tikus-wirok of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

M. Temminck asserts that this animal is the young of the Mus giganteus of General Hard-
wicke. As yet we have had no proof of the assertion.

Fam. Hystricid.e.
Genus Hystrix, Linn.

Hyst. fas cicu lata, Shaw.

Habitat in Sumatra.

Hyst. longicauda, Marsden, Hist, of Sumatra.
Landak of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

Ordo V Cetacea, Linn.
Genus Halicore, III.

Hal. Dugong, Rajf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 272.
Duyong of the Malays.

Habitat in Mari Sum.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

6i8

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Classis A V E S.

Ordo I Raptores.

Fam. Falconid.e.

{Halang, or Lang, of the Malays.)

Sub-fam. Aquilina.

Genus Pandion, Savigny.

Pand. Ichthyaetus.

Falco Ichthyaetus, Ilorsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. \?,Q>.—Zool. Researches,
No. 3. pi. 5.

Jokomiru of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

This species, with the general appearance and the cylindrical claws of Pandion, has the scutel-
lated tarsi of Haliaetus.

Genus Haliaetus, Sav.

Haliaetus Pondicerianus.

Aquila Pondiceriana, Briss.

Lang Bondol of the Sumatrans.

Ulang of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Haliaetus albicilla.

Falco albicilla. Lath.

• Lang Bomboon of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatrix.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Haliaetus dimidiatus.

Falco dimidiatus. Raff,., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 275.
Lang laid of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Genus Limnaetus.

Rostrum forte, subelongatum, compressum ; ungue elongate, tomiis mandibulae superioris Sub-
familim Asturinae more subemarginatis ; naribus ovalibus, grandibus, transversim positis.

Alee subbreves; remigibus, Ima brevi, 2da et 3tia ’gradatira longioribus, 4ta et 5ta aequa-
libus longissimis, reliquis gradatim breviscentibus ; Ima — Gta interne, 2da — 7ma externe emar-
ginatis.

Pedes elongati ; tarsis usque ad digitos plumosis ; unguibus gracilibus elongatis.

Cauda aequalis.

'I'his group, which, from its strength and general appearance, must be ranked w'ith the Eagles,

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

619

exhibits a strong affinity to the Hawks in its somewhat short wings, lengthened tarsi, and the emar-
gination as well as the general shape of its bill. Its place seems immediately between the sub-
families of Hawks and Eagles.

Lymn. Horsfieldii.

Falco Limnaetus, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol, XIII. p. 138.

Autour unicolore, Temm., PL Col. 134.

Wuru-rawa of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Muscco Soc. Ind. Orient.

Lymn. caligatus.

Falco caligatus, Rajfl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 278.

Lang Tanjbikar of the Sumati’ans.

Falco niveus, Temm.

Autour neigeux. Id., PI. Col. 127.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Muscso Soc. Zool.

Subfam. Asturina.

Genus Accipiter, Ray.

Acc. fringillarius, Ray, var.

Falco Nisus, Linn.

Sikap Balam of the Malays, Raffl.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Acc. Soloensis.

Falco Soloensis, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 137.

Falco cuculoides, Temm., PI. Col. 129 $ , 110 $ .

Allap-allap Lallar of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

This species, or more probably the Astur mrgatus, Reinw., is the supposed variety of the
Sparrow Hawk, called by the Malays belalang, or Mangkas. — See Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII.
p. 278.

Subfam. Falconina.

Genus Hierax, Vigors.

Hier. caerulescens. Vigors, Zool. Journ., Vol. I. p. 328.

Falco caerulescens, Linn. — Horsf, Zool. Researches, No. 3. pi. 6.

Allap, or Allap-allap, of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et JavL
In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Falco, Auct.

Falco peregrinus, Ray.

Rajawali of the Malays.

Sikaj) Lang of the Sumatrans.

Laki Angin of the Passummahs.

Habitat in Sumatra, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 278.

4 o

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECLMENS.

(ioO

Falco tinnunculus, Linn.

Allap-allap Sapi of the Javanese.
Habitat in JavL
In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Falco severus, Horsf., Linn. Trans., fol. XITI. p. 133.
Faucon Aldrovandin, Temm., PI. Col. 128.
Allap-allap Ginjeng of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Subfam. Buteonina.
Genus Buteo

Buteo Bacha.

Falco Bacha, Hand.

Bido of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

This species is generally ranked among the Buzzards, but doubts may be entertained respect-
ing the propriety of placing it in this group.

Sub-fam. Milvina.

Genus El anus, Savignp.

El. melanopterus, Leach.

Falco melanopterus, Baud.

Anghal-angkal of the J avanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Fam. Strigid^.

Genus Strix, Linn.

{Burong Hantoo, or Pongo, of the Malays.
ToohooJc of the Sumatrans.)

* Capite aurito.

Strix orientalis, Hor,^f., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. y?. 140.

Strix Sumatrana, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 279.

Strix strepitans, Temm., PI. Col. 174. 229 juv.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Strix Ceylonensis, Lath.

Strix Ketupu, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. 141.
Hibou Ketupu, Temm. PL Col. 74.

Blo-ketupu of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

G5l

Strix Lempiji, Hors/., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 140.
Hibou noctule, Temm., PI. Col. 99.

Lempiji of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatr<i et Java.

Ln Miisceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

** Capite inaurito.

Strix flamraea, Linn., var Javanica, Gmel.
Daris (Deris) of the Javanese.
Serrah of the Malays.

Habitat in Java.

In Museo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Sti’ix badia, Horsf., Linn.Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 139. — Zool. Researches, No, 4. pi. 6.
IVoivo-whvi, or Kalong-wiwi of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Strix selo-puto, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 140.
Strix Pagodarum, Temm.

Chouette des Pagodes, Id., PI. Col. 230.
Selo-puto of the Javanese.

Habitat in Javd.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Strix castanoptera, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 140.
Chouette spadiacee, Temm., PI. Col. 98.

Blo-watu of the Javanese.

Habitat in J ava.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

An additional species of hornless owl is indicated by Sir Stamford Raffles, under the name of
scutellata in the Linnean Transactions, as inhabiting Sumatra. No specimen, however, agreeing
with this description has been found either in the Sumatran or the J avanese collection.

Ordo II Insessores.

Tribus Fissirostres.

Fam. Meropid^.

Genus Merops, Linn, et Auct.

Mer. Javanicus, Horsf., Linn, Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 171.

Mer. Savignii, Temm.

Kachangan of the Javanese.

Biri-biri of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatrd et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Mer. Sumatranus, Rqffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 294.
Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

4 o 2

652

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Mer. urica. Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 172.
Pirik of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musccis Socc. Zool, et Ind. Orient.

Fam. Hirundixid.e.

Genus Hirundo, Linn, et Auct.

{Layang Laijang of the Malays.)

Hir. esculenta, Linn.

Lawet of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Hir. fuciphaga, Acta Holm. 33. p. 151.
Linchi of the Javanese.
Habitat in Ja\4.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient,

Hir. rustica, Linn.

Habitat in Sumatra.

Hir. urbica, Linn.

Habitat in Sumatra.

Genus Cypselus, III.

Cyselus Klecho.

Hir. Klecho, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 143.
Gyps, longipennis, Temm., PL Col. 83.

Samber-galeng of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Fam. Caprimulgid^,

Genus Podargus, Cuv.

Pod. Javanensis, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 141. — Zool Researches, Xo. 2.
j)l. 6.

Podarge cornu, Temm., PI. Col. 159.

Chaba-iconno of the Javanese.

Habitat in J ava.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Pod. auritus, not. sp.

Pod. supra fcrrugineo-brunneus, plu7nis cirea aures longissimis ; subtus pallidior ; nucha'
scapulariumque plumis albo notatis ; 7'eniigibus rectricibusque ferrugineo fasciatis.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

()5ii

Pod. auritus, Vigors and Horsf., Griffiths' Tratisl. of Cuv. An. Kingd.
Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

This species is one of the new acquisitions to science which we owe to the zeal of Sir Stam-
ford Raffles. Its length is about fifteen inches.

Genus Caprimulgus, Linn, et Auct.

Capr. Europaeus, Linn.

Sang Sagan of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra.

No specimen of this species, described as common in Sumatra by Sir Stamford, has as yet
been found in the collection.

Capr. affinis, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 142.

Chaba of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Miisceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Capr. raacrourus. Id., lb.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Earn. ToDiDiE.

Genus Eurylaimus, Horsf.

Eur. Javanicus, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 170. — Zool. Researches, No. 2. pi. 5.

Eurylaimus Horsfieldii, Temm.

Eurylaime Horsfield, Id., PI. Col. 130 $ , 131 $ . •

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Eurylaimus ochromalus, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 297.

Eurylaimus cucullatus, Temm.

Eurylaime a capuchon. Id., PI. Col. 261 .

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

It is difficult to account for M. Temminck’s passing over the accurate description of the charac-
ters and habits of this bird, given in the Linnean Transactions by Sir Stamford Raffles, who first
discovered and named it. M. Temminck, many years after the publication of Sir Stamford’s paper,
to which he frequently refers in the text of his Planches Coloriees, speaks of the species being
new, and of its habits being unknown.

Eur. Sumatranus.

Coracias Sumatranus, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 303.
Eurylaimus Corydon, Temm,

Eurylaime Corydon, Id., PI. Col. 297.

Habitat in Sumatra.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

654-

Genus Cymbirhynchus.

Rostrum subelongatum, depressum, ad basin latissimum, setis raris rigidis obsitum ; rictu am-
plissimo ; culmine obsolete, arcuato ; mandihuld superiori prope apicem aduncum emarginata ; nari-
Ims ovalibus, oblongis, longitudinalibus, nudis, in medio mandibulae positis.

Ala: rotundatae, subbreves ; remigihus 3tia et 4ta longissimis.

Tarsi subfortes, pedibus gressoriis.

Cauda subelongata, gradata.

This group is closely allied to that of Eurylaimus, but differs essentially in the form of the bill,
and in other particulars. The position of the nostrils affords a sticking mark of distinction.

Cymb. nasutus.

Todus nasutus, Lath., Ind. Orn., 268.

Great-billed Tody, Id., Gen. Hist., Vol. IV. p. 94, pi. 65.

Eurylaimus nasutus, Ternm.

Eurylaime nasique. Id., PI. Col. 154.

Burong Palano, or Tampalano, of the Sumatrans, Rajffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII.
p. 296.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Muscbo Soc. Zool.

Genus Colaris, Cuv.

(Eurystomus Vieill.)

Col. orientalis, Cuv.

Coracias orientalis, Linn.

Tiong Batu of the Malays,

Habitat in Sumati'a et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Earn. HalcyoniD/E.

Genus Dacelo, Leach.

Dac. pulchella, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. y?. 175. — Zool. Researches, No. 2. pi. 8.
Martin-chasseur mignon, Temm., PI. Col. 277.

Tenghe-ivatu of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musa;o Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Halcyon, Swainson.

Hale, leucocephalus.

Alcedo leucocephala. Lath.

Bang Kako of the Sumatrans.

Tenglce-buto of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et JavL
In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Hale. Coromandelicus.

Alcedo Coromanda, Lath.

Tengke-sumbo of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS. g.55

Hale, chlorocephalus.

Alcedo chlorocephala, Lath.

TengJce-cheger of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Hale, sacer.

Alcedo sacer, Lath-
Tengke of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musao Soc. Ind. Orient.

Hale, melanopterus.

Alcedo melanoptera, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. jt. 174.

Martin-p6cheiu’ omnicolore, Temm., PI. Col. 130.

Tengke-urang of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Hale, atricapillus.

Alcedo atricapilla. Lath.

Btirong Udang of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra, Raff.., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. jo. 293.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Genus Alcedo, Linn, et Auct.

Ale. ispida, Linn., var. Bengalensis.

Binti of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra, Raff., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 293.

Ale. Biru, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 172. — Zool. Researches, No. 4. pi. 7.
Martin-pecheur Biru, Temm., PI. Col. 239. y. 1.

Meninting-watii, or Burung-biru of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Ale. Bengalensis, Lath.

Alcedo Meninting, Horsf.

Martin-pecheur Meninting, Temm. PL Col. 239. pi. 2.

Meninting of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Ceyx, Laeepede.

Ceyx tridactylus.

Alcedo tridactyla, Linn.

Binti Abang of the Sumatrans.
Chuchack-urang of the Javanese.
Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

656

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Tribus Dentirostres.

Fam. Muscicapid^.

Genus Muscicapa, Linn, et Aiict.

Muse. Banyumas, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 146. — Zool. Researches, Ao. 8.
2)1. 7./. 1.

Muse, rufigasti’a, Rnffl-
Muse, eantatrix, Temm.

Gobe-mouche chanteur, Id., PI. Col. 226.

Chiching-goleng of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Soec. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Muse, hirundinacea, Reinic.

Muse, obseura, Horsf.

Gobe-mouche veloce, Temm., PI. Col. 119.

Habitat in Sumatra et J ava.

In Mnstsis Soec. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Muse. Indigo, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. 146. — Zool. Researches, No. 5. pi. 8.

Nil-nilan of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Muse, latirostris, Rqffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. S\2.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

This bird, which is somewhat obscure in its colour and markings, may probably be the female
of some described species.

Muse, caerulea, Gmel.

Habitat in Sumatra, Raff., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. 312.

Genus Muscipeta, Cuv. et Auct.

Muscip. flaramea.

Muscicapa flammea, Penn.

Uwis, or Semuttan of the Javanese.
Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Muscip. miniata.

Muscicapa miniata, Temm.

Gobe-mouche vermilion. Id., PI. Col. 156.
Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Muscip. Javanica, Sj)armann.

Moorai-Kandang of the Sumatrans.
Sikattan of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musms Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

657

The genus Muscipeta is here restricted to the group with the broad and somewhat elongated
bill, and lengthened graduated tail, of which Muse. Parodist, Linn., forms the type. This form
belongs to Africa and India.

Fam. LANiADiE.

Genus Ocypterus, Cuv.

(Artamus, Vieill.)

Ocypt. leucorhynchus.

Lanius leucorhynchus, Linn.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musoiis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Edolius. Cuv.

(Dicrurus, Vieill.)

Ed. forficatus, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 144.
Lanius forficatus, Linn.

Sri-gunting of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Ed. cineraceus, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 145.
Chenta of the Javanese.

Habitat in Jav5.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Ed. Malabai'icus.

Lanius Malabaricus, Lath.

Edolius retifer, Temm.

Barong Saweh of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Ed. divaricatus.

Lanius divaricatus, Raffl , Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 305.
Beribba burong lilin of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

This species is indicated from a female specimen, which probably may be found to belong to
a previously-named species of the fork-tailed Shrikes.

Genus Irena, Horsf.

Ir. puella, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII./). 152. Zool. Researches, No. \ . pi. 1, 2.
Coracias puella. Lath.

Edolius puella, Temm.

Biang Kapoor of the Malays.

Bressi of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

4 p

G58

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Genus Lanius, LAnn. et Auct.

Lanius Bentet, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 144.
Bentet of the J avanese.

Burong Papa, or Tiitj) Api, of the Malays.
Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Miisceis Socc. Zool et Ind. Orient.

Lanius superciliosus, Lath.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Muscbo Soc. Zool.

Lanius gularis, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 304.
Baron Baron of the Malays.

Lanius virgatus, Tenon.? PI. Col.25Q.f. 1.
Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

The bird figured by M. Temminck as Lanius virgatus appears the same as the Sumatran
species, with the exception of the white colour of the tiropijgiuni, which is not mentioned in the
text of the Planches Coloriees. A female bird in the Sumatran collection, apparently belonging to
this species, is ferruginous-grey above, with the head mottled with white, and the bill light coloured,
which is black in the male ; the tail also is longer.

Genus Ceblepyris, Cuv.

Cebl. Javensis, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 145.
Kepodang-snngu of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Cebl. Orientalis.

Turdus Orientalis, Lath.

Lenjettan of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Vanga, Cuv.

Vanga? coronata.

Lanius coronatus, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 306.
Burong J’ri of the iMalays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

The female only of this species has been described by Sir Stamfoi'd Raffles ; the male bird is

black where the female is ferruginous in its plumage.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

G59

Fam. Merulid.®.

Genus Pitta, Vieill.

Pitta caerulea.

Mycothera cierulea, lloffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII./;. 301.
Pitta gigas, Temm.

Breve geant. Id., PI. Col. 217.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musa;o Soc. Zool.

Pitta cyanoptera, Temm.

Breve cyanoptere, Id., PI. Col. 218.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musaeo Soc. Zool.

Pitta cyanura.

Turclus cyanurus, Lath.

Punglor of the J avanese.

Sintar of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Oriolus, Linn, et Auct.

Or. chinersis, Linn.

Tiong alou or Punting alou of the Malays.

Kepodang of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et J ava.

In Musoeis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Or. xanthonotus, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 152. — Zool. Researches, No. 6.
pi. 7.

Loriot a ventre blanc, Temm., PI. Col. 214.

Habitat in Java.

In Muscbo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Turdus, Linn, et Auct.

Turdus varius, Horsf., Linn. Trayis., Fo/. XIII. p. 148. — Zool. Researches, No. 11. pi. 7.
Ayum-ayaman of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Turdus ochrocephalus, Gmel.

Chuchah-raiva of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatrii et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Turdus cyaneus, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 149. — Zool. Researches, No. 4. pi. 8.
Breve bleuet, Temm. PI. Col. 194.

Arreng-arrengan of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Muscco Soc. Ind. Orient.

It is not easy to determine the true situation of this bird. It cannot well be placed among the

4 p 2

660

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Breves, where M. Temminck arranges it; with which, although it accords in some characters, it
totally differs in its general appearance. It appears more nearly allied to Myopltonus. At present
it may be enumerated in the comprehensive group of Thrushes, among the species of which it was
originally enrolled.

Turdus Macrourus, Gmel.

Lariva of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra and Java.

In Musads Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

The exact situation of this species, in this extensive family, is also doubtful.

% Genus Myophonus, Temm.

Myoph. flavirostris.

Turdus flavirosti'is, llorsf.

Myoph. metallicus, Temm.

Myophone luisant. Id., PL Col. 170.

Chiung of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Timalia, Horsf.

Tim. pileata, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 151. — Zool. Researches, No. 3. pi. 7.

Dawit, or Gogo-stite, of the J avanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Tim. gularis. Id., Zool. Researches, No. 3. pi. 7. f. 2.

Motacilla gularis, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. j). 312.

Burong Pooding of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumati’a.

In Musais Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Ixos, Temm.

Ixos dispar.

Turdus dispar, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 150.
Turdoide ensanglante, Temm., PI. Col. 137.

Chichi ng-goleng of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Ixos melanocephalus.

Turdus melanocephalus, Rajfl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 310.
Lanius melanocephalus. Lath.

Turdoide cap-negre, Temm., PI. Col. 147.

Burong Lilin of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

(>()l

Ixos biraaculatus,

Turdus bimaculatus, Hors/., Lhm. Trans., Vol. XIII. />. 147.
Chuchak-gtniung of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et JavS,.

In Miisceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Ixos Psidii.

Muscicapa Psidii, Gmel.

Turdus analis, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII., p. 147.
Biribba of the Malays.

Chuchak of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musais Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Ixos haemorrhous.

Turdus haemorrhous, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 147.
Muscicapa haemon’housa, j3. Gmel.

Ketilan of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Ixos gularis.

Turdus gularis, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 150.

Bres of the J avanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Mus(Zo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Fam. SylviadjE.

Genus Iora, Horsf.

I ora tiphia.

Motacilla tiphia, Linn.

Iora scapularis, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 152. — Zool. Researches,
No. 6. pi. 5.

Cheetoo of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Sylvia, Lath, et Aiict.

Sylv. Javanica, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 156.

Opior-opior of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Sylv. montana. Id., Ib.

Chret of the J avanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

f Genus Zosterops.

Zost. Maderaspatanus.

Motacilla Maderaspatana, Linn.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

662

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Genus Motacilla, Lath.

Mot. Indica, Gmel.

Habitat in Sumati’a.

In Mus&o Soc. Zool.

Mot. flava, Linn

Bessit of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Museeis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Enicurus, Temm.

En. speciosus.

Motacilla speciosa, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 155. — Zool. Researches,
No. 1. pi. 8.

Enicurus coronatus, Temm.

Enicure couronne, Id., PI. Col. 115.

Genus Saxicola, Bcchst.

Sax. caprata, Horsf.

Dechu of the J avanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musao Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Brachypteryx, Horsf.

Brachypt. montana, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 157. — Zool. Researches, No. 7.
pi. 5.

Ketek of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Brachypt. sepiaria, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 156.

Chichohan of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Anthus, Bechst.

Anthus pratensis, Bechst., var.

Alauda pratensis, Linn.

Lancha Lancha, or Hamba Puyu, of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra, Raff,., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. j). 315.

Genus Megalurus, Horsf

Megalurus palustris, Ilorf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 159.
Merion longibandes, Temm., PI. Col. 65. f. 2.
Larri-angon of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

()63

Fam. PiPRiDiE.

Genus Parus.

Parus atriceps, Horsf. Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII, p. 160.
Glate-wingko of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Calyptomena, Raffl.

Calypt. viridis, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 295. — Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. 4.
. pi. 5.

Rupicola viridis, Tenim.

Rupicola verdin, Id., PI. Col. 216.

Burong Tampo Pinang of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musais Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Tribus Conirostres.

Fam. Fringillid.e.

Genus Mirafra, Horsf.

Mirafra Javanica, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 159.
Branjangan of the J avanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musoeo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Fringilla, Linn, et Auct.

Fring. Amandava, Linn.

Menyiring of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Mus(Zo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Fring. striata.

Loxia striata, Linn.

Prit of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Fring. Malacca.

Loxia Malacca, Linn.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musoeo Soc. Zool.

Fring. punctularia.

Loxia punctularia, Linn.

Pekking of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java. ’

In Musceo Soc, Ind. Orient. ' ‘

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

()6i

F'ring. Maja.

Loxia Maia, Linn.

Pipit Bondol of the Sumatrans.
Bondol of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Javh.

In Mtisceo Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Fring. prasina, Spartn.

Fringilla sphecura, Temm.

Gros-bec long cone, Id., PI. Col. 96.
Ra)mas of the Malays.

Binglis of the Eastern Javanese.
Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musms Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Fring. oryzivora.

Loxia oryzivora, Linn.

Gelatik of the Malays.
date of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Javd.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Ploceus, Cuv.

Ploceus Philippinus.

Loxia Philippina, Linn.

Tampooa of the Malays.

Pintail of the Sumatrans.

Manyar-kembang of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musoeis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Ploceus Manyar.

Fringilla Manyar, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. />. 160.
Manyar of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Fam. Sturnid^.
Genus Pastor, Temm.

Past, cristatellus.

Gracula cristatella, Linn.

Pastor griseus, Horsf.

Jallak sungu of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Past. Capensis.

Sturnus Capensis, Linn.

Pastor Jalla, Horsf.

Jallak, or Jallak-uring of the Javanese.
Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

065

Past, tricolor, Hors/., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 155.

Jallak-awu of the Javanese.

Habitat in JavL
In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Pastor Saularis.

Gracula Saularis, Linn.

Moorai or Moorai Kichou of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musao Soc. Zool.

Pastor amsenus.

Turdus amoenus, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 147.
Kacher of the J avanese.

Habitat in J ava.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Lamprotornis, Temm.

Lamp, cantor.

Turdus cantor. Lath.

Biang or Kalaloyang, also Burong Kling, of the Malays.
Sling of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Fam. CoRViDiE.

Genus Corvus, Linn.

Corvus Enca, Horsf.

Enca of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Gracula, Linn, et Auct.

Gracula religiosa, Linn.

Tiong of the Malays.

Bed or Mencho of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Glaucopis, Forst.

Glaucopis leucopterus, Temm.

Glaucope a ailes blanches. Id., PI. Col. 265.
Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Genus Crypserina, Vieill.

Cryps. varians.

Corvus varians. Lath.

Phrenotrix temia, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 165. — Zool. Researches,
No. 1. pi. 7.

Chehitut or Benteot of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

666

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Fam. Bucerid.®.
Genus Buceros, Linn.

Buc. Rhinoceros, Linn.

Jnggang Danto of the Malays.

Rangkok or Jong rang of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Buc. undulatus, Shaw.

Goge or Bobosan of the Javanese.
Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Museeis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Buc. Malabaricus, Lath.

Klinglingan of the Javanese.

An^a Angka of the Sumatrans.
Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Museeis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Buc. monoceros, Shaw.

Kiki of the Malays.
Habitat in Sumatra.
In JMusceo Soc. Zool

Buc. cavatus.

Ingghan Papan of the Sumatrans.
Burong Oondan of the Malays.
Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Buc. galeatus, Gmel.

Toko and Burong Gading of the Sumatrans.

Tibbang Mantooa of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

The bills only of this species are preserved in the Sumatran collection.

Tribus ScANSORES.

Fam. PsiTTACiD.®.

Genus Pal.eornis, Vigors.

Pal. Pondicerianus.

Bettet of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Museeis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Pal. Malaccensis.

Psittacus erubescens, Shaw.
Burong Bayau of the Sumatrans.
Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

067

Genus Psittacula, Kiehl.

Psittac. Galgulus.

Psittacus Galgulus, Linn.

Serindit of the Sumatrans.

SiUndit or SiUnditun of the Javanese.
Habitat in Sumatra et Jav^.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Psittacus, Auct.

Psittacus Sumatranus.

Keke of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra, Raffl.

No specimen of this species, which has been mentioned under the above name by Sir Stamford
Raffles as inhabiting Sumatra, has been as yet found in his collection.

Fam. PiciD^.

Genus Bucco, Linn, et Auct.

Bucco Philippensis, Linn.

Chanda of the Sumatrans.

Engku of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Bucco roseicollis.

Barbu a gorge rose, Le Vaill.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Bucco australis, Horsf., Linn. Traits., Vol. XIII. 181.

Bucco gularis, Reinw.

Barbu gorge-bleu, Temm., PI. Col. 89. f. 2.

Truntung of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java,

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Bucco Lathami, Gmel.

Ampis of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra,

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Bucco Javensis, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 181.

Bucco Kotoreus, Temm.

Chodok of the Javanese.

Habitat in J ava.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Bucco versicolor, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 284.

Barbu bigarre, Temm., PI. Col. 309.

Takoo of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

4 Q 2

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Bucco mystacophonos, Temm.

Barbu mystacophone, Id., PI. Col. 315.
Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musaso Soc. Zool.

Bucco Chrysopogon, Teinm.

Barbu a moustaches jaunes.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Mmceo Soc. Zool.

Genus Picus, Linn.

* Pedibus tetradactylis.

Pic. Javensis, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 175.
Picus Horsfieldii, Wagler.

Picus leucogaster, Temm. ?

Platuk-atjam of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Pic. affinis, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 288.

Picus dimidiatus, Temm.

Tukki Baicang of the Malays.

Platnk Bawang of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

This species has a close affinity to the Linnean species Pic. Bengalensis, and probably may
be but a variety of it. It seems also to agree with M. Vieillot’s description of his Pic. rittatus. If
this should be the case, and the bird be distinct from the before-mentioned Linnean species, M. Vieil-
lot’s name must be adopted for the species, as having the right of priority.

Pic. Goensis, Gmel.

Pic. strictus, Horsf.

Platuk of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Muscco Soc. Ind. Orient.

Pic. puniceus, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 176.

Pic grenadin, Temm., PI. Col. 423.

Tukki Bajukarap or Belatu of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In JMusceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Pic. mentalis, Temm.

Pic gorgeret, Id., PI. Col. 384.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Pic. validus. Id.

Pic vigoureux, Id., PI. Col. 378.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musa:o Soc. Zool.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

6G9

Pic. pulverulentus, Id.

Pic Meunier, Id., PL Col. 389.
Habitat in J ava.

In Musoco Soc. Ind. Orient.

Pic. rainiatus, Gmel.

Platuk of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In MuseBis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Pic. badius, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 289.
Tukki Kalabu of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Muscbo Soc. Zool.

Pic. tristis, Horsf., Linn.Trans., Vol. XIII. jo. 177.
Pic. paecilophos, Temm.

Pic Strikup, Id., PI. Col. 197.

Tukki boreh of the Malays.

Platuk-watu of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumati'a et J ava.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Pic. Moluccensis, Gmel. ?

Petit pic des Moluques, PI. Enl. 748. f. 2.
Tukki lilit of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Mus&o Soc. Zool.

** Pedibus tridactylis.

Pic. ^ga., Horsf ., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. y?. 177.
Tukki besar of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Pic. Rafflesii. Nov. sp.

Pic. supra flaviscenti-brunneus, subtus brunneus; capite coccineo ; guld pallide ferrugined ;
strigis und ab oculis, secunda a rictu extendentibus, maculisque ad latera abdominis albis ; strigis
duabus ad latera genarum, alter d pared super ciliari, remigibus, rectricibusque nigris.

Magnitude Pic. Tigce.

Fam. Certhiad.®.

Genus Orthotomus, Horsf.

Orth, sepium, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 166.
Kachichi, of the Malays.

Chiglet of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatri et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

(>70

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Genus Sitta, JJinn.

Sitta frontalis, Horsf., Linn. Trans., J ol. XIII. 162.
Sitta velata, Temm.

Torchepot voile, Id., PI. Col. 72./“. 3.

Habitat in Sumatra et J ava.

In Musais Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Prinia, Horsf.

Prinia familiaris, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII., p. 165. — Zool. Researches, No. 8.
2il. 5.

Prinya of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Pomatorhinus, Horsf.

Poraat. montanus, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. js. 165. — Zool. Researches, No. 5. PI. 5.
Bokkreli of the J avanese.

Habitat in J ava.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Fam. CucuLiDiE.

Genus Centropus, Rl.

Cent, affinis, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. /j. 180.

Kradoh, or Booboot, of the Malays.

Bubut-allang-allang of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Cent. Philippensis, Cuv. — Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. 6. pi. 8.

Centropus Bubutus, //or/., Linn, Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 180.

Bubut of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Muscds Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Phcemcophaus, Vie'dl.

* Rostro arcuato.

Phcen. melanognathus, Hor.f., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 178.

Inggang Balukar of the Sumatrans.

Kadallun or Sintok of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Mus^is Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Phcen. Javanicus, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 178. — Zool. Researches, Ao. 5. pi. 7.
Bubut-kembang of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

671

Phcen, Sumatranus.

Cuculus Sumatranus, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 287.
Sepando of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musao Soc. Zool.

** Rostro subrecto.

Phoen. chlorophaeus.

Cuculus chlorophaeus, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 288.

Booboot of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Phoen. caniceps.

Phoen. capite, collo, pectoreque griseo-canis ; alis, dorso, abdomine, cauddque ferrugineis,
hac fascia nigra prope apicem albidum.

Magnitudo Phoen. chlorophoei.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musao Soc. Zool.

The two latter species belong to a group which differs from Phoenicophaus in the form of the
bill and nostrils, and some other particulars. It seems, however, to bear the nearest affinity to that
genus among the hitherto described groups, and for the present is arranged among the species of it.
The group will be hereafter published, when more information is acquired of its characters and
economy in the ‘ Museum Rafflesianum,' under the generic title of Rhinortha.

Genus Eudynamys, Vigors and Horsf.

Eud. orientalis. Vigors et Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XV. p. 303.

Cuculus orientalis, Ziww.

Tuhu $ , Chule $ , of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatrfi et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Cuculus, Linn, et Auct.

Cue. canorus, Linn., var.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Some doubts are entertained of the Sumatran specimens belonging to this species.

Cue. fugax, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 178.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Cue. flavus, Gmel.

Gedasse of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et JavL
In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

672

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Cue. lugubris, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 179. — Zool. Researches, No. 7. pi. 8.
Awon-awon of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Cue. xanthorhjTiehus, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 179. — Zool. Researches, No. 3.
pi. 8.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soe. Ind. Orient.

Cue. basalis, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 179.

Cueulus ehaleites, Ill.l
Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Soee. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

This speeies requires examination. It is doubtful whether there are not more than one speeies
in the Zoologieal and Sumatran eolleetions, or whether all may not belong to the Cue. ehaleites of
Illiger. The group to whieh the bird belongs also requires revision ; it exhibits a very distinct
form, and most probably economy, from that of Cueulus.

Genus Trogon, Linn.

Trog. Duvaucelii, Temm.

Trogon Kasumba, Raffles.

Burong Kasumba of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

This species was first distinguished as distinct from Trog. fasciatus by Sir Stamford Raffles,
and named as above. The subsequent name, however, may, in the present instance, be cheerfully
adopted, as that of a naturalist to whom Sir Stamford himself would doubtlessly have been the first
to award the compliment.

Tribus Tenuirostres.

Fam. C1NNYRID.E.

Genus Cinnyris, Cav.

Cinn. longirostra, Horsf.

Certhia longirostra. Lath.

Siajj Jantung of the IMalays.

Prit Andun of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Mus<eis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Cinn. affinis, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 166.
Nectarinia inornata, Temm.

Souimanga modeste. Id., PI. Col. 84. f. 2.
Chess of the Javanese.

Habitat in J ava.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Cinn. Javanica.

Nectarinia Javanica, Horsf.

Prit-gantil of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et J ava.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Cinn. pectoralis.

Nectarinia pectoralis, Horsf.

Souimanga distingue, Temtn., PI. Col. 1 38. f. I . and 2.
Sri-ganti of the Javanese.

Habitat in JaviL
In Muscco Soc. Ind. Orient.

Cinn. eximia.

Nectarinia eximia, Horsf.

Souimanga pectoral, Temm., PI. Col. 138. f. 3.
Plichi-kembang of the Javanese.

Habitat in Javh.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Cinn. Siparaja.

Certhia Siparaja, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 299.
Nectarinia mystacalis, Temm.

Souimanga moustac. Id., PI. Col. 126. f. 3.

Sipa Raja of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Genus Dictum, Cuv.

Die. cruentatum, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 168.

Sopa of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Die. flavum. Id., Ib.p. 170.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Die. croceoventre, Nov. sp.

Die. capite, alis, cauddque grisescenti-atris ; guld, pectoreque cano-griseis ; dorso, abdomi-
neque croceis ; crisso Jlavo.

Magnitude Die. cruentati.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Fam. Meliphagid.®:.

Genus Chloropsis, Jardine and Selby.

Chlor. Cochinchinensis.

Turdus Cochinchinensis, Lath.

Bur on g Daun of the Malays.

Chuchack-iju of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

4 R

674

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Some doubts may be entertained of the synonomy of ‘this bird ; it agrees with the figure of
Turdus Cochinchinensis in the PI. Enl. 643, with the exception of its having a yelloiv forehead,
and disagrees with the figure of Turdus Malabaricus in Sir W. J ardine’s and Mr. Selby’s Illustra-
tions of Ornithologij, in not having a blue throat or orange forehead. There probably are" three
species, nearly allied to each other, or perhaps only one. The authors of the Illustrations, it is to
be hoped, will clear up the point.

Chlor. zosterops, Nov. sp.

Chlor. viridis concolor, supra dilution ; guld jugidoque flaviscentibus, circulo oeulari fiavo.

This species is nearly allied to Chlor. gampsorhyncJms of the Illustrations of Ornithology ; but
it has a conspicuous circle of yellow feathers around the eye, which does not appear to belong to
that bird. There are one or two additional species of this gi’oup, apparently undescribed, in the
Sumatran collection ; but they are probably females of some of the described species, and require
examination.

Ordo III. Rasores.

Fam. CoLUMBiD.E.

Genus Vinago, Cuv.

Vin. vernans.

Columba vernans, Linn.

Poonai of the Sumatrans.

Kate i , Jowan $ , of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musreis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Vin. curvirostris.

Columba curvirostra, Gmel.

Poonai JJbar of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Vin. giganteus?

Habitat in Sumatra.
In Musceo Soc. Zool.

The specimen of this group, supposed to be the above bird, is in indifferent condition, and the
name is given with doubt. A species entirely purple on the head, breast, and upper part of the back,
is in the Sumatran collection, but it wants the tail, and cannot well be identified or described ; it

appears a new species.

Genus Columba.

Col. aenea, Linn.

Per gam of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Col. badia, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. 317.

Lampattu or Pergam Kalabu of the Sumatrans.
Habitat in Sumatra.

An. var. precedentis ?

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

G75

Col. alba, Linn.

Col. litoralis, Temm.

Burung-dara lahnt of the Javanese.
Habitat in Sumatra, et Java.

In Mnsceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Col. melanocephala, Gniel.

Joican-bondol of the J avanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Col. Javanica, Lath.

Poonai Tanna of the Malays.
Limoo-an of the Sumatrans.

Delimu or GUmukan of the Javanese.
Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Muscais Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Col. Jambu, Gmel.

Poonai Jambu of the Sumatrans.
Habitat in Sumatra.

Ln Musceo Soc. Zool.

Col. bitorquata, Temm.

Puter-genni of the Javanese.
Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Col. Tigi’ina, Temm.

Hero or Derkuku of the Javanese.
Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Col. Turtui’, Linn. VAX.

Balam or Terkooku of the Sumatrans.
Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Col. risoria, Linn.

Puter of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Muscxis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Col. Bantamensis, Sparm.

Katitiran of the Sumati’ans.

Berkutut of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Col. Amboinensis, Linn.

Derkuku-sopa of the Javanese.
Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

4 R 2

676

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Genus Pavo, Linn.

Pavo cristatus, Linn.

M'ra or JSIarak of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

Pavo muticus, Linn.

Merak of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatrd et Jav&.

In Musosis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Polyplectron, Temm.

Polyp, bicalcaratus.

Kuaoiv Chirmin of the Malays.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musao Soc. Zool.

Genus Gallus.

Gallus Bankiva, Temm.

Aijam Utan or Brooga of the Sumatrans.

Bengkiwo or Bekikko of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In ISIusceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Gallus varius.

Phasianus varius, S/iaw.

Pitte-ivonno of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musms Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Gallus ignitus.

Phasianus ignitus, Lath.

Tugang of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musao Soc. Zool.

Gallus erythropthalmus.

Phasianus erythropthalmos. Raff,., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 321.
Mira Mata of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

This bird is generally asserted to be the young of the preceding species. The ditference,
however, of the native names, and the observations of Sir Stamford Raffles on the spot, are suffi-
cient to authorize the birds being kept apart, until proof appears of their being the same.

Genus Argus, Temm.

.Argus giganteus, Temm.

Kuaow of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

CATALOGUE OE ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

G77

Genus Cryptonyx, Termn.

Crypt, cristatus, Vigors, Zool. Journal, Vol. IV. p. 318.

Beniol of tlie Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musao Soc. Zool.

Crypt, ocellatus, Id., Ib., p. 319.

Tetrao ocellatus, Raffi., Linn. Trans., Vol. XI 11. p. 322.
Burong Troong of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In ]\Ius(Eo Soc. Zool.

Crypt, niger, Id., Ib.

Habitat in Sumatra.
In Muscco Soc. Zool.

Crypt. feiTugineus, Id., Ib.

Habitat 'm Sumatia.
In Mus(Zo Soc. Zool.

Genus Ortygis, III.

Ort. Luzoniensis.

Tetrao Luzoniensis, Gmel.

Puyo of the Sumatrans.

Drigul $, Gomrna $, of the Javanese.
Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Coturnix, Cuv.

Cot. Sinensis.

Tetrao Sinensis, Gmel.

Pikau of the Sumatrans.

Piker of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Perdix, Lath.

Perd. Javanica, Lath.

Dagu of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Perd. personata, Horsf., Zool. Researehes, No. 8. pi. G.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Oi'ient.

Perd. curvirostris.

Tetrao curvirostris, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. /j. 323.

Lanting of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

678

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

These birds belong to the division of the gentis Perdix of Dr. Latham, which includes the
FrancoUns. Their place will be more accurately assigned in the Museum Rafflesianum, where
some other gallinaceous birds in the Sumatran collection will be included, that have not as yet
undergone examination.

Ordo IV. Grallatores.

Fam. Gruid^e.

Genus Ardea, Linn, et Auct.

Ard. cinerea, Linn. var.

Changa-aivu of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Ard. purpurea. Id.

Changa-idu of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Ard. alba, Id.

Kuntul of the J avanese.

Habitat iu Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Ard. garzetta. Id.

Habitat in Sumatra.
In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Ard. affinis, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 189.
Kuntul-cliilik of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

.\rd. Malaccensis, Gmel.

Ardea speciosa, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 189. — Zool. Researches,
No. 7. pi. 6.

Blekko-ireng of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et J ava.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Ard. Sinensis, Gmel.

Ard. lepida, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 189.
Bambangan of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Ard. flavicollis. Lath.

Tomtomman or Tototan of the Javanese.
Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

679

Ard. cinnamomea, Gmel.

Burong Kaladi of the Sumatrans.
A}/qm-ayaman of the Javanese.
Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musccis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Ard. virescens, Linn. ?

Burong Piichong of the Malays.
Upi-upian of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.
InMiisceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Ard. Nycticorax, Linn.

Gnwo of the Javanese.
Habitat in Java.

In Mus(Zo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Ciconia, Brisson.

Cic. Argala.

Ardea Argala, Lath.

Bangou Sula, Burong Kambing, and Burong Gaja of the Malays.
Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

A variety of this bird is in the collection, which is probably the Modun Crane of Dr. Latham.

Cic. Javanica, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 188.
Ciconia capillata, Temm.

Bangu of the J avanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musoeo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Cic. leucocephala.

Sandang-laice of the Javanese.
Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

There are some more species of this family of Ardeidce indicated by Sir Stamford Raffles as
inhabiting Sumatra, and there are also some birds in the Sumatran collection not referred to in
the foregoing list. A more perfect enumeration of both will be given in the Museum Raffiesi-
anum.

Genus Ibis.

Ibis falcinellus, Temm.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

680

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Fam. SCOLOPACID.E.
Genus Numenius, Brisson.

Num. arquata.

Terok of the Sumatrans.

Habitat in Sumatra.

/« Musceo Soc. Zool.

Num. phaeopus.

Gajahan of the J avanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Limosa, Brisson.

Lim. raelanura, Leisl.

Biru-lahnt of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Mus&is Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Lim. Terek, Temm.

Bedaran or Choweyan of the Javanese,
Habitat in J ava.

In Mus(£0 Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Totanus, Bechst.

, Tot. affinis, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 191.
Trinil of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc, Ind. Orient.

Tot. hypoleucos.

Trinil batu of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Tot. acuminatus, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII, p. 192.
Trinil gung of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java,

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Tot. tenuirostris, Id., Ib.

Keeyo of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient,

Tot. Damacensis, Id., Ib.

Habitat in Javd.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Tot. Glottis, Bechst.

Bcnoiichung of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

681

Genus Scolopax, Linii. et Auct.

Scol. gallinago, Linn.

Sekadidi of the Sumatrans.

Burchet of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Jav&.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Scol. saturata, Ilorsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 191. — Zool. Researches, No. 5. pi. 7.
Tekken of the J avanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Scolopax? Sumatrana, Rafft., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 321.

Kooning Kaki of the Sumati'ans.

Ilabitcit in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

This is a small species, with its bill turned upwards, the situation of which in the present
family remains to be investigated.

There is a species in the Sumatran cabinet nearly allied to the British Woodcock, which remains
to be examined.

Genus Rhynch.ea, Cuv.

Rhynch. Capensis.

Habitat in Sumatra, Raffl.

Rhynch. Orientalis, Ilorsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 193.

Pengung of the J avanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Tringa, Linn.

Tringa subarquata, Temm.

Mayatan of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Fam. R.\llid^.

Genus Parra, Linn.

Parra superciliosa, Ilorsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. ji. 194'. — Zool. Researches, No. 8.
pi. 7.

Pichisan of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Rallus, Linn.

Rail, gularis, Ilorsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 196.

Ayam Ayani of the Sumatrans.

Tikussan of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et J ava.

In Musais Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

682

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Rail, fuscus, Linn.

Habitat in J ava.

In Musao Soc. Ind. Orient.

Rail, quadristrigatus, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p, 196.
Habitat in Java.

In Muscbo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Gallinula, Linn.

Gallin. lugubris, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 195.
Bontod of the Javanese.

Habitat in J ava.

In Musxo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Gallin. Orientalis, Id., Ib.

Pro or Opel-opellan of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musoeis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Gallin. phaenicura, Penn.

Sri-bombo of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Porphyrio, Briss.

Porph. Indicus, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 194.
Porph. smaragdinus, Temm.

Pelliing of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et J ava.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Fulica, Linn.

Ful. atra, Linn.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceo Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient

Fam. Charadriad^.
Genus CuRSORrcs, Lath.

Curs, isabellinus, Meyer.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus Vanellus, Brisson.

Van. melanogaster, Bcclist.

Chibugan of the Javanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Van. tricolor, Horsf, Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII./). 186.
Terek of the Javanese.

Habitat in J ava.

In Musao Soc. Ind. Orient.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

683

Genus Charadrius, Linn, et Auct.

Char. Cantianus, Lath.

Trendasan of the Javanese.

Habitat in J ava.

In Mnsceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Char, pluvialis, Linn., var.

Chertding of the Sumatrans.

Trull of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et J ava.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Char. Asiaticus, Gmel.

Habitat in Jav&.

In Muscbo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Char, pusillus, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 187.
Habitat in J ava.

In Muscbo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Chai'. haticula, Linn., var.

Btcrong Booi of the Sumati’ans.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Muscbo Soc. Zool.

Genus Himantopus, Brisson.

Himant. melanopterus, Meyer.

Gagang-bayem of the J avanese.

Habitat in Java.

In Muscbo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Genus CEdicnemus, Cuv.

(Edicn. crepitans, Temm.

Gadang Kapala of the Sumatrans.
Habitat in Sumatra.

In Muscbo Soc. Zool.

Ordo V. Natatores.

Fam. ANATiDyE.

Genus Anas, Linn, et Auct.

Anas arcuata, Cuv. — Horsf., Zool. Researches, No. 8. pi. 8.

Bilibi of the Sumatrans.

Melivis of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In MuscBis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

A species of Teal is in the Sumatran collection, which requires examination.

4s2

684

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Fam. CoLYMBiD^.
Genus Podiceps, Lath.

Pod. minor, Lath.

Titihan of the J avanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et J ava.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Fam. Pelecanid^.
Genus Pelecaxus, Linn.

Pel. onocrotalus, Lbm.

La?npipi of the Malays.
fVa/ang Kadda of the Javanese.
Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Phalacrocorax, Brisson.

Phal. Africanus.

Pelecanus Africanus, Lath.

Pechuch of the Javanese.

Habitat in Sumatra et Java.

In Mtiscds Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

Genus Sula, Brisson.

Sula Bassana.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Genus Tachypetes, Vieill.

Tach. Aquilus, Vieill.

Pelecanus Aquilus, Linn.

Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Tach. leucocephalus. Id.

Pelecanus leucocephalus, Gmel.
Dandang Laid of the Sumatrans.
Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Genus Plotus, Linn.

Plot, melanogaster, Gmel.

Dandang Ayer of the Sumatrans.
Habitat in Sumatra et Java,

In Musceis Socc. Zool. et Ind. Orient.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

685

Fara. Larid^e.
Genus Sterna, Linn.

Sterna stolida, Linn.

Habitat in Sumatrd.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Sterna Cantiaca, Gmel. ?

Samiir Laid of the Sumatrans.
Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musao Soc. Zool.

Sterna Panayensis, Gmel.

Habitat in Sumatra.
In Musceo Soc. Zool.

Sterna Javanica, Horsf., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. jo. 198.
Sterna melanogastra, Temm.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Sterna media, Id., Ib,

Toyang-kacher of the Javanese.
Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Sterna gidsea, Id., Ib.

Puter-lahut of the Javanese.
Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Sterna affinis. Id., Ib.

Habitat in Java.

In Musceo Soc. Ind. Orient.

Sterna Sumatrana, Raffl., Linn. Trans., Vol. XIII. p. 329.
Habitat in Sumatra.

In Musceo Soc. Zool.

This bird seems to be immature, with the tail feathers not grown to their full length. It
appears to be the Larus Pulo-condor of the Index Ornithologicus, and of the Mus. Carlson. Fuse.
4. t. 83.

686

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

CLASS PISCES*.

Acanthopterygii.

Fam. Percid.®.

In the list of Fishes given by Sir Stamford Raffles, in his Descriptive Catalogue of a Zoolo-
gical Collection made in Sumatra, (Linnean Transactions, Vol. XIII., pages 335 and 336,) ten
species of Perea are stated to have been obtained ; but as no particulars respecting them are men-
tioned, it is impossible to identify them, or to refer them to their proper stations. The under-
mentioned species are in the Sumatran Collection.

Genus Serranus, Cuv.

Serr. confertus.

Serr. corpore pinnisque omnibus undique confertim maculatis ; corporis maculis majoribus
subhexagonis, pinnarum capitisque minoribus rotundatis.

Di 1

• TS‘

Serr. diacopaeformis.

Serr. praeoperculo supra angulum subemarginato, angulo rotundato dentibus 4 vel 5 majori-
bus ; corpore pinnisque rotundatis maculatis ; maculis pinnae dorsalis plagaeformibus, reliquis rotun-
datis.

D. H-

Genus Mesoprion, Cuv.

Mes. Malabaricus? Cuv. et Val., Hist. Nat. des Poiss., Tom. II., 480.

Sparus Malabaricus ? Sekn., Blochii Syst. Ichth., p. 278.

Mes.

• Genus Holocentrum, Guv.

Hoi. orientale, Cuv. et Val., Hist. Nat. des Poiss., Tom. III., p. 197.

Hoi. Diadema, Cuv. et Val., Hist. Nat. des Poiss., Tom. III., p. 213.

Holocentrus Diadema, Lacep., Hist. Nat. des Poiss., Tom. IV., p. 372., Tom.
III., pl.Z2,f.fi.

Pei'ca pulchella, Benn., Zool. Journ., Vol. III., p. 377, pi. 9, f. 3.

• The Fishes specified in the foUo\ving catalogue are in the collection presented by Sir Stamford Raffles to the
Zoological Society, and they were all collected by him during his residence in Sumatra. No reference, conse-
quently, is made to their habitat, or the museum in which they are preserved, as in the foregoing classes of Mam-
malia and Aves. The species marked by a star * are those indicated in Sir Stamford’s Catalogue in the Linnean
Transactions, but of which no specimens are in the Sumatran Collection.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

687

Genus Uranoscopus, Linn.

Ur. malacopterus.

Ur. pinna dorsali unica, vix spinosa, anali longiore ; pinnis pectoralibus rotundatis, dorsalem
vix attingentibus.

Genus Polynemus, Linn.

Two species of this genus are mentioned in the “Descriptive Catalogue,” but there is no
specimen referable to it in the Sumatran Collection.

Fam. Triglid^.

Genus Dactylopterus, Lactp.

Dact. orientalis, Cut. et Val., Hist. Nat. des Poiss., Tom. IV., p. 134, pi. 76.

Mooree Godoo, Russel, Coromandel Fishes, 161.

Genus Platycephalus, Schn.

Plat. Sumatranus.

Plat, capite elongate, cranio cristis spinosis quatuor; crista superciliari antice 1-spinosa, pos-
tice serrata ; infra-oculari spin^ brevi acuta pone oculum alterhque brevi terminali.

D. 11. A. 11. C. 11.

Genus Pterois, Cuv.

Pter. volitans, Cuv. et Val., Hist. Nat. des Poiss., tom. IV., p. S5^.pl. 88.

Gasterosteus volitans, Linn., Syst. Nat., p. 491.

Scorpasna volitans, Gmel., Linn. Syst. Nat., p. 1217. Schn., Blochii Syst. Ichth.,
p. 193.

Pter. antennata, Cuv. et Val., Hist. Nat. des Poiss., tom. IV., jo. 361.

Scorpaena antennata, Gmel., Linn. Syst. Nat., p. 1217. Schn. Blochii Syst. Icth.,
p. 193.

Genus Synanceia, Schn.

Syn. horrida, Schn., Blochii Syst. Ichth., p. 194.

Scorpaena homda, Gmel., Linn. Syst. Nat., ^.1217. Lac'ep., Hist. Nat. des Poiss.,
tom. III., p. 263., tom. \\., pi. \7.,f. 2.

Genus Gasterosteus, Linn.

One species of this genus is mentioned in the “ Descriptive Catalogue,” but does not exist in
the collection, unless the Pterois volitans be meant, which was with Linnaeus a Gasterosteus.

Fam. Sci^NiDiE.

Four species of Sciaena are noticed in the Descriptive Catalogue. The following are in the
Sumatran Collection of the Zoological Society.

688

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Genus Diagramma, Cuv.

Two species of this genus are contained in the collection, but the bad condition of the speci-
mens does not admit of their being satisfactorily determined.

Genus Scolopsis, Cuv.

Scol. cancellata, Val. MSS.

Scol. dorso brunneo-fusco, rivulis duobus longitudinalibus albidis, superiore usque ad
finem pinnae dorsalis percmTente, inferiore dimidiato, inter hos plagae quadratae variae magnitudinis
4 vel 5 : ventre flavido-ai’genteo.

Genus Leiopsis.

Pinna dorsalis unica. Radii membranae branchiostegae quinque. Praeoperculum osque
suborbitale integra, squamato-crenata. Operculum ad angulum breviter 1-spinosum. Dentes velu-
tini caninique. Linea lateralis continua. Dorsum subrectum.

Leiops. Rafflesii.

Genus Amphiprion, Bloch.

Amph. Polymnus, Bloch, Ichth., tab. S\Q.f. 1.

Var.'marginatus, Ih.,f. 3.

Genus Pomacentrus, Lacep.

Pom. nuchalis.

Pom. macula elongata nucham circumdante, maculaque rotundata dorsi ub’inque albidis.

Genus Dascyllus, Cuv.

Dasc. Aruanus, Cuv.

Chaetodon Aruanus, Linn., Mus. Ad. Frid. R., ji. 63. t. 33, f. 8.

Fam. SpARiDiE.

Genus Monotaxis.

Dentes antici velutini caninique ; laterales molares in unica serie. Operculum superne
emarginatum.

Mon. Indica.

Fam. CHiETODONTIDiE.

Seven species of Chaetodon are noticed in the “ Descriptive Catalogue.” Those in the Suma-

tran Collection are the following.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

689

Genus CiiiExoDON, Linn

Chaet. Rafflesii.

Chaet. flavescens, fascia oculari nigra, pinnis dorsi anique nigro intra marginem
circumdatis, caudali fascia nigrL

Genus Chelmon, Cuv.

Chelmon rostratus, Cuv.

Chaetodon rostratus, Linn., Mus. Ad. Frid. R., p. 61., t. SS.,f. 2.

Genus Platax, Cuv.

Platax orbicularis, Cuv.

Chaetodon orbicularis, Forsk., Faun. Arab.,p. 59.

Chaet. pentacanthus, Laccp., Hist. Nat. des Poiss., Tom. IV., jo. 4<76.,pl. XII.,y. 2.
Acanthinion orbicularis. Id., ib. W.,p. 500.

Fam. ScOMBRIDiE.

The “ Descriptive Catalogue” mentions the Scomber Madagascariensis, {Shaw, Scomberoides
Commersonii, Lactp.^ and five others. Only one species of this family exists in the Sumatran
Collection. v

Genus Caranx, Lacep.

Car. praeustus.

Car. corpore ovali, fronte obliquo parum convexo : dentibus parvis in seriebus pluribus
dispositis: pinna dorsali secunda superre nigra.

D. 8, A. 2, i-r. C. 18.

One species of Zeus, ( Linn.,) and the

* Coryphaena Hippurus, (Linn.)

are also mentioned in the “ Descriptive Catalogue but neither of these fishes exists in the Suma-
tran collection presented to the Zoological Society by Sir Stamford Raffles.

Fam. Trichiurid.®.

Genus Trichiurus, Linn.

The “ Descriptive Catalogue” includes one species,

* Trichiurus lepturus, Linn.

but it is probable, from the habitat, that the fish was rather the Trichiurus Haumela, Schn.

4 T

690

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Fam. Gobiid.e.

No specimen of this family exists in the Sumati’an collection of the Zoological Society. The
“ Descriptive Catalogue” enumerates the

* Gobius niger, Linn., var.

probably specifically distinct from the European race.

* Gobius Schlosseri.

(Periophthalmus Schlosseri, Schn.)

and two other species of the Linnsean genus Gobius, which are noticed as probably undescribed.

Fam. Batrachid.^:.

This family is also without a representative in the Sumatran collection. The “ Descriptive
Catalogue” has

* Batrachus Tau, Bloch.

Gadus Tau, Linn.

Fam. Labrid^.

Genus Julis, Cuv.

Julis Argus, Benii., Zool. Journ., Vol. III., p. 577., pi. 13., y. 7.

Gomph. ornatus.

Genus Gomphosus, Lactp.

Gomph. brunneus, pinnis verticalibus flavescentibus, caudali supra infraque nigro
marginata ; pinna pectorali apicem versus purpurascente, fascia dilute caerulea.

MALACOPTERYGII.

* ABDOMINALES.

Fam. EsociDiE.

Of the Linnaean genus Esox no specimen exists in the Sumatran collection. The three follow-
ing are enumerated in the “ Descriptive Catalogue.”

* Esox belone, (Linn., Belone vulgaris, Cuv.)

* Esox marginatus, (Forsk., Hemirhamphus marginatus, Cuv.)

* Esox Becuna, ( Shaw, Sphyraena Picuda, Schn., Sphyr. Becuna, Lacep.)

The latter species is properly referable to the Percidae.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

691

Genus Exoccetus, Linn.

Exoc. exiliens, Linn., Syst. Nat., p. 316.

The

* Exoc. volitans, Linn.
occurs in the “ Descriptive Catalogue.”

Fam. S1LURID.E.

Two species of Silurus, Linn., are included in the “ Descriptive Catalogue,” but they are not
particularized. Those in the Sumatran collection are

Genus Bagrus, Cuv.

Bag. Sumatranus.

Bagr. cirris sex ; capite ovali, cranio rudo, granuloso, vix radiato ; pinna adiposa brevi.

D. i 0. A. 19. P. C. 15.

Genus Plotosus, Lacep.

Plot, marginatus.

Plot, plumbeus, lineis longitudinalibus 4 albis, pinnis verticalibus nigro limbatis :
pinnarum dorsalis pectoraliumque radio primo utrinque serrato, breviori.

D. cum C. et A. 100 +. V. 13. P.

Fam. Salmonid^e.

One species is mentioned in the “ Descriptive Catalogue,” but none exists in the collection.

Fam. Clupeid^.

Genus Clupea, Linn.

Clup. ovalis.

Clup. corpore ovali : pinna dorsali media, antice elevata : macula humerali nigra.
D. 18. A. 17. C. 18.? P. 15. V. 7.

Genus Alosa, Cuv.

Al. elongata.

Al. corpore elongate : ossibus maxillaribus intermaxillaribusque dentibus minutis
acutis instructs ; pinna dorsali media, brevi, antice elevata ; anali prmlonga ; pectoral! radio primo
complanato.

D. 17. A. 49.

4x2

69-2

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Genus Megalops ? Cuv.

Meg. filaraentosum ? Cuv.

Kundinga ? Russel, Coromandel Fishes, 203.

** THORACICI.

Fam. Pleuronectid^.

No specimen of this family is in the Sumatran collection. In addition to one unnamed species
the following are enumerated in the “ Descriptive Catalogue

* Pleur. macrolepidotus, {Blgch, Ichth., Tab. 190, Hippoglossus macrolepidotus, Cuv.)

* Pleur. Zebra, {Bloch, Ichth., Tab. 187, Solea Zebra, Cuv)

* Pleur. bilineatus, {Bloch, Ichth., Tab. 188, Achirus bilineatus, Lacep., Jerre Potoo, E.

Russel, Tab. 74.)

Fam. Echeneid.e.

The “ Descriptive Catalogue ” contains

* Echeneis Neucrates, {Linn.)

APODI.

Fam. Mur.enid.e.

Genus Conger, Cuv.

Cong, longirostris.

Cong, pinna dorsali ante basin pinnarum pectoralium incipiente ; linea laterali inermi
dentibus vomerinis maximis, triangularibus, acutis.

Genus Ophisurus, Lacep.

Ophis. apicalis.

Ophis. pinnis pectoralibus mediocribus, dorsali analique caudas apicem pene attingen
tibus ; dorso fusco, ventre pallidiore, rufo fuscoque pallide nebuloso.

Genus Mur^na, Thunb.

Mur. picta, Thunb., Spec. Ichth. de Mur. Sfc., p. 8., Tab. 2.,f. 2.

Gymnothorax pictus, Schn., Blochii Syst. Ichth., p. 529.

Muraenophis pantherinus. Lace])., Hist. Nat. des Poiss., Tom. \ .,p. 643.
Mur. nebulosa, Thunb., Spec. Ichth. de Mur.^-c., p. 7., tab. \.,f. 2.

Gymnothorax nebulosus, Schn., Blochii Syst. Ichth., p. 528.

Muraenophis stellata, Lacep., Hist. Nat. des Poiss., Tom. V., p. 644.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

G93

M ur. grisea.

Muraenophis grisea, Lacep., Hist. Nat. des Poiss., Tom. V.,p. 644.

Genus Gymnomur.ena, Lacep.

Gymn. Zebra.

Muraena Zebra, Shaio, Gen. Zool., Vol. \W ., p. 31. Nat. Misc.,pl. 323.
Gymnothorax Zebra, Schn., Blochii Syst. Ichth., p. 528.

Gymnomuraena doliata, Lacep., Hist. Nat. des Poiss., Tom. V., 649, 2)1. 19, f. 4.

BRANCHIOSTEGI.

Fam. SYNGNATHIDiE.

A species of Hippocampus, Cuv., is indicated in the “ Descriptive Catalogue ” as the

* Syngnathus Hippocampus, {Linn)

Fam. DiODONTiDiE.

* Diodon Hystrix, {Linn.)

* Tetrodon hispidus, {Linn.)

These species are enumerated in the “ Descriptive Catalogue.”

Fam. Balistid^.

Genus Balistes, Linn.

Bal. ?

Genus Monacanthus, Cuv.

Mon. Sinensis? Cuv.

Balistes Sinensis? Gmel., Linn. Syst. Nat., p. 1470. — Bloch, Ichth., Tab. \ 52,f. 1.
Genus Triacanthus, Cuv.

Triac. biaculeatus, Cuv.

Balistes biaculeatus, Gmel., Linn. Syst. Nat.,p. 1465. — Bloch, Ichth., Tab. 148,y. 2.
Bouree, or Abatoo, Russel, Coromandel Fishes, 21.

Genus Ostracion, Linn.

Ostr. quadricornis, Linn., Syst. Nat., p. 331. — Bloch, Ichth., Tab. 134.

Ostr. cornutus, Linn., Mus. Ad. Frid. R., p. 59. — Bloch, Ichth., Tab. 133.

CHONDROPTERYGII.

Fam. Squalid^.

Genus Scyllium, Cuv.

Scyll. marmoratum.

Scyll. dorso maculis subrotundatis nigris albisque vario, illis longitudinaliter coalitis
vittasque moniliformes circiter sex fingentibus : pinna dorsali secunda ultra analem extensa.

694

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Scyll. plagiosum.

Scyll. dorso pallide brunneo, plagis latis saturate brunneis subfasciaeformibus undecim
maculas rotundas pallidas includentibus : pinn4 dorsali secunda longe ante analera posita, hac
cum caudali subcoalita.

Genus Carcharias, Cuv.

Carch. melanopterus ? Quoy et Gaim., Voyage de Freycinet, ZooL, pi. 43./. 1.

Genus Zyg.ena, Cuv.

Zyg. Blochii, Val., Mem. duMus. d'Hist.Kat., Tom. \X.,p. 221, pi. 11.,/ 2.

Squalus Zygaena, Bloch, Ichth., Tab. 117, baud Lhm.

Fam. Raiid.e.

Genus Rhixobatus, Schn.

Rhin. typus?

Rhinobatus Rhinobatus ? Schn., Blochii Syst. Ichth., p. 353.

M. Cuvier regards as a variety of this species the Raia Thouiniana, Shaw, mentioned in the
Descriptive Catalogue.”

Rhin. Djiddensis

Raja Djiddensis, ForsJc., Faun. Arah.,p. 18.

Rhin. laevis? Schn., Blochii Syst. Ichth., p. 354.

Walawah Tenkee? Russel, Coromandel Fishes, 10.

Genus Trygox, Adans.

Trygon immunis.

Tryg. corpore subquadrato, omnino laevi; cauda longiore, spinis duabus serratis citra
medium armata.

Tryg. paecilurus.

Raja paecilura, Shaw, Gen. Zool., Vol. \.,p. 291.

Tryg. Kunsua, Cuv.

Tenkee Kunsul, Russel, Coromandel Fishes, 6.

Genus Myliobatis, Bum.

Myl. Narinari, Cuv.

Raja Narinari, Euphr., N. S. A., XL, p. 205, t. 10.

Eel Tenkee, Russel, Coromandel Fishes, 8.

This is the Raja guttata of Dr. Shaw’s General Zoology, under which name it is enumerated
in the “ Descriptive Catalogue.” In addition to it, and to the Raja Thouiniana, eight other species
are mentioned, but without names or references.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

«95

Classis REPTILIA.

Ordo I, Testudinata.

Genus Emys.

Em. crassicollis, Bell, M.S.

Hitherto unpublished.

Genus Trionyx.

Tr. subplanus, Geoff., Ann. Mus. d'Hist. Nat., Tom. XIV. p.W.

A dry specimen.

Tr. carinatus, Geoff., L. C.p. 14. T. IV., Testudo rostrata, Auctorum.

These specimens are particularly interesting, as they establish the habitat of two species which
had been described by GeofFroy, and the latter by other authors, but without any certain know-
ledge of their native country.

Ordo II. Loricata.

Genus Crocodilus.

Cr. biporcatus, Cuv., Ossem. Foss., V., Ft. 2. p. 49.

Ordo III. Sauria.

There are several species of this order in the collection, but one apparently undescribed
They will be particulai-ized in the “ Museum Rafflesianum."

Ordo IV. Serpentes.

Genus Anguis.

Two specimens of this genus, of doubtful synonymy, if as yet described, are in the collection.

Genus Boa.

B. Phrygia, Auctorum.

Genus Coluber.

Col. ornatus, Merrem, p. 109.

Kalla Jin, Russell, Ind. Serp., II., p. 4., t. 2.

Col. umbratus, Baud., Rept. VII. 144.

Dooblee, Russell, Ind. Serp., \\., p. 5. t. 3.

696

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Col. 8-lineata, Auct.

There are several other species, but the foregoing are amongst the most interesting.

Genus Dryinus, Merrem.

Dr. nasutus, Bell, Zool. Journ. W, p. 327.

Dr. oxyrynchus, Id., Ib. p. 326.

Genus Leptophis, Bell.

Leptophis purpurescens ? Id., Zool. Journ. II. 328.

Another interesting and beautiful species of this genus, probably not described, is in the
collection.

Genus Pelamis.

Pelamis bicolor, Auct.

Nallawahla-gillee Pam, Russell, Ind. Serp., I. t. 41.

P. Chloris, Merr. 139.

There is a peculiarly interesting specimen of this species, with eggs not yet excluded, which
are enveloped with a thin membranous covering only, like all those serpents which are ovi-vivipa-
rous, w^hich is undoubtedly the case with this.

Genus Naja, Merrem.

N. repudians. Id. 147.

Genus Hurria, Baud.

H. bilineata, Baud., V., p. 277., T. LXVI.

Genus Dipsas.

Dips, dendrophila, Wagler, Amphib. Fasc. I., T. VIII.

Genus Cophias.

Of this genus there ai'e three species which do not appear to have been figui'ed, and are
probably undescribed.

CATALOGUE OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

697

ANNULOSA.

The Insects in the Sumatran collection have not as yet been accurately examined. The fol-
lowing is about the number of species contained in each department. A detailed account of them
is in preparation for the Museum Rafflesianum.

Classis Mandibulata.

Ordo I. COLEOPTERA.

320 species.

Ordo II. Orthoptera.

30 species.

Ordo III. Neuroptera.

20 species.

Ordo IV. Trichoptera.

10 species.

Ordo \ . Hymenoptera.

60 species.

Classis Haustellata.

Ordo I. Aptera.

None.

Ordo II. Hemiptera.

40 species.

Ordo III. Homoptera.

30 species.

Ordo IV. Lepidoptera.

200 species.

Ordo V. Diptera.

20 species.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

“ For the general advancement of Zoological science, it is proposed that a Society shall be esta-
blished, the immediate object of which will be the collection of such living subjects of the Animal
Kingdom as may be introduced and domesticated with advantage in this country.

“ For this purpose a collection of living animals belonging to the Society will be established
in the vicinity of the metropolis ; to which the members of the Society will have access as a matter
of right, and the public on such conditions as may be hereafter arranged.

“ It is proposed that the Society shall have a museum, as well as a library of all books con-
nected with the subject ; to which access will be given to the members and the public as above stated.

” As it is impossible to attain all the objects of the Society on its first establishment, those of
utility will engage its earliest attention, and the more scientific views will be attended to as the
means of the Society admit.

“ The Society will be directed as other public societies are, — by a President, Council and
Officers, and regulated by laws to be established wth the concurrence of the members of the
Society.

“ A detailed Prospectus of the objects of this Society having been circulated privately last year,
a corrected copy is annexed.

“ The Terms of Admission to the Society will be Three Pounds, and the Annual Subscription
Two Pounds ; or the w'hole to be compounded for on the usual terms.

“ A Committee consisting of the following noblemen and gentlemen was originally nominated
by a meeting of fi'iends of the proposed Society in J uly last, and the Prospectus is published under
their authority : —

“ CHAIRMAN,

“ SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES, LL.D., F.R.S., &c.

“ Duke of Somerset, LL.D., F.R.S., &c. “ Earl of Egremont, F.R.S., &c.

“ Earl of Darnley, F.R.S., &c. “ Earl of Malmesbury.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

699

“ Viscount Gage, M.A., See.

“ Samuel, Lord Bishop of Carlisle, LL.D.,
V.P.R.S., &c.

“ Lord Stanley, M.P., V.P.L.S., See.

“ Sir H. Davy, Bart., LL.D., Pres. R.S., &c.

“ Sir Everard Home, Bart., V.P.R.S., &c.

“ E. Barnard, Esq., F.L.S., ic.

“ H. T. CoLEBROOKE, EsQ., F.R.S., &c.

“ Davies Gilbert, Esq., V.P.R.S. &c.

“ Rev. Dr. Goodenough, F.R.S., &c.

“ Thos. Horsfield, M.D., F.L.S., &c.

“ The Rev. W. Kirby, M.A., F.R.S., &c.

“ T. A. Knight, Esq., F.R.S., Pres. H.S., &c.

“ T. A. Knight, Jun. Esq., M.A., See.

“ W. Sharpe Mac Leay, Esq., M.A., F.L.S., &c.
“ J. Sabine, Esq., F.R.S., &c.

“ N. A. Vigors, Esq., M.A. F.R.S., See.

“ CiiAS. Baring Wall, Esq., M.P.

“ Noblemen and gentlemen desirous of becoming members of this Society, are requested to
give their names to any member of the above Committee, or to Mr. Griffiths at the Royal Institution
in Albemarle Sti'eet.

“ Prospectus of a Society for introducing and domesticating new Breeds or Varieties of Animals,
such as Quadrupeds, Birds, or Fishes, likely to he useful in Common Life ; and for forming a
General Collection in Zoology.

“ Zoology, which exhibits the nature and properties of animated beings, their analogies to
each other, the wonderful delicacy of their structure, and the fitness of their organs to the peculiar
purposes of their existence, must be regarded not only as an interesting and intellectual study, but
as a most important branch of Natural Theology, teaching by the design and wonderful results of
organization, the wisdom and power of the Creator. In its relation to useful and immediate
(Economical purposes it is no less important. The different races of animals employed in social
life, for labour, clothing, food, &c. are the direct objects of its attention ; their improvement, the
manner in which their number may be increased, the application of their produce, and its con-
nection with various departments of industry and manufactures, are of the utmost importance to
Man in every stage of his existence, but most so in proportion as he advances in wealth, civiliza-
tion, and refinement.

“ It has long been a matter of deep regret to the cultivators of Natural History, that we
possess no great scientific establishments either for teaching or elucidating Zoology, and no public
menageries or collections of living animals, where their nature, properties and habits may be
studied. In almost every other part of Europe, except in the metropolis of the British empire,
something of this kind exists ; but though richer than any other country in the extent and variety
of our possessions, and having more facilities from our colonies, our fleets, and our varied and
constant intercourse with every quarter of the globe, for collecting specimens and introducing
living animals, we have as yet attempted little and effected almost nothing; and the student of

4 u 2

700

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Natural History, or the philosopher who wishes to examine animated nature, has no other resource
but that of visiting and profiting by the magnificent institutions of neighbouring countries.

“ In the hope of removing this opprobrium to our age and nation, it is proposed to establish a
Society bearing the same relation to Zoology that the Horticultural does to Botany, and upon a
similar principle and plan. The great objects should be, the introduction of new varieties, breeds,
and races of animals, for the purpose of domestication, or for stocking our farm-yards, woods,
pleasure-grounds, and wastes ; with the establishment of a general Zoological Collection, consisting
of prepared specimens in the different classes and orders, so as to afford a correct view of the
Animal Kingdom at large in as complete a series as may be practicable, and at the same time
point out the analogies between the animals already domesticated, and those which are similar in
character, upon which the first experiments may be made.

“To promote these objects, a piece of ground should be provided in the neighbourhood of
the metropolis, affording sufficient accommodation for the above purposes ; with a suitable esta-
blishment, so conducted as to admit of its extension on additional means being afforded.

“ As it is presumed that a number of persons would feel disposed to encourage an institution
of this kind, it is proposed to make the Annual Subscription from each individual only Two
Pounds, and the Admission Fee Three Pounds. The Members of course will have free and con-
stant access to the Collection and Grounds, and might, at a reasonable price, be furnished with
living specimens, or the ova of fishes and birds.

“ When it is considered how few amongst the immense variety of animated beings have been
hitherto applied to the uses of Man, and that most of those which have been domesticated or
subdued belong to the early periods of society, and to the efforts of savage or uncultivated
nations *, it is impossible not to hope for many new, brilliant and useful results in the same field,
by the application of the wealth, ingenuity, and varied resources of a civilized people.

“ It is well known with respect to the most of the Animal Tribes, that domestication is a
process which requires time ; that the offspring of wild animals raised in a domestic state are more
easily tamed than their parents ; and that in a certain number of generations the effect is made
permanent, and connected with a change, not merely in the habits but even in the nature of the
animal. The inconveniences of migration may be, in certain cases, prevented, and the wildest
animals, when supplied abundantly with food, may lose the instinct of locomotion, and their
offspring acquire new habits ; and it is known that a breed, fairly domesticated, is with difficulty
brought back to its original state. Should the Society flourish and succeed, it will not only be
useful in common life ; but would likewise promote the best and most extensive objects of the

“ * We owe the peacock and common fowl to the natives of India ; most of our races of cattle, and
swans, geese, and ducks, to tlie aborigines of Europe : the turkey to the natives of America ; the Guinea-
fowl to those of Africa. The pike and carp, with some other fishes, were probably introduced by the
monks.”

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

701

Scientific History of Animated Nature, and offer a collection of living animals, such as never yet
existed in ancient or modern times. Rome, at the period of her greatest splendour, brought
savage monsters from every quarter of the world then known, to be shewn in her amphitheatres, to
destroy or be destroyed as spectacles of wonder to her citizens. It would well become Britain to
offer another, and a very different series of exhibitions to the population of her metropolis ;
namely, animals brought from every part of the globe to be applied either to some useful purpose,
or as objects of scientific research, not of vulgar admiration. Upon such an institution, a philosophy
of Zoology may be founded, pointing out the comparative anatomy, the habits of life, the improve-
ment and the methods of multiplying those races of animals which are most useful to man, and
thus fixing a most beautiful and important branch of knowledge on the permanent basis of
direct utility.”

“ March 1*<, 1 825.

CORRESPONDENCE

WITH

MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

The following series of letters comprises the correspondence alluded to in page 373, as containing
the original contract between Sir Stamford Raffles and Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel, by which the
services of these gentlemen were engaged on the part of the East India Company. The sub-
sequent correspondence that took place on the subject, when circumstances rendered it necessary
that their services should be dispensed with, is given in continuation. As some observations
have been made on the Continent, which do not appear to set this action in its true light, it is con-
sidered expedient to publish the whole of this correspondence ; and to publish it without note or
comment. The facts of the case will best speak for themselves. An additional reason may be
assigned for giving the whole of these letters, as they will exhibit not merely the zeal of Sir
Stamford in promoting the cause of science, but the comprehensiveness of the views, and the judi-
ciousness of the mode, by which he lent his own assistance to the attainment of this object.
There are few individuals involved in the serious and important duties of so elevated a station as
that which he held at the time of this correspondence, who could have commanded time or ability
for drawing up the appropriate instructions for collecting and describing subjects of natural his-
tory, which wdll appear in the course of these letters. Indeed, the account of the animals
collected in Sumatra under his immediate inspection and influence, w'hich he subsequently drew
up himself*, and sent to England with the collection, when deprived of the assistance of the
French naturalists, gives a striking proof of the versatility of his genius, which could embrace, as if
by intuition, that clearness and exactness in the technical details of science, which less gifted
individuals attain alone by a previous professional education, and a long course of study. Another
distinguishing feature in his character will be equally prominent in the accompanying corres-
pondence, the liberality by w'hich he pursued his praiseworthy objects. It will appear by some
passages in these letters, that, when likely to be deprived of the public means of recompensing
Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel, he volunteered to prevent the loss which would accrue to science
by their discontinuance of their services, by defraying their expenses from his private resources.

See Linn. Transactions, Vol. XIII. pp. 239 — 341.

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

703

“ To Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel.

“ Gentlemen,

“ I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 5th instant, explanatory of
the object of your researches, and of the circumstances in which you are placed.

“ It is my intention at an early period, to submit to the Most Noble the Governor-General
in Council, and also to the Honourable the Court of Directors, my opinion on the advantages which
may result to science and general knowledge, by the prosecution of the pursuits in which you are
engaged, and in the mean time request to make you the following offer : —

“ Your researches to be confined to Sumatra, and the smaller Islands in its immediate
vicinity.

“ The draftsmen, &c. engaged by you to be entertained at the charge of Government, who
will also defray all incidental and necessary expences to which you may be subjected in the prose-
cution of your researches, on condition that such researches are made for and on account of the
Honourable the East India Company, and that your collections, &c. are considered as their
property.

“ An estimate to be framed of your monthly expences for such establishment, &c. on which
a fixed sum will be paid to you to cover all charges of every description, and the arrangement and
transmission to Europe, or to Bengal, of such information and materials as you may collect, to be
subject to the orders of Government.

“ With reference to your present establishment, and the expences you must necessarily be
subjected to, a fixed monthly allowance of 500 ducats is considered adequate to cover all your dis-
bursements, and at the same time to provide draftsmen, &c. for the botanical department ; this
sum will therefore be authorized until I may be honoured with the further orders of the Supreme
Authorities, and I shall hereafter have the honor to communicate with you personally, my sentiments
regarding the arrangement of your materials, and the plan which it may be advisable to pursue in
order to combine economy and efficiency.

“ I am, &c.

(Signed) “ T. S. Raffles.

“ Prince of Wales’s Island, March 7, 1819.”

“ To Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel.

“ Gentlemen,

“ A period of six months having elapsed since you commenced your important labours
in the Eastern Islands, it becomes my duty to communicate to the higher authorities the progress
you have made, and the plan on which you propose to prosecute your further enquiries and col-
lections. It is, therefore, necessary that I should receive from you a general catalogue of the col-

70i

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

lections you have made, accompanied by such observations as may be necessary to aid my judgment
in framing this Report.

“ Catalogues framed on the principle of that which you have recently submitted to me for
the class Aves seem sufficient to answer the purpose of general reference, but I would recommend
the introduction of another column of genera being reserved for the Linnaean names.

“ I avail myself of this occasion to point out to you the arrangement which appears to me best
calculated for insuring the efficiency of your labours and my own convenience, it is essential towards
a proper understanding that some regular and consistent mode should be observed.

“ In order to enable me to comprehend the importance and extent of your discoveries and
collections, as well as to provide against the inconvenience which might otherwise arise in the
eventual communication of your observations in England, in consequence of the difference of
language, and difficulty of reading a foreign hand-writing, I am desirous that a particular and
scientific description, however dry and laborious, should be made of every subject which you
collect, which may in any one respect differ from the already received and published accounts of
Europe, or which may be imperfectly described. The forms of which I have availed myself on a
former occasion, and which are prescribed by the leading members of the Royal Society in
England, are such as I would recommend to your adoption. I enclose sketches for the Mammalia,
Aves, and Pisces, and I have no doubt you will at once perceive the extent of my wishes in this
respect. The generic character, as well as the essential part of the specific character, I would
recommend to be invariably in Latin; the remaining points may either be in Latin or French as you
may find most convenient ; the miscellaneous observations, which are not limited either as to
extent or form, will of course be invariably in French, and are intended to include whatever addi-
tional particulars you may be desirous of stating.

“ Of the three first classes I conceive a very short time will enable you to complete the
detailed descriptions thus required. The amphiboe may next be proceeded on, and eventually
the insects may be included in a general descriptive catalogue, arranged according to the Linnaean
system.

“ A separate sheet should be appropriated and numbered for each subject, and a duplicate
transmitted to me as soon as prepared, accompanied by a dried specimen and a drawing, when
completed, which latter I can compare and return.

“ Whenever you may have completed the descriptions of those animals you already possess, I
conceive that it will be easy for you to make me a monthly report of your proceedings, accompanied
by descriptions of the collections you have made during the preceding month.

“ I would wish you to lose no time in sending me the descriptions of all the subjects you
possess, framed on the principle now laid down ; and until these are fully completed, I shall be
happy to receive your daily labours, in preference to waiting until you have completed any given
number or class. By these means 1 can bestow a certain portion of each day to your pursuits.

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

705

and communicate to you without delay on all questions which may occur. As your collections arc
already extensive and important, it appears to me that it would be advisable to bring up the
arrears of descriptions on the plan now proposed, in preference to the commencement of more
extensive researches in the interior of the Island. A few days’ delay will be of no material import-
ance, and the advantage of arranging your materials as you proceed is incalculable.

“ Each of the descriptions will be dated, and of course open to revision at a future period, as
your observations may be corrected and enlarged.

“ I am aware that in requiring of you to attend scrupulously to the forms I have submitted, I
am imposing an irksome, and perhaps, in your opinion, in some respects an unnecessarily laborious
task, but you are to consider that, however unnecessary these details and forms are to persons
whose lives are devoted to the subject, and whose acquisitions and experience place them above
such considerations, I am myself a plain man, and do not possess these advantages. I have under-
taken that your labours shall be duly appreciated in England ; and to effect this, it is necessary I
should go hand-in-hand with you, and that you should descend to the forms which are indispensible
for my assistance.

“ In conclusion, I request to call your attention to the importance of making a selection of
a few objects of interest preserved in spirits, or prepared as skeletons, for transmission to the East
India Company by the first favourable opportunity, a similar selection annually should be contem-
plated. Each of the subjects sent home should be fully described here, and the description printed
according to such form as may be agreed upon.

“ I am, &c.

(Signed) “ T. S. Raffles."

‘'Fort Marlborough, September 18, 1819.”

“ A Monsieur liaff.es, Lieutenant Gouverneur d Bencoulen.

“ Monsieur le Gouverneur,

“ Nous avons I’honneur de vous adresser ci-joint la lettre officielle que vous avez bien
voulu nous communiquer ; ses conclusions ne pouvaient pas nous surprendre beaucoup, et nous
les avons trouvees d’ailleurs ti’op justes pour nous en plaindre, et trop liberales pour ne pas etre
penetre de la plus vive reconnoissance envers son Excellence le Gouverneur Genei’al.

“ Ne pouvant plus par consequent. Monsieur, compter sur un etablissement fixe et sur des
moyens pecuniaires qui nous eussent permis de continuer, pendant un grand nombre d’annees, un
plan de recherches dont nous avions tout lieu d’esperer d’immenses resultats, nous nous permettrons
de vous soumettre quelques rMexions auxquelles nous nous sommes arretes des le moment ou nous
avons ete informes de la decision du Concile Supreme.

“ Une annee d’experience nous ayant appris au Bengal, que dans I’lnde notre fortune parti-
culiere serait bien loin de pouvoir suffire aux depenses dans lesquelles nous entrames en poursui-

4 X

706

CORRESPONDEN'CE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

vant le plan de recherches Zoologiques que nous avions con9U ; persuades en outre que quelques fus-
sent les somnies dont nous pussions disposer, nous ne pouvions jamais esperer d’atteindre de bien
grands resultats sans I’assistance immediate du Gouvernement local de I’Honorable Compagnie,
nous nous decidames, Monsieur, d’apres les propositions que notre excellent ami Monsieur Rick-
etts voulut bien nous faire en votre nom, a cesser toutes nos correspondences avec la France, et a
faire taire dans I’interet de la science le desir si naturel de consacrer nos travaux tout entiers k nos
parens et a notre pays ; nous partimes done avec vous et serions bien ingrats si nous ne nous
applaudissions pas chaque jour de notre vie d’avoir ecoute les presentimens que quelques instans
d’entretien avec vous avaient suffi pour faire naitre en nous. Ces presentimens. Monsieur, ont ete
plus que realises, en m’honorant en particuliere du titre de votre medecin ; vous nous avez permis de
nous nous considerer comme faisant partie de votre famille ; et, en mettant a noti'e disposition tons
les moyens que la plus extreme bienveillance a pu vous inspirer a notre egard, vous nous avez mis
en etat d’explorer avec fruit tous les pays interessans que nous avons visite avec vous : bien
plus. Monsieur, au milieu des importantes negociations que vous venez de terminer au Bengal,
vous n’avez pas oublie ceux que vous vous plaisez a nommer vos amis, et nous voyons avec la plus
vive reconnoissance combien vous etes peines de ce que les circonstances n’ont pu permettre le
changement de la decision de son Excellence le Gouverneur General. Heureusement pour nous.
Monsieur, nous sommes persuades que cette resolution ne pent nous forcer a nous eloigner de
Sumatra, et meme, apres y avoir reflechi, nous sommes alles jusqu’ a penser, quelle pomTait
bien au contraire nous fournir I’occasion de nous attacher plus particulierement a vous.

“ En effet, IMonsieur, puisque nous ne pouvons plus compter sur I’etablissement fixe que vous
aviez eu la bonte de solliciter pour nous, I’etat brillant de votre fortune ne poun’ait-il pas vous per-
mettre de disposer vous-meme dune certaine somme pour cet objet ? nous pourrions de notre cote,
sans deranger beaucoup la notre, faire une partie des frais des collections que nous pourrions
recueillir ; elle serait de meme en somme, et de cette maniere nous aurions le double avantage de
pouvoir trouver I’occasion de vous donner quelques preuves de notre reconnoissance, et de pour-
suivre avec les memes moyens des recherclies qui ont commence sous d’aussi heureux auspices.

“ Voila, Monsieur, I’idee a laquelle nous nous sommes plus a nous arreter depuis deux mois ;
si elle vous etait agreable, elle nous en plairait bien d’avantage encore ; mais. Monsieur, quelques
soient vos propres resolutions, nous vous prions de rester bien convaincu que nous mettons toute
notre confiance et toutes nos esperances en vous, et que notre seule ambition est de continuer avec
votre assistance des travaux que nous serions probablement obliges d’interrompre, si nous etions
obliges de les continuer a nos propres depens.

“ Nous avons I’honneur, &c.

(Signed) “ Diard et D. C.

“ 9 Mais, 1820.”

“ Nous venons de recevoir votre beau tigre et nous allons nous en occuper de suite; nous
vous remercions beaucoup pour nos caisses.”

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

707

To A. M. Diard.

^‘Sunday, March 12, 1820.

“ My Dear Sir,

“ I fear the plan you propose for making the future collections, may he attended with
more difficulties than you are aware of, and it besides appears to be open to several objections. 1
can hardly see any other course than the two following : —either that you should continue to make
your collections as heretofore, proceeding on a more limited scale, or that you should at once make
the collections on your own account, or on account of your Government.

“ We have hitherto gone on so well, that in my extreme desire to meet your wishes, and to
give all the possible aid in my power to your highly important and interesting labours, I am willing
to make great sacrifices, and though the Supreme Government do not approve of my first proposi-
tion in your favour, I will undertake to supply you with funds to the extent of 600 rupees monthly,
at my own risk, provided you are willing to continue your collections on the same terms as
heretofore.

“ Whatever I do must necessarily be in my public capacity, or with reference to it, whether
I pay the money out of my own pocket or not ; and it will be expected of me, that the collection
be received and notieed in England in the first instance ; after this, and the scientific description
has once appeared in England, I shall be most happy to transfer to you the spare subjects, and
you will, of course, be at perfect liberty to publish in France any more detailed or elaborate ac-
count that you may think proper, on your own account.

“ Yours very truly,

(Signed) “ T. S. Raffles.”

“ A Monsieur Raffles, Lieutenant Gouverneur, ^c. ^c.

“ Monsieur le Gouverneur,

“ En abandonnant des travaux heureusement commences au Bengal, en renon9ant a
toute espece de correspondence avec nos parens, nos amis, notre pays, en contentant enfin a vous
accompagner a Sumatra, nous avions cru recevoir I’assurance d’un etablissement qui nous eut de-
dommage des sacrifices que nous nous imposions, en nous permettant de donner au plan de re-
cherches Zoologiques que nous avions con9u, un developpement et une importance dignes du
gouvernement de I’Honorable Compagnie.

“ Devant nous considerer dans ce cas corame charges d’une mission publique, nous nous
fussions scrupuleusement interdit toute espoir de publication particuliere avant d’en avoir rc9u
I’autorisation des autorites superieures.

“ Mais, Monsieur le Gouverneur, nos esperances n’ayant point ete realizees, nous ne pourrions

4x2

708

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

contenter a retarder d’une annee la publication de nos observations, sans nous exposer a perdre le
seul avantage que nous puissions retirer aujourd’hui de tant de peines et de tant de privations.

“ Cependant, comme il ne serait pas juste que nous fissions connoitre d’abord en France les
resultats de recherches dont les frais ont ete supportes par votre Gouverneraent, nous vous pro-
poserons un moyen convenable de parer aux inconveniens d’un retard que nous ne pouvons trop
redouter, sans diminuer en rien I’interet que peuvent avoir en Angleterre les collections que nous
avons recueillies ; c’est de remettre a la Societe des Recherches Asiatiques les notes que nous desi-
rons publier sans detail.

“ Si vous pensiez pourtant, Monsieur le Gouverneur, qua ces conditions I’Honorable Com-
pagnie ne desapprouvat les frais qu’ont facilite nos recherches, alors plutot que de renoncer a la
libre disposition de nos observations, nous vous prierions de considerer les avances que nous avons
re9ues comme un simple pret, que nous engagerions a rembourser, en conservant pour nous
raemes une collection sur laquelle nous croyons pouvoir fonder quelques esperances honorables.

“ Nous avons I’honneur d’etre, &c.

(Signed) “ Diaud,

“ A. Duvaucel.

“ 13 iVars, 1820 ”

“ A Monsieur Kaff.es, lieutenant Gouverneur a Bencoolen, ^’c. ^-c.

“ Monsieur le Gouverneur,

“ Nous avons pense devoir repondre separement a la seconde proposition que vous avez
bien voulu nous faire.

“ D’abord, puisque nous ne pouvons compter sur un etablissement fixe, nous desirons ne
pas continuer plus long terns nos recherches pour le compte de I’Honorable Compagnie ; nous
aurons au contraire infiniment de plaisir a les poursuivre avec votre assistance particuliere.

“ Nous acceptons done bien volontiers les propositions que vous voulez bien nous faire, et
en ajoutant nous memes 400 Rupees avec 600 que vous consentez a nous fournir chaque mois,
nous osons vous promettre des resultats dignes des sacrifices qu’un tel projet exige.

“ Nous n’avons pas hesite. Monsieur le Gouverneur, a vous soumettre le plan auquel vous
voulez bien acceder, pareeque nous savons que vous etes convaincu qu’aucun motif d’interet ne
pent etre le mobile de nos determinations, et qu’en toutes choses nous ne sommes guides, comme
vous, que par notre zele et notre amour pour la science.

“ Nous avons I’lionneur d’etre, &c.

(Signed) “ Diard.”

“ 13 Mars, 1820.

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

709

To Messrs. Diard and Duvaucelle.

“ Gentlemen,

“ I have to acknowledge the receipt of two letters from you of this date, one signed by
Mons. Diard, and one by you jointly.

“ In answer to the former, I apprehend that you must have misunderstood my offer. It is
impossible for me to recognize your services, except in my public capacity, and I expressly stated,
that there were objections to the joint plan which you had proposed.

“ Your joint letter has occasioned me no less surprize than regret, surprize at the tone in
which it is couched, and the pretensions which it advances, and regret that my endeavours and
views should have been so ill appreciated. Nothing can be clearer than the condition under which
I undertook to engage your services on account of the Honourable Company, and while you might
have been assured of every liberal consideration, and fair acknowledgment, it was clearly under-
stood that the whole of your collections, with the result of your observations, wei’e the property of
the East India Company, and it was from its liberality alone, and not as a matter of right, that you
could expect an authority for publishing on your own account. You were bound in duty and
honour to leave the full disposition of your collections, &c. at my disposal, without condition or
limitation, as to the use I might make of them, and I very much regret that you have not been con-
tent to rely on that liberality and indulgent consideration, which you have so often acknowledged.

“ The terms on which you were engaged do not authorize the pretension which you ap-
pear to advance, wdth regard to the free disposition of your materials ; and the whole tenor of your
letter is altogether so much at variance with what I expected, and with the explicit and unequivocal
proposals made to and accepted by you, as to render it impossible to continue to you the support
you have hitherto received, or to prolong the term of our agreement.

“ Under these circumstances, it is not necessary for me to enter into a refutation of several
statements and insinuations contained in your letter, in regard to the disappointment you represent
yourselves to have experienced; but I request expressly to state that I know not of a single in-
stance in which any expectations held out to you have not been more than realized, nor was I pre-
pared to receive such a complaint, after the repeated acknowledgments of a contrary nature, which
you have so often expressed. That your indefinite continuance in the service of the Company
depended on a higher authority you were always aware. That superior authority disapproves of
your employment, and I regret that consistently with my public duty, I cannot, after your present
communication, authorize you to expect further encouragement. I am, therefore, under the necessity
of declining the consideration of any of your proposals, and I have to request that you will be pre-
pared to deliver to such persons as may be appointed for the purpose, the whole of your collections
and descriptions.

“ To prevent the possibility of future misunderstanding, it may be proper to state, that 1

710

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

hold you bound not to communicate or permit to be communicated to the public any of the results
of your researches in the Eastern Islands, except with my express and written permission. I ex-
pect that you will transfer all your collections and descriptions without reservation, in order that I
may, by your ready compliance with this requisition, be afforded the opportunity of still extending
to you the liberal consideration which it was always my intention to shew you.

“ I am, &c.

(Signed) “ T. S. Raffles.

“ Fort Marlborough, March 13, 1820.”

“ A Monsieur Raffles, Gouverneur de Bencoolen, ^c. ^c.

“ Monsieur le Gouverneur,

“ La proposition que vous nous avez faite par votre lettre du 7 Mars, 1819, n’ayant pas
eu la sanction du Gouvernement Supreme, nous vous avons manifeste dansnotre lettre du 13 Mars,
1820, I’intention ou nous etions de rembourser a I’Honorable Compagnie les avances que nous en
avions re9ues, en considerant tons les objets recueillis comme notre propriete particuliere.

“ Par votre lettre du meme jour, vous vous etes refuse a cette juste proposition, en vous
croyant fonde a nous demander d’autorite la remise entiere de notre collection.

“ Sans examiner. Monsieur le Gouverneur, jusques ou peuvent s’entrer vos droits, a cet
egard, nous vous ferons observer qu’un tel acte de votre part est loin d’etre en harmonie avec les
intentions liberales de I’Honorable Compagnie.

“ En effet, en refusant nos services, I’Honorable Compagnie a consenti a acquitter nos de-
penses.

“ Nous devons done en conclure qu’elle a desire nous etre favorable.

“ Or, Monsieur le Gouverneur, ce serait nous rendre un bien mauvais service, ce serait
mal interpreter sa bienveillante decision que de vouloir nous forcer a accepter un don pr^ju-
diciable, lorsque au contraire elle a temoigne le desir de nous accorder une faveur.

“ Nous reiterons done la demande que nous avons faite le 13 Mars, de prendre a notre compte
la totalite de nos depenses.

“ Cependant, Monsieur, desirant autant que possible entrer dans vos vues, nous mettrions avec
plaisir entre vos mains tous les objets que nous avons recueillis, si vous vouliez bien consentir aux
propositions suivantes : —

“ Les objets envoyes seront accompagnes d’un catalogue numerique des especes.

“ Les especes en nombre pair seront partagees egalement.

“ Et quand a celles en nombre impair, la Compagnie en prendra la moitie plus une.

“ Dans ce cas. Monsieur, nous renon9ons a toute espece de droit sur les dessins, et vous
pourrez les publier ainsi que vous le jugerez convenable ; nous engagerous meme, si vous le pre-

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

711

ferez, a ne rien imprimer qu’en Angleterre, et I’un de nous deux a cet effet partirait pour accom-
pagner et soigner cette precieuse collection.

“ Recevez, Monsieur le Gouverneur, I’assurance de notre profond respect.

(Signed) “ Diard, A. Duvaucel.”

“ Le 14 Mars, 1820.”

To Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel.

“ Gentlemen,

“ I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 4th instant, in reply to my
communication of the preceding day.

“ The assumption on which you proceed, is so unfounded in fact, that I decline entering into
any argument with you on the subject, and the offer you pretend to make of reimbursing the
government is altogether so frivolous and evasive, that I am much surprised that you should
persist in it.

“ You would wish to make it appear that I solicited you to accompany me from Bengal, and
that you made great saci’ifices for the purpose. This is altogether at variance with the fact ; on the
contrary, you requested to accompany me, and offered to place the whole of the collections and ob-
servations at my disposal, on any terms I might think proper. You subsequently represented, that
notwithstanding the aid I was otherwise enabled to afford you, you could not proceed without con-
siderable pecuniary assistance, as your own funds had already been expended in Bengal. I then
agreed to pay you a sum not exceeding 1000 rupees monthly, on account of the Company, and to
recommend to the Superior Authorities, that such an allowance should be continued to you as long
as I might feel myself justified in continuing your services. This was done on the express condi-
tion accepted by you, that the whole of your collections and researches should be the absolute
property of the East India Company, and that you should obey whatever instructions I might
issue to you regarding them. During the past year, you have continued to receive from me the
allowance of 1000 rupees per month, which has been sanctioned by the Supreme Government, but
that authority considers it inexpedient to continue your services.

“ Under these circumstances, it rested with me simply to notify to you the period at which
these allowances were to cease ; but with a view of enabling you to continue your collections, 1
offered, at my own risk, to continue your employment on the same footing, though on somewhat a
more limited scale ; one, however, fully adequate to the further prosecution of every useful re-
search. This you have rejected.

“ With these facts, I am utterly at a loss to account for the principle on which you pretend
to assert that my agreement with you has not been more than fulfilled, or that you have any right
to demand conditions and stipulations at variance with it.

“ With regard to your reimbursing me the expences already incurred, you w'ill excuse me, if

712

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DL\RD AND DUVAUCEL.

under your pecuniary circumstances, as i-epeatedly stated to me by yom’selves, I am compelled to
consider the proposal as absolutely nugatory ; to detain the collections while you go in search of
money, would be ridiculous. On this point, I will only notice, that you seem to have forgotten in
the account the many advantages you have enjoyed independently, and in excess of this allowance.
From the period of your departure from Bengal, until your arrival in Bencoolen, in August last, a
period of nine months, you and your whole establishments were accommodated on board ship, and
elsewhere, entirely at my expence ; and since your arrival here, have occupied one of the government
houses, with various indulgences, which, if it were possible to estimate the value of, would not
perhaps fall short of the direct pecuniary assistance. Even had you funds to repay the whole of
these, I am at a loss to conceive in what light you would consider the influence and authority I
have exerted, and the requisitions under which 1 have laid all my friends in order to contribute to
the extent of the collection. You seem to forget that many of the subjects were not collected by
you, but merely placed in your charge by me. For instance, the Duyong, both subjects of which
were delivered into your hands by myself, as intended for Sir Everard Home; — the large deer, and
a variety of others. In short, you would, as you have often acknowledged, have been unable to
eflect any thing whatever without the aid of my influence and authority, and what equivalent you
can propose for that, is more than I can imagine.

“ This proposition of yours, therefore, being, as you must be well aware, absolutely inadmis-
sible, I cannot take into consideration the conditions you pretend to dictate in the subsequent part
of your letter, as you can have no right to make any stipulations whatever. I now confine myself
to requiring from you the simple performance of your duty in delivering over the whole of the col-
lections, descriptions, &c. now under your charge, and have to acquaint you that a committee has
been appointed for this purpose, with whose instructions you will be made acquainted. It is also
to be understood, that I can receive no further communications from you, that do not distinctly re-
cognize my absolute right of disposal, and that your claim to future consideration must entirely
depend on your prompt compliance with my directions. I cannot persuade myself that you will
persevere in an opposition which can neither be supported by honour or justice,

“ Before concluding this letter, I must further observe, that even had the Supreme Govern-
ment sanctioned the continuance of the allowance to you of 1000 rupees per month, I should, on
the knowledge I now have of your sentiments, and the disregard you have lately shewn to my
repeated instructions, have felt it my duty at once to have discontinued your employment. On
leaving this place for Calcutta, I left with you precise directions for drawing up accurate Linnaean
descriptions of every subject ; but it now appears you have thought fit entirely to disregard those
orders. Your neglect in this respect will oblige me to supply the deficiency otherwise, and what-
ever may be the course adopted, the consequence to yourselves will be entirely attributable to your
unwarrantable disregard of my desire. On these accounts, and considering the wiiole tenor of
your late conduct, and the disposition you have manifested, I should feel it impossible to continue

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

7i;i

to employ your services under any circumstances, and have only to convey to you my determina-
tion to bring your engagement to an immediate close.

“Fort Marlborough, March 15, 1820.”

“ I am, &c.

(Signed) “ T. S. Raffles.

Captain Watson, William Lewis, Esq., and Lieutenant Trueman.

“ Gentlemen,

“ I have thought it proper to appoint you to be a Committee for the purpose of taking
charge from Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel of the several subjects of natural history in their pos-
session, and of superintending the packing and shipment of that portion which is intended to be
transmitted to Europe by the Mary.

“ You are accordingly directed to proceed forthwith to Mount Edgecumbe, and after
apprizing these gentlemen of your appointment, require of them to deliver into your charge the
whole of their collections of every description, whether dried, in skeleton, or in spirits.

“In the first place you will take charge of the whole of the drawings and sketches of every
description, and forward them without delay to me.

“ This effected, you will proceed to take an account of the several subjects in the collection,
and forthwith to send one of each to the Government-house in the most convenient package at
hand. You will next set apart a duplicate of each to be sent to Europe, and take measures for
having them packed in the best manner, and with the least possible delay.

“ In the packing of these last, it is expected that Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel will themselves
give every aid, under your general superintendence. You will of course attend to all their sug-
gestions on the subject for the preservation of the articles, and you are to furnish all further mate-
rials which may be required, such as boxes, spirits, casks, &c.

“ Rooms in the lower part of the old Government-house have been appropriated for the
surplus of the collections beyond those two sets above mentioned, and you are to take measures for
removing these as soon as possible.

“ Your immediate attention should be directed to a general catalogue of the whole collection,
according to the accompanying form. Each individual subject is to be ticketed with the number
corresponding to that in the catalogue. This is an object of essential importance, and will deserve
your particular care.

“ You are to send the cases for Europe, when packed, to the Company’s warehouse, where they
are to be placed under the charge of the store-keeper, whose receipt will be your acquittance, and
who will be held subsequently responsible for them until shipped. You will of course take an account
of the contents of each case, and affix a number to each.

“ It is to be hoped that no difficulties or delays will be thrown in the way by Messrs. Diard

4 Y

714

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

and Duvaucel, and that they will go hand in hand with you in carrying these measures into effect.
Should a contrary disposition be evinced, you will of course use your discretion in the adoption of
all necessary precaution for preventing injury or defalcation in the collection, or delay in the
execution of the duties imposed on you.

“ Enclosed I transmit an intimation to Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel of your appointment.

“ I am, &c.

(Signed) “ Thos. S. Raffles.

“ Fort Marlborough, March 15, 1820.”

FORM OF CATALOGUE.

No.

NAMES.

Dry

In Spirits.

Remarks.

Linnaean.

Cuvier.

Malay.

Specimens.

Skeleton.

To Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel.

“ Gentlemen,

“ I have to acquaint you that a Committee, consisting of Captain Watson, Mr. Lewis, and
Lieutenant Trueman, has been appointed to receive charge of the Honourable Company’s collections
under your care, and further to express my expectation that you will afford every facility to those
Gentlemen in the execution of the duty confided to them.

“ I am, &c.

(Signed) “ T. S. Raffles.”

“ Fort Marlborough, March 15, 1820.

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

715

To Captain Watson, William Lewis, Esq. and Lieutenant Trueman.

“ Gentlemen,

“ As you have verbally reported that you will, in the course of to-mon’ow, receive over
the whole of the remaining collections of subjects in natural history, I request to give you the fol-
lowing additional instructions with regard to the descriptions, &c.

“ By the enclosed copy of the terms on which I engaged the services of Messrs. Diard and
Duvaucel, you will perceive that they are bound to deliver over not only the whole of the subjects
contained in the collection, but also their descriptions and observations on the same.

“ You will, in consequence, call upon those Gentlemen to fulfil their agreement, by delivering
over to you the whole of their papers on the subject.

In the event of a ready compliance with this, and their giving you their assurance on honour
that they have made over the whole of their collections, drawings, and descriptions, without reserva-
tion, I authorize you to make them the following communication. I have no objection to take upon
myself to draw up a short account, or descriptive catalogue, of the collection formed under my autho-
rity, for the purpose of being published in England. This I can effect in two ways, either with
occasional reference to their papers, or from the specimens alone, without referring to their descrip-
tions. Should they prefer the former, and pledge themselves not to publish on their own account,
within twelve months, the whole of their papers shall be returned to them, or to such persons as
they may appoint, within a month from the date of their delivery, with full permission to make them
public at the expiration of the twelve months. Should they further give their unequivocal assent to
this arrangement, and comply in full with the condition, it will afford me pleasure to recommend
to the Court of Directors that a donation be made to France of some of the most interesting dupli-
cates of the subjects which have been prepared ; and in order to make this the more valuable, I shall
be happy to receive from them a statement of the objects which, in their opinion, will be most
acceptable.

“ Should Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel hesitate to give their full assent to this arrangement, you
will be pleased to acquaint them that it will become my duty to act upon the literal construction of
the terms of the engagement.

“ I am, &c.

(Signed) “ T. S. Raffles.

“ Fort Marlborough, March 18, 1820.”

To the Honorable Sir Stamford Rajfles, Lieutenant Governor.

“ Honourable Sir,

“ We have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your letter under date the 15th
instant, appointing us a Committee to receive charge of the collection of specimens of Natural

4t Y 2

716

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

History which have been made by Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel, under the direction of the British
administration at Fort Marlborough.

“ Having assembled at Mount Edgecumbe on the morning of the 16th instant, we communi-
cated to Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel the object of our nomination, putting into their hands at the
same time your letter acquainting them of it. These gentlemen, in reply to our request that the
specimens of Natural History, which had been collected by them during the period of their having
received an allowance from the Honourable Company, might be delivered over to us, gave us dis-
tinctly to understand they would not oppose our taking possession of them, but that they protested
against our doing so ; yet, as the Government thought proper to lay claim to the collection, and to
possess themselves of it, they would certainly use every exertion to deliver it over in the best state
of preservation possible.

“ We accordingly took charge of all the drawings they professed to have made, which we for-
warded forthwith to Government, transmitting a list of the same.

“ We then commenced making a catalogue * of the different articles, agreeable to the form
transmitted with your letter of instructions, which we have the honour to enclose ; and having
separated them according to the form prescribed, forwarded each set to the destination allotted ;
that is to say, one set the most complete direct to Government, one duplicate to Civil Store-keeper
for immediate transmission to Europe, and a triplicate to old Government House for deposit. It
will be seen from the accompanying catalogue, that the duplicate for Europe is wanting in several
articles contained in the original set sent to Government ; and the triplicate is still more deficient
generally, whilst, on the other hand, it is more than complete in some particular articles.

“ The early departure of the ship Mary for Europe, induced the Committee to report ver-
bally to Government the progress they had made in the duties assigned them ; in consequence of
which Government thought proper to direct, that the specific names of each subject should be
affixed to the different numbers in the catalogue, in addition to the general classification which
had been adopted ; the Committee accordingly requested Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel to afford
their assistance in effecting this object ; these gentlemen, however, excused themselves on the plea
of unwillingness to venture a positive opinion where they had no extensive means of reference,
as it might ultimately prove detrimental to their scientific reputation.

“In conformity with additional instructions from Government, dated 18th instant, the Com-
mittee again assembled at Mount Edgecumbe, and having submitted to Messrs. Diard and Du-
vaucel a copy of their original engagement with Government, whereby it is stipulated, in con-
sideration of a certain monthly allowance, ‘ That their researches are to be made for and on
account of the Honourable Company; that their collections, &c. are to be considered as their
property; that the arrangement and transmission to Europe or Bengal of such information and

See Enclosure No. 1 .

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

717

materials as they may collect, are to be subject to the order of Government ; and that the payment
of the said allowance is accordingly authorised by the local Government, pending a reference to
the superior authorities.’

“ Having pointedly brought this engagement to their notice and recollection, Messrs. Diard
and Duvaucel were addressed by the Committee as follows.

“ ‘ As it appears that you are bound by the terms of your engagement with Government to
deliver over the whole of the subjects of Natural History which you have collected since the date
thereof, together with their descriptions and your observations on them, we now call on you to
complete its fulfilment by delivering over the whole of your papers connected with your researches
during that period : in the event of your doing so, and giving us your assurance, on honour, that
you have made over the whole of your collection, drawings, and descriptions, without reservation,
we are authorized to make you a certain communication.’

“ In reply to this, Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel positively refused to give up the papers
required ; and in order that this refusal might be more explicit, and the gi’ounds of it the more
apparent, they requested time to draw up a note on the subject ; they accordingly retired, and after
due deliberation they delivered a paper to the Committee, wherein they set forth their reasons for
non-compliance with the requisition. The Committee being of opinion that the first part of this
paper exhibits an assertion which not only carries contradiction on its face, but appears so improper
and disrespectful, they decline entering it into their proceedings *. The last paragraph, how-
ever, of their note requires and has received due consideration. On a reference being made to
Mr. Jennings, who was in charge of the Government during the month of January, 1820, it
appears that the refusal of their services was not signified to them at the period asserted in their
note, or at any time whilst he was in charge of the Government. It further appears that this
refusal has not yet been officially communicated, and that a bill presented by these gentlemen on
the 12th instant, for their allowances from the 1st of January, 1819, to the 1st of April, 1820, has
passed and ordered to be paid, which document is in our hands. Whether the amount so passed
has been yet received by those gentlemen or not, does not concern the Committee ; its being
authorized is sufficient to obviate the objection stated, as the amount is of course payable on
demand ; and should these gentlemen wish to refuse receiving any part of it, it rests with them to
make the necessary application to Government to that effect; and should the Government think
proper to consider the services of Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel as having ceased from the time
specified by them, doubtless they will be permitted to retain such part of their collection as they
can prove to have been made since that period, and to have been obtained altogether independent
of the aid and assistance of the public establishment of Government. The Committee holding in
their hands the bill of these gentlemen for the whole of their allowances for fifteen months, ending

* See Enclosure No. 2.

718

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS, DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

the 1st of April, 18'20, which has received the sanction of Government, must consider them as in
the service of Government during the whole of that period. The objection, ^therefore, on the
ground of the services of Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel having been refused by Government, appears
to be unsupported by facts ; and as they in the same note fully admit ‘ that the witten agreement
obliges them to place at the disposal of the Company the whole of the collections and observations,’
the Committee trust that no further obstacle will arise to its fulfilment, and therefore proceed to
make known to them the liberal intention of the Lieutenant Governor, provided they comply with
their original obligation.

“ An extract * from the Honourable the Lieutenant Governor’s letter was accordingly read
and explained to them, and they were requested to state explicitly whether they would avail
themselves of the terms proposed. After a few minutes’ deliberation they gave the Committee to
understand, that the whole of their collections, and all their notes on the subject of their researches,
should be delivered up without reservation, to which they pledged their honour, as well as not to
publish any thing for the time specified ; but they expressed a determination not to accept their
allowance for the months which remained unpaid. The Committee recommended them, in this
case, to make out a list of the articles collected by them during those months, giving it as their
opinion, that the Honourable the Lieutenant Governor would not hesitate to consider such as their
private property ; but they declined this, saying, it would now be difficult to select the articles,
besides they were anxious to have permission to depart as soon as possible from Bencoolen.

“ They then informed the Committee of a robbery which had been committed the preceding
night, when, amongst other, things that were carried off, was a box containing the papers of Mr.
Duvaucel ; they had made application to the police on the subject, and hoped that it might be
recovered. The papers of M. Diard were safe, and were to be forwarded to the Honourable the
Lieutenant Governor as soon as they could be put in order.

“ We have the honour, &c.

(Signed) “ Thos. C. Watson,

“ Wm. T. Lewis,

“ N. S. Trueman.

“ Fort Marlborough, March 21, 1820.”

MEMORANDUM.

“ Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel having pledged their word of honour, that they have fulfilled
their public engagements with the Company, as expressed in the letter addressed to them under
date the 7th March, 1819, Sir Stamford Raffles is happy to extend to them the consideration

See Enclosure No. 3.

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

719

which he has always been desirous of shewing them, and in order that no possible misunderstanding
may hereafter arise, this Memorandum is exchanged between Sir Stamford Raffles and those gen-
tlemen.

“ — Messrs. Diardand Duvaucel on their part pledge themselves not to publish in France,

or in any country foreign to England, any particulars regarding their Researches in the Eastern
Islands until the expiration of a year from this date.

“ — Sir Stamford Raffles on his part will return to them or their agents, within one month

from this date, all papers which have or may be delivered by them.

“ Sd. — Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel are at liberty hereafter to publish them, if they think
proper, in the Asiatic Researches in Bengal, or in the Transactions of the Royal Society of
London.

“ 4//<. — As a proof of Sir Stamford Raffles’ desire to shew every possible consideration to
Messrs Diard and Duvaucel, they have been requested to select from the duplicates whatever

articles they are desirous of sending to France; they have in consequence delivered in the annexed

List of Specimens which is complied with, on condition that the articles do not arrive in France
before those sent to England are received and noticed ; and with a view to secure this object, it is
mutually agreed that these articles shall be consigned to Mr. Palmer, at Calcutta, by Sir Stamford
Raffles, wdth the instructions hereunto annexed.

“ 5th. — In conclusion, it is mutually agreed, that on the fulfiment of the above conditions the
present shall be a full acquittal of all claims and demands on both sides.

(Signed) “ Diard,

. “ Duvaucel.”

On the above being signed, a similar memorandum, under the signature of Sir Stamford Raffles,
was delivered to Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel.

List of Specimens requested by Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel.

A Siamang.

A Champay.

A Chinco.

A Coo.

A skeleton of Rhinoceros.

A skin and skeleton of Tapir.

A Kidjang, male and female.

A skeleton of the Duyong.

One of each species of Birds and Insects, of which there may be triplicates or quad-
ruplicates.

720

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

To John Palmer, Esq.

“ Calcutta,

“ Sir,

“ In pursuance of an understanding between myself and Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel,
several specimens of Natural History, as per annexed memorandum, are consigned to you, with a
request that you will receive charge of them, for the purpose and on the condition hereafter
mentioned.

“ These gentlemen having been engaged to make collections on account of the Company, I
have made over to them these specimens, at the close of their engagement, on condition that the
same do not arrive in France before the originals, of which they are duplicates, be received in
England. These originals have been forwarded by your ship, the Mary, ria Batavia, and it is left
to your discretion to place these gentlemen in possession of these specimens, whenever you may be
satisfied that the object of the condition is attained.

“ I am, &c.

(Signed) “ T. S. Raffles.

“ Fort Marlborough, March 27, 1820.”

To Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel.

“ Gentlemen,

“ In reply to your letter of this date, I request to inform you that I am not aware of any
impediment which exists to your embarking on the Indiana, or any other ship you think proper ;
and whenever you may furnish me with the list of your establishment, the necessary certificates
shall be granted.

“ I request to dispense Muth a personal visit from either yourself or Mr. Duvaucel before
your departure.

“ I am, &c.

(Signed) “ T. S. Raffles.

“ Fort Marlborough, March 27, 1820.”

To Captain M atson, W. T. Lewis, Esq., and Lieutenant Trueman.

“ Gentlemen,

“ Mr. Diard having intimated the desire of himself and Mr. Duvaucel to proceed to
Batavia on the Indiana, I think it necessary to re-assemble you, for the purpose of receiving from
those gentlemen the fulfilment of their pledge, and enabling them to close their accounts, and
quit the settlement without delay, and with the least possible inconvenience to themselves.

“ You will accordingly call upon those gentlemen to place in your possession all the remaining
specimens, drawings, and descriptions which may be forthcoming.

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

721

“ I enclose for your information, a copy of a letter I addressed to those gentlemen on receipt
of your Report, together with their reply, and the list of specimens which they have in consequence
selected ; and in furtherance of the desire therein expressed in order to obviate future misunder-
standing, I at the same time enclose a memorandum, which, if signed, shall be exchanged for a
similar document under my signature.

“ Whenever you shall have satisfied yourselves of the complete fulfilment of the terms of
their engagement and pledge, you will make your Report accordingly.

“ I am, &c.

(Signed) “ T. S. Raffles.

“ Fort Marlborough, March 27, 1820.”

To Messrs. Dlard and Duvaucel.

“ Gentlemen,

“ The proceedings of the Committee having closed in a satisfactory manner, I lose no
time in assuring you that it was with very sincere regret I felt myself compelled by an imperious
sense of public duty, to adopt a course so unpleasant to my feelings ; the public question being
now at rest, I am permitted to evince towards you that attention and consideration, which it was
always my wish amd intention to offer you.

“No man can appreciate more highly than myself the zeal and personal exertion which you
have displayed in making these collections and researches ; I am sincerely desirous of securing to
you the full measure of credit due to them, and I think you must be satisfied that it has always been
my wish to contribute to this end as much as was in my power.

“ I had always anticipated such a satisfactory close of your labours, that it would not have
been necessary to adhere to the rigid performance of the terms of agreement ; I expected that we
might mutually contribute to the extension of science, by co-operating eventually in some unob-
jectionable plan for publication, and that while I secured to the Honourable the East India
Company the credit of having patronized and supported these Researches, your own character
and fame would have been proportionately advanced : it was further my intention, afler the col-
lection of the Company was completed, that a portion of the duplicates should be placed at your
disposal, a consideration due to your indefatigable exertions, and as the best acknowledgment I
could make to you.

“ The satisfactory conclusion of your arrangement with the Committee enables me to assure
you that these sentiments and intentions remain unaltered, and that I shall be most happy to
confer with you on any plan you may suggest.

4 z

722

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

“ I conclude with expressing my regret at the necessary close of our public relation, but at the
same time my satisfaction at its being about to terminate in an amicable adjustment.

“ I am, &c.

(Signed) “ T. S. Raffles.

“ Fort Marlborough, March 22, 1820.”

Additional Proceedings of the Committee appointed to receive Charge of the Specimens of
Natural History collected hy Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel on Account of the
Honourable East India Company.

“ Fort Marlborough, March 29, 1820.

“ Pursuant to instructions communicated to the Committee under date 27th March, they assem-
bled at the old Government-House this day, where Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel met them by appoint-
ment, and requested them, in conformity therewith, to deliver over the remaining specimens of draw-
ings, descriptions, and papers appertaining thereto, in compliance with their former agreement. The
naturalists accordingly made over a parcel of papers and drawings, which they declare to be the
only documents of the kind remaining in their possession, having burnt the duplicates, as well as
those of such as have already been given up ; and that those which w^ere formerly reported to the
Committee as having been stolen, have not since been recovered. They further state, that at this time
no articles w hatever of their collection remain in their hands.

“ The memorandum accompanying the above-mentioned instructions was handed to Messrs.
Diard and Duvaucel, and their signature was affixed to it after due deliberation, and a perfect
comprehension of its contents.

“ The Honourable the Lieutenant Governor’s letter to Mr. Palmer was also read to them,
and they approved of the plan proposed with reference to the articles w'hich have been presented
to them, which are now in possession of the store-keeper.

(Signed) “ Thos. C. Watson,

“ Wm. T. Lew'is,

“ N. L. Trueman.”

A Monsieur Raffles, Lieutenant Gourerneur, ^-c. ^-c.

“ Monsieur le Gouverneur,

“ S’il nous a ete penible d’entrer avec vous dans une discussion publique, il doit nous etre
bien agreable en recompense de recevoir de vous I’assurance, que cette opposition de notre part

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MESSRS. DIARD AND DUVAUCEL.

723

n’a pas altere I’estime que vous nous avez toujours temoignee : nous nous empressons done de
vous laire connoitre combien nous avons ete sensibles a cette nouvelle preuve de votre bien-
veillance.

“ II est trop satisfaisant pour nous, Monsieur le Gouverneur, de voir que vous avez S9U appre-
cier les motifs de notre conduite, pour que nous puissions desormais avoir d’autre desir que celui de
nous conformer aux vues que vous nous avez manifestees, nous vous prions done d’etre persuade
que nous souserions avee plaisir a toutes vos propositions et que rien ne peut etre plus satisfaisant
pour nous, avant de quitter Beneoolen, que de vous prouver notre parfaite eonfianee en vos
intentions amicables.

“ Nous avons I’honneur, &e.

(Signed) “ Diard,

“ A. Duvaucel.”

APPENDIX.

f'r

«r. ■.. .'(V# ••jitf' -

« » ' » - • • -

APPENDIX

ON THE

ADMINISTRATION OF THE EASTERN ISLANDS

IN 1819.

The necessity of adopting a more uniform and consistent plan for the security and superintend-
ance of our interests to the Eastward is generally admitted, and as recent events at Penang and
Bencoolen have called for the immediate interposition of the superior authorities, the following sug-
gestions on the subject are respectfully submitted for consideration.

The failure of the settlements alluded to, in the objects of their original establishment, the diffi-
culties and irregularities which have hitherto attended their administration, and the dangers to
which our political interests were exposed, in a recent instance, by the clashing of divided powers,
indicate the propriety of uniting them under one authority, on a system more suited to their nature
and object, and which shall be at once simple, efficient, and comprehensive. Such a reform be-
comes more urgent, from a consideration of the greater extent and importance which these interests
have assumed in consequence of late political events and arrangements.

In order to shew in how far the establishments hitherto formed to the Eastward have failed in
their objects, it may be sufficient to advert to the instructions of the Court of Directors on the
formation of the government of Penang in 1805. This island, from its position and resources,
appeared to the authorities in Europe “ well calculated to secure the British interests, political
and commercial, on the eastern side of Bengal.” The attention of the new government was in
consequence directed to the importance of forming establishments at Acheen and Mergui, and of
extending our influence among the Malay States by the negociation of treaties with their respective
chiefs ; above all, the command of the Straits of Malacca, and the exclusion of foreign European
nations, were insisted upon as political objects connected with the establishment of Penang as an
extensive naval station. In a commercial point of view, it was expected to become a general depot
for the commodities of India and China, and “ an emporium so situated as to afford a convenient
approach from every part of India, from the extremity of China to the coasts of Africa, and where
merchants of all nations might conveniently meet and exchange their goods.” It was considered,
“ a reasonable expectation that the commercial advantages of Prince of Wales’ Island” (to the
Company as traders in opium, pepper, &c.) “ would reimburse the expences which had already
been sustained, and were likely to be sustained in maintaining that settlement.”

Of these expectations, political and commercial, not one has been realized. Instead of availing
itself of the opportunity early afforded of establishing the British interests at Acheen, while the
authority of its chief was yet respectable, various local interests were allowed to influence its pro-
ceedings, and all the communications to the- superior authorities only served to embarrass and de-
feat the object originally contemplated. The question of excluding foreigners from Mergui and
the adjacent coasts of Pegu, seems never to have been considered ; and so far from extending our
influence among the Malay states in the manner directed, not a single attempt appears to have

a 2

APPENDIX.

been made to negociate a treaty with any one of them, until a Dutch force had actually arrived off
Malacca in 1818, and disputed our right to do so. The restitution of Malacca to the Dutch was
an event which could not have been contemplated in 1805, but as the command of the Straits was
one of the first objects in the establishment of Penang, it was the duty of the local government to
have provided for the emergency. The consequence of inattention to this object, and the embar-
rassment created at Acheen, have been so recently and so sensibly felt, that it is unnecessary to
enlarge upon them. The plan for establishing an arsenal and dock-yard has long been abandoned,
and the port is no longer considered convenient for the refitment or supply of his Majesty’s navy.

Of the great commercial advantages contemplated, it may be observed, that instead of an in-
creased resort of shipping and prows, its trade never rose into importance, and is already on the
decline. The inconveniences and expences of the port are generally complained of, and ships
passing through the Straits usually prefer Malacca, as a port of refreshment. The commercial
profits which were to reimburse the Company by a trade in pepper, spices, &c. have never been
realized. The pepper produce of Penang was expected to supersede that of the west coast of
Sumatra, and a high estimate was formed of the spice cultivation. Of the former no purchases
have ever been made ; and of the latter not a single pound has been exported in a fit state for the
Europe market. The practice of sending out Europe goods on account of the Company, has been
discontinued as an unprofitable concern.

In explanation of these disappointments it may be observed, that although a higher estimate of
the resources of the place may have been formed than subsequent experience has justified, many
of the failures must be considered attributable to the defects inherent in a government unsuited to
the nature and objects of the establishment. The island affords no natural advantages for a naval
arsenal or docks ; but with a decisive influence at Acheen and on the coast of Pegu, it would be a
commanding station on the Eastern side of the Bay of Bengal, both for political and commercial
purposes. Connected with Acheen it may be said also to command the northern entrance of, the
Straits of Malacca, but it can exercise no influence to the eastward, and the free navigation of the
Straits must always depend on the power in possession of the southern and more important
entrance. This fact w'as not overlooked by the Court of Directors ; for it is observed in their first
instructions, that “ while the Dutch were in possession of Malacca, they always had it in their
power to prevent the Malay and Bugguese prows from passing that station.”

Possessing no internal resources, trade could alone be attracted by the facilities and advantages
of the port ; and it is obvious that as restrictions were introduced and duties exacted, the object
of rendering it a general emporium would be defeated. The Government were early apprized of
the impolicy of levying duties on the passing trade, and it would not be easy to account for the
deviation from so essential a principle, did we not find a solution of the difficulty, and some expla-
nation of the contradiction, in the nature of the government itself. Failing in the more extensive
objects of their appointment, and confining themselves within the narrow precincts of a small island,
the whole weight of a cumbrous machinery fell direct on the people, while the formalities, pro-
cesses, and delays of a complicated administration contributed to depress the energy and check the
commerce of the place. To uphold the existing system, in which the personal interests of all were
concerned, it was attempted to make the local revenues equal to the expenditure, and the true end
and purpose of the establishment seem to have been overlooked in a premature and inordinate
desire of attaining this mistaken object. Further, it is not to be supposed that men in possession
of power and dignities would be content to forego the exercise of them ; and as the necessary
duties of the place could not afford useful employment for so many heads, the natural result was

APPENDIX.

the creation of unnecessary business, and a meddling interference in the concerns of individuals ;
to say nothing of the differences and disputes among the members of government themselves, which
made as many parties in the settlement as there were opinions in the council.

Having thus exemplified the defects of the existing system in an establishment which was in-
tended to supersede all others, and to embrace the whole field of our eastern policy on this side
Bengal, it may be proper, previous to the consideration of the changes which are expedient, to take
a general review of the interests which ai’e involved, and of the objects to be attained.

Of the countries which lie to the eastward of Bengal, those which first attract our attention are
continental, and included within the great and populous empires of Ava and Siam.

The northern provinces of the Burman Empire coming in contact with those of Bengal, and
negociations having been carried on with the Court of Ava, under the immediate authority of the
Governor-General, it is unnecessary in this place to enter on any particular exposition of its nature
and policy. It may be sufficient to observe, that its nature is peculiar, and its policy, particularly
towards us, has of late been extremely jealous : in consequence of which, obstructions at the principal
port of Pegu have considerably increased ; and the general intercourse and trade in a great mea-
sure been checked. The importance of Pegu, if only considered with reference to the supply of
teak timber to Bengal, will require that some measures, if not of a direct political tendency, at
least for obtaining an indirect influence, should be early adopted : but it should be taken into con-
sideration, that it is in the more southern provinces that the principal supplies of timber are to be
obtained, and the best and largest are from Martaban. In these provinces, and particularly such
as border on the Siamese territory, the people are less subject to the jealous restraint of Government,
more readily enter into commercial pursuits, and keep up a considerable intercourse with Penang,
where many of them have settled. By means of this intercourse a new and extensive field may be
opened for commercial speculation, particularly in woollens and cottons, articles of which the con-
sumption is general, and which might thus be introduced without exciting the jealousy which has
hitherto obstructed the demand.

When it is considered that Siam extends its influence over the whole of the Malay peninsula,
with the exception of Johore, and that our settlement of Penang is but an islet recently subordinate
to one of its dependencies, and that this influence prevails over states with which our unrestricted
intercourse is indispensable, the advantage of a good understanding with that Court is obvious.
The long continued wars between the Burmahs and Siamese have contracted the territorial limits
of the latter ; but if they have on one side given way to the encroachments of a more powerful
neighbour, they have on the other hand extended and strengthened their resources by opening
their ports to general commerce. In this respect the policy of Siam is widely diffei’ent from that
of Ava, and the contiguity of its principal port to China has led to the establishment of a numerous
Chinese population, which has given to its commerce the same stimulus which that enterprising
people produce, wherever they are allowed to colonize. Siam has always carried on an extensive
trade with the northern ports of China, and in former times kept up an intercourse with Japan.
The latter, though reduced in importance, might again be opened and revived, and the Gulf of
Siam become the centre of the same commerce which it commanded before the terror of the Por-
tuguese arms, and the restrictions of the Dutch paralyzed the native energies of the Archipelago.
Siam is, in fact, to the northern portion of the Archipelago what Java may be considered to the south :
it is the granary of these countries. In the important articles of rice and salt, it maintains a suc-
cessful competition with Java, and its sugar is sold to advantage in the Batavia market. Of the
demand for cottons and opium, it may be observed that the former is daily increasing, and that the

APPENDIX.

latter amounts to several hundred chests per annum. The disposition of the Court is considered favour-
able to commerce, even with Europeans, and notwithstanding the impediments and inconveniences
that still attend the port, it was frequented during the last year by numerous American and some
French and English vessels. The higher prices and vexations of the port of Batavia are daily
turning a portion of its commerce towards Siam, and the attention of foreign nations, particularly
the French, has long been directed to a political influence in that quarter.

Contiguous to Siam, and between it and China, are the countries of Camboja and Cochin China.
The former, though acknowledging the political supremacy of the latter, is in a great measure in-
dependent. An extensive junk trade has always been carried on at this port; and although our
infoi’mation is yet very imperfect regarding the interior districts of Laos Champa, &c. there is rea-
son to believe that a very extensive population exists, with which a most advantageous commerce
might be established.

Respecting Cochin China much information is yet wanting, but from what we already possess of
a general nature, its importance and interests in various respects is fully proved. The extent of coast,
the number of its harbours, its great population and resources, its contiguity to and connection with
China, are circumstances which deserve serious attention, and the consequences to our interests, par-
ticularly in China, which might result from the establishment of a foreign European power in this
quarter are not to be overlooked. If we consider the extent and vastness of the designs formed by the
French, with reference to that country, as shewn in their treaty with the king of Cochin China so
late as 1788, and by what unforeseen events its execution was interrupted, the subject will de-
rive additional interest. By this treaty, which was concluded in Paris, it was stipulated, that in
return for the immediate aid to be afforded by twenty French ships of war, seven regiments and
one million of dollars, half to be paid in specie and half in military stores, to enable him to
retrieve his affairs, the king of Cochin China should pay the permanent expences of fourteen
ships of the line, for which officers and establishments should be sent from Europe ; should
allow resident consuls on every part of the coast, with unlimited authority to build ships and
frigates, and to fell the timber necessary; should cede in perpetuity the Bay of Turon and Pe-
ninsula; and authorize the levy of a large body of native troops to be trained in French discipline,
and be placed at the disposal of the French government, to be sent to any part of India that might
be required. The expedition was on the point sailing from the Isle of France, when the break-
ing out of the Revolution checked the proceeding ; but although the treaty was not fulfilled on
the part of France, her emissaries continued to maintain a powerful influence in the country, which
operated, in 1804, to defeat the mission sent from Canton on our part.

Our consideration is next directed to the islands, particularly Sumatra, along the coast of which
our influence is extensive.

Although the kingdom of Acheen has long ceased to exercise an extensive influence, and the
state of anarchy into which it has been thrown has rather repelled than invited foreign intercourse,
the political importance of its position in commanding the eastern side of the Bay of Bengal, par-
ticularly since the discovery of a safe and defensible harbour, cannot be disputed, while the trade
which it carries on, even under its present disadvantageous circumstances, is still considerable.
This trade on the eastern coast consists in exports, which are principally carried to Penang for
the China market, such as pepper, betel-nut, and rattans ; but the resources of the country, par-
ticularly of the more eastern provinces, are calculated to afford considerable exports in grain and
cattle. The imports on this coast are chiefly opium and piece-goods, and to a considerable extent.
On the western coast the produce is principally pepper, to the amount of 5000 tons annually.

APPENDIX.

which is for the most part purchased by Americans with specie ; the other imports are opium,
and India and Europe piece-goods: benjamin, camphor, and gold-dust, are sometimes obtained in
return. Of the west coast of Sumatra generally, a few observations will suffice. The more
northern ports are by far the most important. Tappanooly, on account of its extensive and almost
unrivalled hai'bour, is considered politically valuable ; and in a commercial view, in connnection
with Nattal, it commands the trade of a large portion of the Batta country, and participates in that
of Rau, Agam, and Menangkabu. Padang, which may be considered as the key of the rich and
populous districts of the interior, and which has latterly assumed a commercial importance, is now
in the hands of the Dutch. The districts to the southward of this are comparatively insignificant,
whether viewed politically, or with reference to their commercial resources ; they are included
under the authority of Bencoolen.

Of Bencoolen it may be sufficient to quote the opinion expressed by the Court of Directors
in 1805. “ As a commercial establishment,” they observed, ” Bencoolen has become of no im-

portance : the only produce of it, pepper, is a losing concern to the Company. It has no value
in a political view, for no other European nation can turn it to much account, or bear the expense
which must be incurred in maintaining it.” Severe as this sentence may appear, it must be ad-
mitted, that with the exception of the finer spices which have since been successfully cultivated, and
now confer on it a peculiar interest with reference to the abolition of the Dutch monopoly of those
articles, the place has little to recommend it, either in a political or commercial view. It however
includes a large portion of the western coast of the island ; and the population having long been
under our influence, are habituated to our government, and, as far as their means extend, are in-
clined to consume the manufactures which we import. A bad system has depressed their energies
and impoverished their resources, but under a more enlightened and liberal policy, they may be
expected to assume a more important rank.

On the eastern coast of Sumatra, the rivers of Siak and Indragiri afford a direct communication
with the rich and populous country of Menangkabu, and were their navigation secured by a good
understanding with the native chiefs, the course of commerce might soon be diverted from Padang
on the west coast, and the productions of the interior, of which gold is not the least important,
brought dowm those channels by which the tide of population anciently flowed to the coasts of
most of the other islands. The navigation of the river Jambi also affords corresponding advan-
tages ; and the comparatively improved state of Palembang, while it distinguishes that capital as
the most civilized part of Sumatra, offers the prospect of an extensive and well regulated trade as
long as it maintains its independence. The island of Banca, in its extensive mines of tin and
rising population of Chinese, is not the least important of these countries.

The immense island of Borneo, even the shores of which are yet imperfectly known, contains in
its interior a more numerous agricultural population than has generally been supposed, and the
rivers on its southern and western coast have long attracted the enterprize of the merchant. Large
colonies of Chinese have established themselves, and in their demand for Indian and European
produce, and export of gold, offer a wide and almost inexhaustible fleld of commercial specula-
tion. The amount exported of gold alone, by far the largest portion of which finds its way to
China, has been estimated at not less than half a million sterling. The northern provinces
of this island, though more out of the general track of shipping, are not unimportant in a commer-
cial view, particularly when considered in connection with Magindanao and the Suolu Archipelago.
The valuable pearl-fisheries of the latter are at present carried on almost exclusively on account of
the Chinese, who maintain an extensive junk trade with these islands. The maritime enterprize

APPENDIX.

of these people, though latterly too much devoted to piratical objects, might easily be directed into
better channels.

The island of Celebes, of which a portion only is yet known to Europeans, is inhabited by a
race of people remarkable for their energy and spirit. From one of the states in particular, exten-
sive commercial speculations and distant voyages are undertaken to every part of the Archipelago,
even to the coast of New Holland, and in every Malay state colonies of Buggueses are found esta-
blished. When Europeans first visited these seas, the spice trade of the Moluccas in a great
measure centered in this island, and though the political power and the restrictions of the Dutch
have turned the course of this commerce, the main object of their establishment at Macassar is
avowedly for securing this monopoly ; but the influence of the Dutch on Celebes generally is not
sufficient to prevent the commercial enterprize of the inhabitants from being directed to other
channels.

Of Java and the IMoluccas our recent possession of these important colonies has afforded the
means of most ample information, and though their territorial resources are now transferred to
another power, the trade must always be in part open to the general merchant. National interests
and jealousies may obstruct the European merchant at the principal ports, but the native trade of
such extensive coasts must always continue in a great degree unfettered, and at liberty to seek the
best markets, and native carriers will always be found in the Bugguese and Chinese junks, as well
as in the numerous Arab vessels which navigate the Archipelago.

The fate of the Philippines, in the present sh-uggle between Spain and her colonies, is at least
uncertain, and cannot be contemplated wdth indifference by us, considering the nature and import-
ance of these interesting islands, and their proximity to China.

The countries included in the review, extend in a connected series from the Bay of Bengal
to the coast of New Holland in one direction, to those of China in another, and occupy a space,
from west to east, of upwards of two thousand geographical miles. It may be difficult to form a
very accurate estimate of the population inhabiting these various countries, which differ so much
in the several degrees of civilization, and whose interior is so little known ; but if we take the con-
tinental empires of Ava' and Siam, and the countries immediately beyond at fifteen millions *,
which is much below the usual estimate, even of the two former, we shall not over-rate the Archi-
pelago generally at an equal number ; but as an accurate census has only been taken at Java,
where the population was found to be about five millions, and that of Sumatra has recently been
estimated at about three, we cannot possibly exceed in allowing two millions for Borneo and the
rest of the Archipelago, making a total population of certainly not less than twenty-five millions,
an estimate which will be found on enquiry rather to fall short than exceed the reality. In this
estimate, however, are not included the countries in the immediate vicinity of China nor the Philip-
pines, which latter alone contain a population of about three millions ; so that the field of our
commerce, exclusive of China, involves the interests of at least thirty millions of the human race.

Of this extensive and varied population, the gradations in civilization are wide, from the rude
untutored Harafora to the comparatively civilized Javan and Siamese; but the absence of invete-
rate prejudice, and a spirit of enterprize and freedom distinguishes the whole. In the interior of
the larger islands, the population is almost exclusively devoted to agriculture ; but on the coasts,
the adventurous character of the Bugguese, and the speculative industry of the Chinese, have
given a stimulus and direction to the energies of the maritime and commercial states. Establish-

• The population of the Burman Empire alone has been estimated at fifteen millions ; that of Siam at six mil-
lions ; and Camboja and Cochin China at about the same.

APPENDIX.

ments are formed on each of the principal rivers, and while the less civilized inhabitant of the
country is engaged in collecting its valuable raw products, in traversing the woods, or sweeping
the shores, these native merchants become the carriers to more distant markets. The natural
demand and necessities which must exist in so extensive an Archipelago, in which the employments
and condition of the inhabitants are so various, give rise to a constant intei’course between them,
and consequently to an extensive native trade, which from its nature must be beyond the reach of
fiscal regulations.

The whole of this population, at least on the Malay Peninsula and throughout the islands, have
imbibed a taste for Indian and European manufactures, and the demand is only limited by their
means. Artificial impediments may for a time check their means ; but in countries where, inde-
pendently of the cultivation of the soil, the treasures of the mines seem inexhaustible, and the raw
produce of its forests has in all ages been in equal demand, it is not easy to fix limits to the exten-
sion of these means.

But the peculiar and still higher interests which these countries excite, arises from their vicinity
and intimate connection wdth China. From the earliest periods the Chinese would appear to have
derived many of their luxuries, and to have considerable resources, from the Eastern Islands.
Constant intercourse has made them acquainted with the different products, and the advantages of
trading .and mining operating upon a redundant population have given rise to extensive emigration.
The number of Chinese settlers in J ava does not amount to less than a hundred thousand ; an
equal number may be found at Siam, and still more on Borneo. The intercourse is principally
carried on with Amoy and the northern provinces of China, to which the influence of the Hong
merchants does not extend, and where trade is comparatively free. It is certain, that while the
British were in possession of Java, the Junks from these ports conveyed to China large quantities
of woollens and other articles of British staple and manufacture, and it is well known that the
cargoes of the ten Junks which annually proceed from China to Japan consist almost entirely of
these articles.

The number of Chinese which is annually imported into the islands is almost incredible, and is
only checked by the want of capital to defray the immediate expense of their passage. Any specu-
lator wishing to open a tin or gold-mine may obtain from ten to twenty thousand in a season, by
paying their passage-money at the rate of twelve dollars a head, and reimburse himself for the
same out of the profits of their labour, which they are willing to give gratuitously for three years
as a consideration. Hundreds of these people have often been seen at Penang, anxiously waiting
on board the ship on which they had been brought as a speculation from China, until some
Chinese capitalist settled on the island became willing to land them on these terms. In Java we
know that the extent of their colonization is only checked by the fears of the Dutch government,
lest they should become too numerous. In the interior of Borneo the recent increase has been
enormous, and the country in the vicinity of the mines has in every respect the appearance of a
Chinese province. The Chinese establishments on Borneo would appear to have always been
extensive. The circumstance of one of their emperors having formerly retreated to it, and having
been buried on its shores, is a proof of their early intercourse ; and abundant evidence in their
tombs and ruins of their establishments, is adduced to shew the extent to which it was carried,
before the excluding system of the Dutch destroyed the trade of the coast. If an instance were
wanting to shew the eagerness of this extraordinary people to establish themselves wherever they
are likely to enjoy the fruits of their industry, a recent instance at Singapore might be adduced.

When the British flag was first hoisted, there were not perhaps fifty-three Chinese on the island :
in three months the number did not fall short of three thousand, and this was rapidly increasing.

After this general review, our attention is directed to the nature and importance of the inter-
course which the English have held with these countries and people ; the objects of that inter-
course, political and commercial ; and the national interests which are involved in the protection
and improvement of the existing connection.

Politically, the securing of a free and safe passage for our China trade, both from Europe and
India, at all times and under all circumstances, has been considered of paramount importance, in-
dependently of excluding European powers from establishing themselves to the eastward of Bengal,
so much insisted upon on the first establishment of Penang. To these may be added the necessity
of at all times preserving such a political influence and consideration, as may secm-e our full par-
ticipation in the general trade of the Archipelago.

Commercially, the nature of our intercourse and objects may require a more particular explana-
tion. When Europeans first frequented the Archipelago, the trade had long collected at certain
established emporia ; of these Acheen, Malacca, and Bantam were the principal ; Macassar or
Celebes had also become an emporium of the more eastern commerce. With the exception of the
coffee in Java and the spices of the Moluccas, nearly the whole produce of the islands may be
considered as a trade of collection, which, by means of the smooth seas of the Archipelago, is
readily conveyed to the most advantageous markets. Foreign traders in large vessels found it more
to their interest to proceed to the emporia, where they might at once procure a full cargo, than to
run the risk of collecting the articles in detail on a more extensive and hazardous voyage, and thus
the interests of both were promoted. The foreign commerce was carried on with ease and safety,
and to the manifest advantage of all parties.

The valour of Portugal broke the power of the native states, and left them exposed to the
more selfish policy of their successors. The Dutch had no sooner established their capital at
Batavia, than not satisfied with transferring to it the emporium of Bantam, they conceived the idea
of making it the sole and only depot of the commerce of the Archipelago, Had this object been
combined with a liberal policy, and had the local circumstances of Batavia not obstructed it, the
effect might have been different, and instead of the ruin and desolation which ensued throughout
a large portion of these islands, they might have advanced in civilization, while they contributed
to raise the prosperity, and support the ascendancy of the Dutch metropolis. But when we advert
to the greedy policy which swallowed up the resources of this extensive Archipelago in a narrow
and rigid monopoly, and that instead of leaving trade to accumulate as it had previously done at
the natural emporia, it was forced by means of arbiti'ay and restrictive regulations into one, which,
independent of other disadvantages, soon proved the grave of the majority of those who were
obliged to resort to it, we shall find the cause which has proved as ruinous to the Dutch as to the
people. By attempting too much, they lost what under other circumstances might have been
turned into advantage ; and the native states, deprived of their fair share of commerce, abandoned
all attempts, and sunk into the comparative insignificance in which they were found at the period
when our traders began to navigate those seas from Madras and Bengal. The destruction of the
native trade of the Archipelago by this withering policy, may be considered as the origin of many
of the evils, and of all the pii’acies of which we now complain. A maritime and commercial people
suddenly deprived of all honest employment, or the means of respectable subsistence, either sunk
into apathy and indolence, or expended their natural energies in piratical attempts to recover by

APPENDIX.

1 1

force and plunder what they had been deprived of by policy and fraud. In this state of decay
they continued to degenerate, till the appearance of our country traders revived their suppressed
and nearly extinguished energies, and awoke to a new life the commerce and enterprise of this
interesting portion of the globe. The decline and corruption of the Dutch power in the East
ofi'ered little obsti'uction : as our intercourse increased, their establishments were withdrawn, and
long before the conquest of Java we had already possessed ourselves of the largest portion of this
trade.

This trade, which may now be considered natural to and belonging to Bengal, is of course
carried on, on the true principles of commerce ; it is not supported by any artificial means, and no
restrictions are considered necessary for its security. It consists chiefly in the exportation from
India of opium and piece goods, to an extent which has gradually been increasing from its com-
mencement: the returns are principally in specie and gold-dust. Other articles, the produce of
the Eastern Islands, find their way to the general market of Calcutta, but they are for the most
part adapted for sale in China, whither they are annually carried in native and country vessels.
It is not necessary to enter into a detail, on the present occasion, of the extent to which the trade
of the Eastern Islands is now carried ; the nature of the cargoes, both of import and export from
Europe, is generally known, and the increasing importance of the commerce, both to our territories
in India and the mother country, is universally admitted. Particular branches of trade which have
excited most interest, and channels of commerce which appear most important to be encouraged
and improved, will be hereafter noticed.

The preceding statements have prepared us to enter upon the immediate purpose of this paper,
the consideration of the objects now in view, and the policy to be pursued in their attainment.
The subject naturally divides into three heads, which will be considered in succession.

1. The high importance of our connection wdth these countries, whether considei’ed with re-
ference to the national interest in general, or to those of British India in particular.

2. The nature of our connection is and ought to be purely commercial, and our interference
politically, no further extended than to secure the general interests of that commerce.

3. The object of our connection being purely commercial, our establishments should be con-
formable, and our relation with the native states conducted exclusively on that principle.

On the first point it would be superfluous, after what has been said, to enter on further dis-
cussion. The importance of the connection is great and obvious, and is generally admitted ; but
it is impossible to pass over without some notice, the peculiar and additional interest which recent
events have given to our relation with the Eastern Islands. The supremacy of Gi’eat Britain
having now been established over the whole of the continent of India, and our empire consoli-
dated by the late territorial acquisitions, and by the liberal principles and enlightened policy which
have raised it to its present pitch of unrivalled eminence and prosperity, it remains for the wisdom
which accomplished these to draw forth and develop the resources of the country, and to open and
secure the channels through which they must flow. To insure a market for the manufactures
of India, and thus promote its industry and prosperity, and give an advantageous and beneficial
direction to the energies of its people, becomes an object of great and increasing importance. The
extraordinary advance of British manufactures having in a great measure excluded those of India
from the European market, it is to the populous and less civilized countries of the further east,
that we can alone look for a permanent demand. It is on these countries that India has always
depended for the consumption of her opium and piece-goods, and the demand for them, even under
the unfavourable circumstances which have hitherto attended the trade, has been always on the

b 2

APPENDIX.

increase. The consequences which would attend the loss of this trade, limited as it now is, are
too obvious to require explanation, and the security and improvement of it are in consequence most
intimately connected mth the prosperity of our Indian empire, and essential to the attainment of
the full benefits and eventful results of our late great and unparalleled success.

On the second point, that our connection should be confined to purely commercial objects, it
may be necessary to make a few observations. The extent and high value of our possessions in
India renders the acquisition of further territory, particularly in new and less civilized countries,
comparatively unimportant, and perhaps objectionable. The only position that might have been
valuable to us in this point of view, has been transferred to another power ; and although other
European nations might find their interest in colonizing, it would perhaps neither suit the finances
or policy of Great Britain to make the outlay, or involve itself in the necessary difficulties of the
undertaking. The paramount importance of our commerce, and of securing its interest, being
admitted, it is to this object that our .policy should be steadily directed. It will therefore be
essential to our interests to acquire and maintain such an influence in the countries in question,
as shall best secure this object, without involving ourselves in extensive establishments and local
difficulties and disputes, which might distract our attention, and divert us from our proper and
more immediate interests.

On the third point, enough has been said to show the fallacy of conducting our establishments
on any other than purely commercial principles. The effects of a contrary line of policy have been
exemplified in the ruinous losses and entire failure of all other plans. It has been shewn that the
establishment of Penang failed in its object from this cause, and the same observation applies to
Bencoolen. Of the latter it may be observed, that although the object was professedly commercial,
the deviations in practice from what may be considered the true commercial spirit, wei’e such as to
defeat itself and entail poverty and ruin on the country. The true and vivifying spirit of commerce
is one which tends as much to raise and excite the energies of the cultivator who sells, as to promote
the interest of the merchant who buys, and is directly opposed to that system of forced cultivation
and undue monopoly, which while it destroys every motive to exertion, must eventually defeat the
object of those by whom it is enforced, and thus, even as a simple matter of calculation, turn to the
loss of both parties.

On these general principles we proceed to the consideration of the nature, extent, and definite
objects of the establishments we may form.

Having shewn that trade, and not territory, is our object, and that this trade is intimately con-
nected and interwoven with the interests of British India, it is of the first importance that the nature
of this commerce, and the principles on which it can alone be secured and extended, should be
clearly understood. Our establishments should be directed to no partial or immediate views of
commercial profit, but to the preservation of a free and unrestricted commerce, and to the encourage-
ment and protection of individual enterprize and the interests of the general merchant. The
advantages of these establishments are not to be sought in the columns of a debtor and creditor
account, but are to be felt in a wider sphere than can be subjected to ordinary rules of calculation,
in the general diffusion of a spirit of industry and enterprize, and in the far-spread benefits which
flow from the extension of our general trade and resources. It has been from the enterprize of
individuals that India has hitherto derived advantages in this commerce, and it is to this alone she
can look for their continuance and improvement. It is to the general trade of India that we must
look for the effects and benefits of our more Eastern establishments, and not to the local and com-
paratively insignificant resources of any particular settlement, which should never be allowed for

APPENDIX.

one moment to weigh against the higher and more general interests at stake. We should consider
what may be the real value to us of this general trade, and what we can afford to pay for its security
and improvement. We must look upon all establishments to the eastward as an outlay for these
purposes, and these purposes alone. Our establishments should be looked upon as so many out-
posts or stations erected for the convenience and security of our general commercial interests, and
not as governments intended for the rule and detailed management of a dominion.

It follows that the economy of these establishments is to be sought in their fitness for the
objects intended : they should neither be too large and weighty, as at Penang ; nor so confined as
to affect their efficiency, and thus defeat their object. Wherever the British flag is raised, it
should be adequate to afford the full measure of its protection. The establishments should be
respectable, and such as to be consistent with our national character, and the promptitude and
efficiency of the public service.

The nature of the Eastern Islands, and the knowledge we possess of their resources and of the
course of their internal trade, afford abundant evidence that where political obstructions do not
oppose, trade must and will accumulate wherever protection is afforded and advantage to be
obtained. We have seen that this was the case when Europeans first visited these seas, and that
the flourishing era of that commerce may be considered to have been while it continued in this
state. Its decline may be dated from the period when the Dutch attempted to divert the trade
from its natural course, and every attempt at improvement on our part must be founded on a
recurrence to these general principles; and it is fortunate that an attention to these principles is in
every respect consistent with our present views, interests, and means. The events of two centuries
have necessarily effected a considerable change in the course and channels of this commerce, but
the principle remains unaltered, and may be applied with little modification to existing circum-
stances. Thus, although Bantam and Acheen may have long ceased to be two of the principal
emporia, the place of the former has been supplied by Batavia, while the trade of the latter now
centres in Penang. Dutch policy destroyed the emporium of Malacca, which had by political
necessity been transferred from Singapore, once the great emporium of these seas, whose history is
lost in the mists of antiquity, but whose greatness and importance are still preserved in the records
of tradition. The more eastern emporium of the Moluccas has shared the fate of Malacca, and the
object of the Dutch settlement at Macassar is solely to prevent its rise. Such, however, is the
tendency of this trade to collect at its natural entrepots, that it requires but the protecting influence
of an opposite policy to revive that commerce and restore the ancient order of things.

Thus by the possession of Penang and Singapore, and the facilities which the latter affords of
establishing another station still further east, we have the means of reviving and re-establishing at
least two of the ancient emporia, and this without any interference with the territorial rights of the
Dutch, to whom the emporium of Batavia will still remain.

It is therefore proposed, that the existing establishments be reformed on this principle, and
that one uniform system be adopted for the protection of the British interests to the eastward, and
the present establishments reduced and modified to a scale more suited to their object and duties.

With this view it will be necessary to place the establishments forthwith on the footing of
commercial stations, similar in principle to what has lately been adopted at Singapore, and that
the general superintendence of these stations be vested in the hands of the Supreme Government
of India, whose duty it will be at all times to protect and advance their real objects, and to
exercise such political influence over the native states, as circumstances and the security of our
interests may render necessary.

APPENDIX.

For the duties of Penang and Bencoolen, under this aiTangement, a local resident, with two
or three principal assistants at each, will be sufficient for the civil and general administration. At
Singapore, the establishment is already on this principle; and as a minor station wdth reference to
the importance of its harbour, and to the trade of the north-western coast of Sumatra, a small
establishment on the same principle may be advisable at Tappanooly.

Under this arrangement, Penang might become an extensive emporium at the northern
entrance of the straits, and rvould embrace the trade from the westward, and in particular of the
counh'ies on the eastern coast of Acheen, of the southern provinces of the Burman territories, as
well as those of Siam in its immediate vicinity, and the Malay states on the western side of the
Peninsula. The share which it would possess of the more eastern trade would depend on the
advantages of its market, to which the course would be unobstructed. Singapore would receive
that which flowed from the surrounding states, comprising those of the eastern coast of Sumatra
and adjacent islands, Johore and its dependencies, Borneo and Celebes, the ISIalay states on the
eastern coast of the Peninsula, Siam, Camboja, a large portion of the native trade of China,
together with such part of that of J ava and its immediate dependencies, as may be repulsed by the
restrictive regulations and heavy duties of the Dutch settlements. On the west coast of Sumatra,
the extensive pepper trade of the northern ports, which has hitherto been almost exclusively in the
hands of Americans, would centre in Tappanooly, while Bencoolen would become the depot of the
more southern provinces.

To proceed to details, the changes to be effected at Penang first came under our consideration.
The manner in which its local duties are performed by a Governor and Council is objectionable in
principle, and must be reformed. The Collector of Customs and Land Revenues has hitherto
been considered the first officer under government, and has always held a seat in council wdth five
per cent, on the duties collected: this office will become useless, as no duties are to be levied
beyond such as would more properly fall within the province either of the master attendant or the
magistrate. The next office of importance is the Warehouse and Store-keeper, who is also a member
of council : this office will become unnecessary under the system proposed, by which the supplies
required by government are proposed to be obtained on another and more economical principle
than that of keeping extensive civil and marine stores. The commissariat duties performed by this
officer would be better conducted in the military department. A separate Pay-master will become
unnecessary for the reduced civil establishment, and in the military may be advantageously
combined with the commissariat. The duties of Secretary, Accountant, and Sub-treasurer would
be so reduced as to render unnecessary the continuance of these separate offices. The limited
duties would be performed by the assistants to the resident ; but it is a point of the first importance
that he himself should personally superintend all matters of cash and account, and be responsible
for every item. The existence of separate offices for these departments, only tends to remove
responsibility from the chief authority, to whom alone government look, and to an unnecessary
increase in the minor establishments. The only offices which may be considered separate and
distinct from the immediate duties of the resident himself, are those which must be performed by
the magisti’ate and master attendant, and the efficiency of these two offices is essential. The
reduction of expense, the relief which the settlement and its trade would feel, and the superior
efficiency which would be established as the necessary consequences of such a change, are too
obvious to require comment.

At Singapore the duties are already performed on this principle by a resident and one
assistant with a master attendant ; and at Bencoolen, the public interests have long recommended

APPENDIX

the reduction of the establishment to a resident and two assistants, with a magistrate and master
attendant.

When it is considered that the immediate duties of the port, and of police, are provided for
by the appointment of efficient officers in those departments, and that where security is afforded,
and obstructions removed, trade flourishes most where it least feels the weight and interference of
government, the duties of the resident and his assistants will not be found very heavy. The
expense of establishments will be clearly defined, and at all times subject to the control and
revision of the superior authority. Where, however, an establishment is limited in number, strict
attention to the efficiency of each officer is indispensable, and much must always depend on the
character and talent of the local chief authority. On many accounts, the union of the chief civil
and military authority, when practicable, will be found advantageous. The rank and commanding
influence of a military officer has a considerable weight, and tends to prevent collision between the
civil and military branches of the service, unfortunately so frequent at remote stations. The
character also of a military man precludes him from trade, and his habits of subordination and
duty insure promptitude and regularity in the fulfilment of his instructions. The simplicity and
economy of this union are also in its favour.

It has hitherto been usual at Bencoolen and Prince of Wales’ Island to maintain a regular
establishment of civil servants, rising from the rank of writers to the highest offices. Admirable as
this system has proved to be on the large scale, it is to be feared, that in these small establishments
the same advantages have not resulted. The number is too limited to admit of competition or
selection, and the narrowness of the field is too apt to contract their ideas to the local habits and
prejudices of the place, and prevent the acquirement of those liberal and just views which are
obtained in a more general intercourse of society. On the reformed plan of our Eastern establish-
ments, it is conceived that it would be far more advantageous that the selection should be made
from the service in India generally. The line of assistants will of course be that in which local
experience may be obtained, and in which the opportunity would be afforded for the display of the
requisite qualifications for the higher stations.

In order to confine the duties of the proposed establishments within their proper sphere, and
to prevent loss or embarrassment by any partial recurrence to the old system, it should be laid
down as a fixed rule, that with the exception of the military department, no public stores whatever
should be imported or kept on account of government, and that whenever any articles may be
required for the public service, they shall be purchased by contract or tender in the general market
as required. The universal adoption of this principle would be advantageous to the general trade,
and economical to government, and the injurious effects which have I'esulted and the losses which
have accrued to the Company from a contrary practice need not be dwelt upon.

On the military establishment and defence of these stations, it is unnecessary to enlarge in this
place. If the general plan is adopted, no difficulties will arise on this head, while a considerable
improvement may be anticipated in its efficiency. The present very expensive mode of effecting
the reliefs seems to require amendment, and the health and efficiency of the regular troops may be
improved by the extension of local corps for the minor and more harassing duties. For the stall’,
an adjutant or station staff, with an officer who should perform the joint duties of the commissariat
or pay departments, will be sufficient for each station ; the latter should be a permanent appoint-
ment. An engineer officer for the general superintendence of public works over the whole will be
sufficient.

In countries so circumstanced, and with objects so defined, an extensive military establishment

16 APPENDIX.

is not necessary, and at all times the general defence and protection of our interests must depend
more on the naval force. In ordinary times, when we have no European enemies to oppose, the
occasional visit of one of his Majesty’s frigates, with two properly equipped vessels on account of
the Company, will be adequate for all purposes. These vessels should be suited to the nature of
the eastern seas, and calculated to afford accommodation to officers and small detachments that may
require to be sent from one station to another, by which and the occasional transport of military
stores, much of the heavy expense now incurred in private tonnage will be avoided. In order to
define and limit the expense of such vessels, it is proposed that they be engaged on contract at a
certain rate per month, government appointing the officers. The expense of a vessel of the
description required will not exceed four or five thousand rupees per month, and no contingencies
or further outlay need be calculated upon. The advantage of this mode over that of building or
purchasing vessels to be kept in repair and equipped by government is evident, when we consider
the enormous expenses which invariably accrue at out-stations in all kinds of repairs, and in
keeping up a stock of marine stores to provide for occasional demands, to say nothing of the
accumulation of dead stock, and the loss which usually attends the I’esale of the vessels when unfit
for further service. A certain and definite expense is substituted for one which in its nature is
fluctuating and increasing, at the same time that it has a manifest superiority in point of efficiency.

The duties of the superintending authority form the next subject of consideration. These
naturally divide themselves into two heads, the controul of the different stations, and those of
a political nature.

The local duties of the stations having been provided for by the establishments in each, the
residence of a superintending authority is not necessary in either, and they may be at once placed
under the supreme government of India, whose duty it will be to controul and enter into the details
of each, as far as may be deemed necessary to the public service, to keep the establishments
efficient, and to check and regulate their expenditure and accounts, according to such forms as may
enable that authority to form a correct judgment on them. Measures will be taken for raising the
pecuniary supplies by drafts on Bengal or otherwise, on one uniform system, which will prevent
the recurrence of inconsistency and loss ; and on this head it need only be observed, that in raising
these supplies, it is not the object to obtain any partial advantage by artificial means, as it will be
found that a fair competition in the market will always secure the interest of government, at the
same time that it promotes that of the general merchant.

The political duties are of a more extensive and different nature. They will comprize the
maintenance of a due influence among the native states, and such an interference in each, as may
tend to secure the British interests and remove obstructions in the way of a fi’ee commercial
intercourse with them. It will be an object to avoid all interference which may involve our govern-
ment in their internal disputes, at the same time that we cultivate and improve our connection with
them by all the influence and support that they can reasonably look for from a powerful ally and
pi'otecting authority. Our own interests are so manifestly connected with the advancement and
improvement of the native states, that it is obvious we can have no views which are not equally to
their advantage, and our interference is in consequence more likely to be invited than looked upon
with jealousy and distrust. On the same principle that we consult our general interests by fostering
and promoting the individual enterprize of our own traders by giving them the utmost freedom in
their speculations, we shall, on a wider and more extensive field, advance our higher political
interests, by encouraging and improving the energies and resources of these states, by upholding
their independence, and strengthening their power and importance. Our interference is not

APPENDIX.

intended to depress but to raise these states, and by the establishment of a free and unrestricted
commercial intercourse, to draw forth their resources while we improve our own.

Thus at Acheen, by upholding the legitimate authority with our countenance and influence, we
may give efiect to our recent political engagements with that state, and at the same time restore
confidence and the general tranquillity and prosperity of the country. To heal the long-continued
dissensions, and to turn into more advantageous channels the energies of the country, is an object
equally beneficial to the people themselves and to our interests ; and it is considered that this is
rather to be attained by the political support of the chief authority, than by any direct interference
either to enforce obedience or accomplish our purposes. While the safety of the ports is secured,
and general intercourse may be carried on without danger, this direct interference on our part is
unnecessary, and even objectionable ; but to secure this important object, a political influence may
be essential, whether it is to be obtained by aiding the king with arms and troops, or by the esta-
blishment of a secret or avowed agent, to direct his councils.

The supreme government would further turn its attention to the improvement of the intercourse
already subsisting between the southern provinces of Ava and Penang, and in an especial manner
to our connection with Siam. Considering the peculiar character of these people, the little inter-
course we have hitherto had with them, and the general want of information which exists, our
more immediate object seems to be the acquirement of a knowledge of the policy and disposition
of the chiefs and people, and of the general nature and resources of the country ; and it might
perhaps be sufficient to obtain this, in the first instance, through the medium of intelligent agents,
who might be induced to fix their residence in the country for commercial objects, and without any
avowed political connection with our government. Thus at Rangoon, the agent, who as a mer-
chant might be employed to supply the arsenal of Fort William with teak timber, might, without
exciting suspicion or jealousy, obtain and secretly communicate the information required. Of
course every thing would depend on the ability of this agent ; but it is conceived, that the allow-
ance which might be gi’anted by government for this duty, would be sufficient to command the
necessary talent. The facilities and command which our position at Singapore affords to the pro-
secution of an intercourse or negociation with Siam are great, and a proper understanding with
that power would immediately be felt in the general extension of our influence throughout the
Archipelago. The more open and unrestricted the intercourse with Siam may be, the less will be
the dependence of the islands generally on the power which may command the resources of Java.

Our influence at Siam would be attended with immediate effects throughout the Malay states
on the Peninsula, which naturally look to us, as a powerful ally, for the relief it would be our
object to obtain. Released from these continued vexations, which are of no advantage to Siam,
but ruinous to them, they would, under our fostering care and protection, gradually rise into im-
portance.

Throughout the Malay states in general, it will be proper to maintain an influence by the
means of occasional negociation, which, while it shall secure every commercial object, will protect
them from the interference of a foreign European power. Our commercial treaties will have for
their object the free and safe navigation of the coasts and rivers, and the security of intercourse at
the different ports, rather on a principle of responsibility than one of direct check and controul.
By raising the importance of the acknowledged chiefs, and making them responsible for the pre-
vention of pii’acy, this important object may be obtained with far greater facility and certainty, than
by the largest establishment of gun-boats and cruizers.

Having now laid down the principles and detail of the proposed plan for reforming our esta-

APPENDIX.

blishraents to the Eastward, the obstacles which stand in the way of its immediate and full adoption
are next to be considered ; these fortunately are few, and comparatively unimportant, and may be
comprized in a few words. The existing form of government at Penang, of a Governor and Coun-
cil, under the especial authority of the Court of Directors, the connection of that form of govern-
ment with the court of justice there established, and the supernumerary civil servants at Penang
and Bencoolen.

On the first two it may be observed, that while it may be expedient, pending a distant
reference, to continue this form of government, there is nothing to prevent its being so modified, as
to render it subservient and accordant with the general plan. The members of council may still
retain their present rank as counsellors, judges, and magistrates, by which means the form and
authority of the Recorder’s court would still be preserved, and the duties of police would be duly
provided for. It is in the transaction only of the affairs of government that modification would be
necessary. Instead of the council meeting once in each week, it might be left optional to the
governor to assemble them -whenever he might require their advice on affairs of moment. They
always hold other offices, and their duties as councillors might indeed be confined to the enactment
of legislative provisions and general regulations. During the absence of the chief authority, one
of the members of council might be appointed to act as vice-president, under such instructions as
may become necessary, and the allowances of this officer on such occasions placed on a par with
the acting authority at Singapore and Bencoolen ; all affairs with the other stations and with the
native states would be conducted by the superintending authority, and not be within the cognizance
of the local council. These modifications may be made without inconvenience to the public
service, or injury to the interests of individuals, and would be sufficient to admit the immediate
operation of the reformed plan.

With regard to the Court of Justice, it may be observed that the personal interference of the
members of the government as judges could never have been contemplated in its original constitu-
tion, and has given rise to much inconvenience and irregularity in the administration of justice ;
and the want of adherence to a more simple and obvious line of proceeding has long been com-
plained of. The following observations on the subject, by the Solicitor to the East-India
Company, may be adduced in proof. “ However simple,” he observes, “ the establishment and
mode of proceeding in such courts may be directed to be, yet foppery and fashion, which have as
much influence in legal as in other institutions of mankind, will be continually tending to aggran-
dize, and of course, to increase the expense of the theatre, and the performances of the court. I
fear,” he adds, “ that the attempt to restrain the forms of legal proceedings to practical use at Prince
of Wales’ Island have been in a great measure ineffectual.” The Court of Directors have already
abolished one member of the council ; and by the modifications now suggested, the simplicity of the
court will be still further promoted, and the Recorder left to the more free exercise of his judicial
functions.

With regard to the civil servants, who -will become supernumerary under the proposed ar-
rangements, the number at Penang is not at present considerable ; and if those of Bencoolen are
transfeiTed to Bombay, it may only be necessary to prevent the further increase by new appoint-
ments from home. Some additional expense may be occasioned in the first instance, by retaining
more assistants at each station than may be eventually necessary, in order to afford a provision to
some of these, but this need only be temporary. Under these modifications, the proposed plan of
administration for the Eastern Islands may be at once adopted.

Having thus far endeavoured to prove the necessity and advantage of uniting our several esta-

APPENDIX.

blishments to the Eastward under one uniform and appropriate system of administration, and sug-
gested the principles and plan on which the proposed reform might be effected, and their future
management conducted and superintended, a few general observations on the immediate and
eventual results of the change naturally present themselves.

The immediate advantages have already been shewn ; they will be felt in the greater economy,
efficiency, and simplicity of the establishments, the defined nature of their objects, and the general
stimulus that will be given to commercial activity and enterprize. So much confusion, obscurity,
and difference of opinion, have hitherto existed, as to the nature and objects of our Eastern esta-
blishments, that it is not among the least of the advantages of the proposed plan to render them
intelligible and consistent. Instead of forming detached, and too often discordant portions of our
Indian empire, it is now proposed to place them on such a footing as to make them parts of one
harmonious and connected system, in which, while they rise in individual importance, they add to
the strength and completeness of the whole.

Of the eventual and more remote, advantages which may be contemplated in a political and
commercial view, the prospect is unbounded. When we consider the extent of this unparalleled
Archipelago, the variety and peculiar character of its people, the infinity of its resources, its conti-
guity to China and J apan, the most populous regions of the earth, and the extraordinary facilities
it affords to commerce from the smoothness of its seas, the number and excellence of its harbours,
and the regularity of its seasons, it would be vain to assign limits, or to say how far and wide the
tide of commerce may flow, when once allowed to pursue its free and uninterrupted course, pro-
tected by the policy of an enlightened and powerful government, and receiving its impetus from
the energies of an ardent and enterprizing people.

On a nearer view of the subject, there are some points wdiich cannot fail to attract attention as
more immediately connected with our own interests. It is obvious that the intercourse between a
manufacturing country and a people who have made but little advance in the arts, must be to the
manifest advantage of the former. It has been shewn that the extent of the demand for British
and Indian manufactures is proportioned to that of the population, and that the tendency which
exists to a rapid increase of that population by accessions from China, is almost without limits.

As an example of the effect of the stations which have been proposed, the instance of Sin-
gapore may be adduced. This station, though violently opposed by the Dutch government on
principles which it would be difficult for them to avow, w'as hardly established as a free port,
when speculations were immediately entered into by the Dutch merchants of Batavia, and several
ships are already engaged by them to proceed to Singapore for the purchase of our Indian goods,
which they are thus enabled to import without the charge of double duties, which the articles would
be liable to if imported into Batavia in British bottoms. The produce of Java is also imported
into Singapore on equally favourable terms, and thus the double duties exacted from foreign ves-
sels at Batavia and Calcutta are naturally evaded, to the manifest advantage of the commerce of
both countries.

If this has already been the case in defiance of the jealousy of the Dutch government,
some idea may be formed of the greater advantages which may accrue from allowing our manu-
factures to be carried to China by native vessels on the same principles. The remittances of
the Chinese population to the mother country are always extensive, and the Chinese trader has the
advantage of importing free from those duties and exactions, with which the commerce of foreigners
is clogged at Canton. Of the extent to which the import of our manufactures to China might be
carried, some idea may be formed, when it is considered that the annual import of raw cotton, the

c 2

20 APPENDIX.

produce of our territories, does not fall short of ten thousand tons. As a manufacturing nation, it
is an extraordinary fact, that we are thus encouraging the industry of a foreign nation at the ex-
pence of our own manufactures. If the exactions and difficulties to the foreign merchant at the
port of Canton are such as to render the speculation unprofitable, the same objection does not apply
to their introduction through the medium of the native trader, and it can hardly be expected that
this branch of commerce can long remain on its present footing. The opening which has been
afforded by our establishment at Singapore may possibly turn it more to our advantage.

It would swell this paper to an unnecessary length to enlarge further on this subject, and it
may be concluded by a few reflections which naturally occur, on the advantages which will result
to the natives of these countries, from the extension of our influence and commerce on the liberal
principles now proposed. The advantages of commerce so conducted are reciprocal ; if it enriches
the one party, it raises the other in the scale of civilization, it creates new wants, and by opening
new sources of enjoyment encourages industry and emulation.

Among the Malay states we shall find none of the obstacles which exist among the more
civilized people of India, to the reception of new customs and ideas. They have not undergone
the same artificial moulding: they are fresher from the hand of nature, and the absence
of bigotry and inveterate prejudice leaves them much more open to receive new impressions
and adopt new examples. Whatever may have been their former religion, its character does
not appear to have been deeply imprinted, and they have carried the same moderate and tem-
perate spirit into their new faith. They have no knowledge of the odious distinction of castes,
but mingle indiscriminately in all society. With a high reverence for ancestry and nobility of
descent, they are more influenced, and are quicker discerners of superiority of individual talent,
than is usual among people not far advanced in civilization. They are addicted to commerce,
which has already given a taste for luxuries, and this propensity they indulge to the utmost extent
of their means. Among a people so unsophisticated and so free from prejudices, it is obvious that
a greater scope is given to the influence of example ; that in proportion as their intercourse with
Europeans increases, and a free commerce adds to their resources, along with the wants which will
be created, and the luxuries supplied, the humanizing arts of life will also find their way ; and we
may anticipate a much more rapid improvement than in nations, who having once arrived at a high
point of civilization and retrograded in the scale, and now hardened by the recollection of what
they once were, are brought up in a contempt for every thing beyond their own narrow circle, and
who have for centuries bent under the double load of foreign tyranny and priestly intolerance.
When these striking and important differences are taken into the account, we may be permitted to
indulge more sanguine expectations of improvement among the tribes of the Eastern Isles. We
may look forward to an early abolition of piracy and illicit traffic, when the seas shall be open
to the free current of commerce, and when the British flag shall wave over them in protection of
its freedom, and in promotion of its spirit. Restriction and oppression have too often converted
their shores to scenes of rapine and violence, but an opposite policy and more enlightened principles
will, ere long, subdue and remove the evil.

Thus in the spirit of personal independence which distinguishes these people, their high
sense of honour, and the habits of reasoning and reflection to which they are accustomed from
their infancy, we shall find the rudiments of improvement, and the basis on which a better
order of society may be established. By confining our national regulations to the society which
may collect at our proposed emporia, they will become centres of civilization as well as of com-
merce ; while by avoiding with the native states all interference which may not be of a political

APPENDIX.

nature, we shall expose to their view, and recommend for their adoption, those arts and rules of
civilized life, which contribute to the superior happiness of our condition, and leave them free to
adopt and apply them among themselves, in the degree and manner which may be most accordant
with their own notions and feelings

The peculiar interest which these people excite may be illustrated by the general feeling which
exists towards them on the part of almost every Englishman who has been among them, and
become acquainted with their character. Notwithstanding their piracies and the vices usually
attributed to them in their present state, there is something in the Malayan character which is
congenial to British minds, and which leaves an impression very opposite to that which a much
longer intercourse has given of the more subdued and cultivated natives of Hindostan. Retaining
much of that boldness which marks the Tartar stock, from whence they are supposed to have
sprung, they have acquired a softness not less remarkable in their manners than in their language.
Few people are more habitually polite, or attend more to the courtesies of society. Among
many of them traces of a former higher state of civilization are obvious, and where the opportunity
has been afforded, even in our own times, they have been found capable of receiving the highest
state of intellectual improvement.

The field which is thus open to the philanthropist needs no comment. He will look to the
remoter effects which may be produced by the diffusion of knowledge by the aid of the press, and
of moral instruction by the means of our schools, which would emanate from our principal stations
to the surrounding countries ; and to results which could not fail to be as creditable to us as Chris-
tians, as worthy of our character as Britons.

The subject of this paper cannot be dismissed without adverting to a question which may
naturally be started. By the proposed plan the general interests of commerce are alone considered,
wdiat are the advantages to the Company in their commercial capacity ?

To this it may be answered, that when the first and most important duties of government are
fulfilled, the proposed axTangements, so far from obstructing the commerce of the Company, are
calculated to improve its advantages and resources, in a degree at least commensurate with the in-
creased facilities and security w'hich they are intended to afford to ti'ade in general. Hereto-
fore the Company’s trade in this quarter has not only been a losing one to themselves, but has
tended to the depression of industry among the people, and to the exclusion and discouragement
of the private meixhant. This has been in a great measure owing to the mode in which it has
been conducted, and to the erroneous system of combining the speculations of commerce with the
powers of government ; under another system the result may be very different. By separating
entirely the two departments, and by conducting her commerce on the principle of wholesale and
not of retail, the Company may in her commercial capacity yet be enabled to reap the full advan-
tage of her command of capital, at the same time that she opposes no obstacles to the extension of
commerce or to individual enterprize.

Of monopoly it may be said as of slavery, that it is twice cursed ; that its effects are not less
ruinous to those who enforce it, than to those who are subjected to it. The whole experience of
Eastern commerce goes to prove this fact, and particularly the example of the Dutch, to say nothing
of the striking instance afforded in our own establishment of Bencoolen. Commerce, like liberty,
is a jealous power, and refuses her blessings to all who restrain her course.

It can no longer be the interest or duty of the East-India Company, to carry into her Indian
administration that union of monopoly and coercive exaction, which has so long been exploded as
impolitic and unjust. She now stands on a higher and more exalted footing ; the strongest bul-

APPENDIX.

wark of her constitution will be found in the attention which she pays to the improvement and
happiness of her subjects, and in the sacrifice she is always willing to make of her pecuniary inte-
rests, when these appear to stand in the way of the civilization and advancement of the human
race. The time is past when the Company looked for her profits from the sale of a yard of broad-
cloth or a pound of nails : she now acts in a more extended sphere, and her principles have ex-
panded with the growth of her empire. She now looks to the wealth and enterprize of those whom
she governs, as the sure and only sources of her own financial prosperity. While these did not
exist, it was necessarily left to the Company to supply the wants of her Indian population, in de-
tail ; but now that, under her fostering and enlightened rule, this wealth is fast accumulating, and
the enterprize and energies of individuals are excited in no common degree, she must look to her
trade in the Indian empire being conducted on the same principles as it is in the mother country.
It is only on the great scale which is consistent with her capital and character, that her purchases
and sales can be made with advantage to herself and benefit to the countiy. It is by the introduc-
tion of capital that trade is to be improved and extended. The entrance of a great capitalist into
the market is an accession to its value ; and so far from excluding the lesser capitals, and the en-
terprize of individuals, it opens to them a wider field than their own unaided exertions would be
capable of. In no part of the world, perhaps, is capital more wanted than in the Eastern Islands,
and were that of the Company thrown into it, so far from repi’essing the industry of individuals
or checking the improvements contemplated, the additional stimulus would only tend to excite and
encourage new energies, to accelerate the progress of general commerce, and the civilization to
which it must inevitably lead. But for this end the Company must not enter into detail : she
must not become a cultivator on her own account, she must not be a retail merchant. If she com-
petes with the private merchant, it must be on true mercantile principles ; she must look for success
from the influence of her superior capital alone, and must be satisfied with a moderate profit pro-
portioned to its extent. On these principles, and while the fabric of her civil administration
would remain unshaken, her purchases would be made by contract with inferior capitalists, who
would collect the articles, and her sales being made to a similar description of speculators, they
would distribute them in detail. Thus her capital would be employed to open new channels of
trade, to encourage industry, and by diffusing wealth and exciting enterprize, tend to promote the
best interests of mankind, and would resemble those sea-born clouds, which descending in showers
on her Indian mountains, return in a thousand fertilizing streams to the source from whence they

rose.

MINUTES BY SIR T. S. RAFFLES,

THE ESTABLISHMENT

OF A

MALAY COLLEGE AT SINGAPORE.

1819.

It is the peculiar characteristic of Great Britain, that wherever her influence has been extended,
it has carried civilization and improvement in its train. To whatever quarter of the world her arms
or her policy have led her, it has been her object to extend those blessings of freedom and justice
for which she herself stands so pre-eminent. Whether in asserting the rights of independent
nations, whether in advocating the cause of the captive and the slave, or in promoting the dif-
fusion of truth and knowledge, England has always led the van. In the vast regions of India,
where she has raised an empire unparalleled in history, no sooner was the sword of conquest
sheathed, than her attention was turned to the dispensing of justice, to giving security to the per-
sons and property, and to the improvement of the condition of her new subjects ; to a reform
in the whole judicial and revenue administration of the country, to the establishment of a system
of internal management calculated to relieve the inhabitants from oppression and exaction, and to
the dissemination of those principles and that knowledge, which should elevate the people whom
conquest had placed under her sway, and thus to render her own prosperity dependent on that of
the people over whom she ruled. A desire to know the origin and early history of the people,
their institutions, laws, and opinions, led to associations expressly directed to this end ; while by
the application of the information thus obtained to the present circumstances of the country, the
spirit and principles of British rule have rapidly augmented the power and increased the re-
sources of the state, at the same time that they have in no less degree tended to excite the intellec-
tual energies, and increase the individual happiness of the people.

The acquisitions of Great Britain in the East have not been made in the spirit of conquest ; a
concurrence of circumstances not to be controlled, and the energies of her sons, have carried her
forward on a tide whose impulse has been irresistible. Other nations may have pursued the same
course of conquest and success, but they have not like her paused in their career, and by modera-
tion and justice consolidated what they had gained. This is the rock on which her Indian empire
is placed ; and it is on a perseverance in the principles which have already guided her that she

APPENDIX.

LM-

must depend for maintaining her commanding station, and for saving her from adding one more to
the list of those, who have contended for empire and have sunk beneath the weight of their own
ambition. Conquest has led to conquest, and our influence must continue to extend : the tide has
received its impetus and it would be in vain to attempt to stem its current ; but let the same prin-
ciples be kept in view, let our minds and policy expand with our empire, and it will not only be
the gi-eatest, but the firmest and most enduring that has yet been held forth to the view and admi-
ration of the world. While we raise those in the scale of civilization over whom our influence or
our empire is extended, we shall lay the foundations of our dominion on the firm basis of justice
and mutual advantage, instead of the uncertain and unsubstantial tenure of force and intrigue.

Such have been the principles of our Indian administration wherever we have acquired a territo-
rial influence ; it remains to be considered, how they can be best applied to countries where terri-
tory is not our object, but whose commerce is not less essential to our interests. With the
countries east of Bengal an extensive commercial intercourse has always been carried on, and our
influence is more or less felt throughout the whole, from the banks of the Ganges to China and
New Holland. Recent events have directed our attention to these, and in a particular manner, to the
Malayan Archipelago, where a vast field of commercial speculation has been opened, the limits of
which it is difficult to foresee. A variety of ch’cumstances have concun’ed to extend our connec-
tions in this quarter, and late arrangements, by giving them a consistency and consolidation, and
uniting them more closely with our best interests both in India and Europe, have added much to
their importance and consideration. Our connection with them, however, stands on a very different
footing from that with the people of India ; however inviting and extensive their resources, it is
considered that they can be best drawn forth by the native energies of the people themselves, un-
influenced by foreign rule and unfettered by foreign regulations, and that it is by the reciprocal
advantages of commerce, and commerce alone, that we may best promote our own interests and
their advancement. A few stations are occupied for the security and protection of our trade, and
the independence of all the surrounding states is not only acknowledged but maintained and sup-
ported by us.

Commerce being therefore the principle on which our connection with the Eastern States is
formed, it behoves us to consider the effects which it is calculated to produce. Commerce is
universally allowed to bring many benefits in its train, and in particular to be favourable to civili-
zation and general improvement. Like all other powerful agents, however, it has proved the
cause of many evils when improperly directed or not sufficiently controlled. It creates wants and
introduces luxuries; but if there exists no principle for the regulation of these, and if there be
nothing to check their influence, sensuality, vice and corruption will be the necessary results.
Whei'ethe social institutions are favourable to independence and improvement, where the intellectual
powers are cultivated and expanded, commerce opens a wider field for their exertion, and wealth and
refinement become consistent with all that ennobles and exalts human nature. Education must keep
pace with commerce, in order that its benefits may be ensured and its evils avoided ; and in our
connection with these countries, it should be our care that while with one hand we carry to their
shores the capital of our merchants, the other should be stretched forth to offer them the means of
intellectual improvement. Happily our policy is in accordance with these views and principles,
and neither in the state of the countries themselves, nor in the character of their varied and exten-
sive population, do we find any thing opposed. On the contrary, they invite us to the field, and
every motive of humanity, policy, and religion seem to combine to recommend our early attention
to this important object.

APPENDIX.

A few words will be sufficient to shew the nature and extent of this field. Within its nar-
rowest limits it embraces the whole of that vast Archipelago, which stretching from Sumatra and
Java to the Islands of the Pacific ; and thence to the shores of China and Japan, has in all ages
excited the attention and attracted the cupidity of more civilized nations ; whose valuable and pecu-
liar productions contributed to swell the extravagance of Roman luxury, and in more modern times
has raised the power and consequence of every successive European nation into whose hands its
commerce has fallen. It has raised several of these from insignificance and obscurity, to power
and eminence, and perhaps in its earliest period among the Italian states, communicated the first
electric spark which awoke to life the energies and the literature of Europe. The native population
of these interesting Islands cannot be estimated at less than from ten to fifteen millions, of which
Java alone contains five or six, and Sumatra not less than three.

In a more extensive view must be included the rich and populous countries of Ava and Siam,
Camboja, Cochin-China, and Tonkin, the population of which is still more extensive than that of
the Islands. And if to this we add the numerous Chinese population which is dispersed through-
out these countries, and through the means of whom the light of knowledge may be extended to
the remotest part of the Chinese empire and even to Japan, it will readily be acknowledged that the
field is perhaps as extensive, interesting, and important, as ever offered itself to the contemplation
of the philanthropic and enlightened mind.

When we descend to particulars, and consider the present state and circumstances of this ex-
tensive and varied population, and the history and character of the nations and tribes of which it is
composed, we shall be more convinced of the necessity which exists, and of the advantages which
must result from affording them the means of education and improvement. Among no people with
whom we have become acquainted shall we find greater aptness to receive instruction, or fewer
obstacles in the way of its communication'.

With the exception of Java, the Moluccas, and Philippines, nearly the whole of the native
states of the Archipelago may be considered independent. The European settlements on the coasts
of Sumatra and Borneo are confined to commercial objects, and the interior of these large islands
has never felt the effects of European interference. A large portion of their coasts and the whole
of the smaller islands, as well as the states on the Malay peninsula, are exclusively under native
authority.

Of the Malays who inhabit the interior of Sumatra, and are settled on the coasts throughout
the Archipelago, it may be necessary to speak in the first place. The peculiar character of these
people has always excited much attention, and various and opposite opinions have been entertained
regarding them. By some, who have viewed only the darker side, they have been considered, with
reference to their piracies and vices alone, as a people devoid of all regular government and prin-
ciple, and abandoned to the influence of lawless and ungovernable passions. By others, however,
who have taken a deeper view, and have become more intimately acquainted with their character,
a different estimate has been formed. They admit the want of efficient government, but consider
the people themselves to be possessed of high qualities, and such as might, under more favourable
circumstances, be usefully and beneficially directed. They find in the personal independence of
character which they display, their high sense of honour and impatience of insult, and in their
habits of reasoning and reflection, the rudiments of improvement and the basis of a better order of
society, while in the obscurity of their early history, the wide diffusion of their language and the ,
traces of their former greatness, they discover an infinite source of speculation and interest.

That they once occupied a high and commanding political station in these seas appears

‘26

APPENDIX.

to be beyond a doubt, and that they maintained this position until the introduction of Mahome-
danism seems equally probable. From the geographical situation of the more important countries
then occupied by them, they were the first to come in contact with Mussulman Missionaries, and
to embrace their tenets, to which circumstance may perhaps be attributed the dismemberment of
the empire, and the decline of their power previously to the arrival of Europeans in these seas. At
that period, however, the authority of Menangkabu, the ancient seat of government, was still
acknowledged, and the states of Acheen and Malacca long disputed the progi-ess of the Portuguese
arms. The whole of Sumati-a, at one period, was subject to the supreme power of Menangkabu,
and proofs of the former grandeur and superiority of this state are still found, not only in the
pompous edicts of its sovereigns, and in the veneration and respect paid to the most distant branches
of the family, but in the comparatively high and improved state of cultivation of the country, and
in the vestiges of antiquity which have recently been discovered in it. This country occupies the
central districts of Sumatra, and contains between one and two millions of inhabitants, the whole
of whom, with the exception of such as may be employed in the gold mines for which it has always
been celebrated, are devoted to agriculture. The remains of sculpture and inscriptions found near
the ancient capital correspond with those discovered in Java, and prove them to have been under
the influence of the same Hindu faith which prevailed on that Island till the establishment of Ma-
homedanism there in the fifteenth century.

At what period the people of Menangkabu embraced the doctrines of the Prophet does not
appear, and would form an interesting subject of inquiry. The conversion of Malacca and Acheen
took place in the thirteenth century ; but it is uncertain whether Menangkabu was converted
previous to this date, although the religion is said to have been preached at Sumatra as early as
the twelfth century. It was about this latter period (1160), that a colony issued from the interior
of Sumatra, and established the maritime state of Singapura at the extremity of the Malay penin-
sula, where a line of Hindu princes continued to reign until the establishment of Malacca and
the conversion of that place in 1276. Whatever may in more remote times have been the nature
of the intercourse between foreign nations and Menangkabu itself, we know^ that Singapura,
during the period noticed, was an extensively maritime and commercial state, and that on the first
arrival of the Portuguese at Malacca, that emporium embraced the largest portion of the commerce
between Eastern and Western nations. It is not necessary to enter into the history of the decline
and fall of the Malay states of Malacca and Acheen, or of the establishment of Johor. The mari-
time and commercial enterprize of the people had already spread them far and wide through the
Archipelago, and the power and policy of their European visitors, by breaking down their larger
settlements, contributed to scatter them still wider, and to force them to form still smaller establish-
ments wherever they could escape their power and vigilance.

From this general account it will appear that the Malays may be divided into two classes,
agricultural and commercial. Our acquaintance with the latter being more intimate, and the opi-
nion generally formed of the character of this people having been taken from the maritime states, it
may be sufficient, on the present occasion, to advert to some particulars in the constitution of their
government, and to the habits and character of the people who compose them.

The government of these states, which are established in more or less power on the different
rivers on the eastern coasts of Sumatra and on the Malay peninsula, as well as on the coast of
Borpeo and throughout the smaller islands, is founded on principles entirely feudal. A high re-
spect is paid to the person and family of the prince, who usually traces his descent through a long
line of ancestors, generally originating on the Malayan side from Menangkabu or Johore, and not

APPENDIX.

unfrequently on the Mahomedan side from the descendants of the Prophet. The nobles are
Chiefs at the head of a numerous train of dependants whose services they command. Their civil
institutions and internal policy are a mixture of the Mahomedan with their own more ancient and
peculiar customs and usages, the latter of which predominate : in the principal states they arc
collected in an ill-digested code, but in the inferior establishments they are trusted to tradition.

The Malays are distinguished not only by the high respect they pay to ancestry and nobility
of descent, and their entire devotion to their chiefs and tlie cause they undertake, but by a vene-
ration and reverence for the experience and opinions of their elders. They never enter on an
enterprize without duly weighing its advantages and consequences, but when once embarked in
it, they devote themselves to its accomplishment. They are sparing of their labour, and are judi-
cious in its application, but when roused into action are not wanting in spirit and enthusiasm. In
their commercial dealings they are keen and speculative, and a spirit of gaming is prevalent, but
in their general habits they are far from penurious.

With a knowledge of this character, we may find in the circumstances in which they have
been placed some excuse for the frequent piracies, and the practice of “ running a muck,” with
which they have so often and justly been accused. That European policy which first destroyed
the independence of their more respectable states, and subsequently appropriated to itself the
whole trade of the Ai'chipelago, left them without the means of honest subsistence, while by the
extreme severity of its tortures and punishments it drove them to a state of desperation. Thus
piracy became honourable ; and that devotion, which on another occasion would have been called
a virtue, became a crime.

Of the J avans a higher estimate may be formed. Though wanting in the native boldness and
enterprize of character which distinguishes the Malays, they have many qualities in common with
them, but bear deeper traces of foreign influence, and at the present period, at least, stand much
higher in civilization. They are almost exclusively agincultural, and in the extraordinary fertility
of their country they find sufficient inducements to prefer a life of comparative ease and comfort
within their own shores to one of enterprize or hazard beyond them. The causes which have
conti’ibuted to their present improved state are various, and however interesting, it would swell
this paper beyond its due limits to enter on them.

The Madurese, who inhabit the neighbouring Island, are distinguished for more spirit and enter-
prize ; but the people in that quarter who more peculiarly attract our interest are those of Bali, an
Island lying immediately east of Java, and who at the present day exhibit the extraordinary fact of
the existence of an independent Hindu government in this remote quarter of the East. It was in this
island that, on the establishment of Mahomedanism in Java in the fifteenth century, the Hindus
who adhered to their original faith took refuge, where they have preserved the recollection of their
former greatness and the records and form of their religion. This Island, no part of which has
ever been subjected to European authority, contains with Lombok, immediately adjoining, a popu-
lation not far short of a million. The shores are unfavourable to commerce, and the people have
not hitherto been much inclined to distant enterprize. The Island itself has long been subjected
to all the horrors of an active slave-trade, by which means its inhabitants have been distributed
among the European setttlements. A more honest commerce, however, has been lately attracted
to it, and both Bugguese and Chinese have formed small establishments in the principal towns. In
their personal character they ai'e remarkable for a high independence and impatience of control.
A redundant population added to the slave-trade has separated them into various states, which are
generally at war with each other.

APPENDIX.

In the Island of Celebes we find the people of a still more enterprising character : the elective
form of their government offers a singular anomaly among Asiatic states, and is not the least pecu-
liar of their institutions. The Bugguese are the most adventurous ti’aders of the Archipelago, to
every part of which they carry their speculations, and even extend them to the coast of New Hol-
land, They are remarkable for fair dealing and the extent of their transactions. They were
converted to Mahomedanism at a much later period than either the Javans or Malays, and not
generally till after the arrival of the Portuguese in the sixteenth century. This Island contains an
extensive population, but its interior and north-western provinces are but little known, and are in-
habited by the same description of uncultivated people as are found in the interior of Borneo and
the larger Islands to the Eastward.

Of the population of the Moluccas it may be remarked, that they are for the most part pro-
fessing Christianity. The magnitude and importance of Borneo more peculiarly attracts our at-
tention. Malay settlements are formed on its principal rivers, and extensive colonies of Chinese
have established themselves in the vicinity of the gold mines a short distance inland, but the in-
terior of the Island is yet unknown. Various estimates of its population have been formed, but the
data are too uncertain to be depended upon. The tribes which inhabit the interior differ much in
character, but the majority appear to be agricultural, and a race of people who might be easily im-
proved and civilized. Others, again, are extremely barbarous ; and it must be admitted, that the
practice of man-hunting, for the purpose of obtaining the heads of the victims, is too frequent
throughout. Of this latter description are various tribes still inhabiting the interior of Celebes,
Ceram, and Jelolo, usually known by the name of Harafuras or Alfoors.

If we add to the above the population of the Philippines, which is not estimated at less than
three millions, Magindanao and the Sulu Archipelago, the Battas and other inferior tribes of Su-
matra, and the woolly-headed race occasionally found on the Peninsula and the larger Islands, and
more extensively established in Papua or New Guinea, some idea may be formed of the extent and
nature of the varied population of this interesting Archipelago. But the numerous Chinese settlers
who now form a considerable portion of this population, and who have given a stimulus to the
industi’y of its inhabitants, must not be passed over in silence. In the Island of Java the number
of these settlers is not less than 100,000 ; a similar number is to be found in Siam : in Borneo
they are still more numerous, and they are to be met with in every well regulated state. The
valuable gold mines of the latter Island have offered a powerful inducement to their establishment:
they are worked almost exclusively by Chinese, and an extensive population of Dayaks from the
interior are rapidly extending cultivation in their vicinity. There seems to be no limits to the in-
crease of Chinese on this Island, the redundance of population in the mother country, the constant
intercourse which exists with it, and the inducements afforded for colonization in a new soil,
where, in addition to agricultural and commercial resources, the produce of gold and diamonds ap-
pears to be only proportioned to the labour employed, are such that, to a speculating and indus-
trious people like the Chinese, they must continue to operate in spite of political restrictions and
partial exactions. It deserves remark, that of all the inhabitants of the Archipelago, the Chinese,
as well from their assimilating more with the customs of Europeans than the native Mahomedans,
as from their habits of obedience and submission to power, are uniformly found to be the most
jieaceable and improveable.

From the review now taken it will be seen how varied is the population of this Archipelago
both in character and employments, and that it consists both of agricultural and commercial classes,
of ditlerent ranks in the scale of each, from the wildest tribes who seek a precarious subsistence in

rV P P E N D I X.

their woods and forests, to the civilized J avan who has drawn forth the riches of his unequalled
soil, and made it the granary of these islands : and from the petty trader who collects the scattered
produce of the interior, to the Chinese capitalist who receives it from them, and disperses it again
to more distant regions. Situated between the rich and populous continents of China on the one
hand and India on the other, and furnishing to Europe the means of an extensive commerce, the
demand for the produce of those Islands is unfailing, and that produce Is only limited by the
extent of the population. By means of the variety of its tribes, their intermixture and connection
with each other, and the accessible nature of the coasts washed by the smoothest seas in the world,
while large and navigable rivers open communication with the interior, the stimulus of this com-
merce is propagated in successive waves through the whole, and the inexaustible resources of the
country are drawn forth in a manner and to an extent that could not otherwise have been obtained.
Each is dependant on the other, and receives and communicates a portion of the general activity.
Thus the savage and intractable Batta collects and furnishes the camphor and benjamin, the
spontaneous produce of his woods ; the equally barbarous Dayak and wild Harafura ransacks the
bowels of the earth for its gold and its diamonds ; the inhabitants of Sulu seeks for the pearl
beneath the waters that surround them, and others traverse the shores for the tripang or sea-slug,
or descend into its rooky caverns for the Chinese luxury of birds’ nests. Ascending from these
we find the more civilized Sumatran, whose agriculture is yet rude, employed in the raising of
pepper; the native of the Moluccas in the culture of the nutmeg, and the clove ; the still higher
Javan and Siamese, besides their abundant harvests of rice, supplying Europe with their coffee and
sugar, and all impelled and set in motion by the spirit of commerce. Not less varied are the
people who collect this produce from all these different quarters till it is finally shipped for Europe,
India, and China, from the petty bartering trader who brings it from the interior of the ports and
mouths of the rivers, the Malay who conveys it from port to port, the more adventurous Bugguese
who sweeps the remote shoi’es to concentrate their produce at the emporia, to the Chinese mer-
chant who sends his junks laden with this accumulated produce to be dispersed through the empire
of China, and furnishes Europeans with the cargoes of their ships. Through the same diverging
channels are again circulated the manufactures of India and Europe, and thus a constant intercourse
and circulation is maintained through the whole. How much this intercourse is facilitated by the
nature of the countries, broken into innumerable islands, may be readily conceived, and the vast-
ness of the field may be inferred from the extent to which its commerce has actually been carried,
under every disadvantage of monopolizing policy and of insecurity of person and property, by which
the condition of the people has been depressed and their increase prevented. When we consider
that they are placed at the very threshold of China, a country overflowing with an enterprising and
industrious population, anxious and eager to settle wherever security and protection is afforded,
that it is this people who have chiefly contributed to maintain and support the energies of the
native population, and have diffused the stimulus of their own activity wherever they have settled,
and that protection only is wanted to accumulate them in any numbers, to create it may be said
a second China, the resources and means of this extraordinary Archipelago will appear without
limits.

Viewed in this light, Borneo and the Eastern Islands may become to China, what America is
already to the nations of Europe. The superabundant and overflowing population of China affords
an almost inexhaustible source of colonization, while the new and fertile soil of these islands offers
tlie means of immediate and plentiful subsistence to any numbers who may settle in them. How
rapidly, under such circumstances, these colonies may increase in population, where the climate is

.30

APPENDIX.

at least as congenial to the Chinese as that of America to Europeans, may be readily conceived
from the experience which the latter has afforded. The wealth of their mines and the extent of
their own native population, added to the greater proximity of China, are advantages which were
not enjoyed by America, and must contribute to accelerate the progi’ess of colonization.

A scene like this cannot be viewed with indifference by the philosophic and contemplative
mind. The diversified form in which the human character is exhibited, the new and original fea-
tures which it displays, and the circumstances which have restrained or accelerated the develop-
ment of our nature in these extensive and remote regions, offer sources of almost inexhaustible
inquiry and research, while the obscurity which darkens the origin and early history of the people,
the peculiarity of their languages, laws and customs, and the vestiges which remain of a higher
state of the arts and of learning, offer, in a literary and scientific view, pursuits of no less interest
than importance. Placed as we shall be in the veiy centre of this Archipelago, the life and soul
of its extensive commerce, and maintaining with its most distant parts and with the adjacent con-
tinent a constant and rapidly increasing intercourse, the means are afforded to us, above all other
nations, of prosecuting these studies with facility and advantage.

We here find human nature at its lowest point in the w'oolly-headed savage who roams his
woods in absolute nakedness, deriving a precarious subsistence from roots and fish, and with no
other habitation than a cavern or a tree. We can trace the progress of improvement in those whose
agriculture is yet in its infancy, who clear a portion of their woods by fire, and take a contingency
out of it by planting a little rice in the soil thus enriched by the ashes. We dwell with more plea-
sure on those rich tracts of cultivation which adorn the slopes of the central districts of Java and
Sumatra, where the mountain torrent is arrested in its course, and made to flow over and fertilize
successive terraces on which abundant harvests are reaped. We shall meet with states that have
risen by commerce to w'ealth and eminence, and have now sunk since her soil has been displayed
on other shores. To the historian and the antiquarian the field here presented is unbounded. The
latter will trace in the languages and monuments, the origin and early history of these interesting
people : he will find the Malayan language diffused under various modifications, from Madagascar
on the coast of Africa, to the islands of the Pacific ; he will find it connected with Hinduism by an
influx of Sanscrit words, and will trace the effects of subsequent conversion in an accession of
Arabic terms. In their ancient monuments and inscriptions he will find proofs of the existence of
the faith of Brama or Budh, and of their greatness as nations in the magnitude of their remains.
He will find temples and sculptures which rival in beauty and extent those of continental India,
and through the mists of tradition will discover the faint light of glories that have past away. He
will find languages of a singular perfection and richness, that are no longer understood except by
the learned ; in short, he will find abundant proof of a former higher state of civilization from
which they have fallen. The causes of this declension, the vicissitudes they have undergone, and
their history in more modern times, when the progress of the Mussulman faith and of European
arms overturned and threw into confusion the ancient order of things, are subjects not less inte-
resting than untouched. Three centuries of intercourse have given but little information upon
these and other interesting points. War or commerce has hitherto absorbed the attention of those
who have visited these regions, with some exceptions, which have rather served to excite than to
gratify curiosity. Late years have been more fertile, and have opened the way to further inquiries,
and the spirit which has been awakened should not be suffered to sleep.

It would be endless to point out the desiderata which yet remain to be supplied, or the sub-
jects of interest which are yet to be investigated. The origin of Budhism, as it may be traced

APPENDIX.

in Siam, and particularly Laos and other countries not yet visited by Europeans, but with which a
commercial intercourse exists, is not the least of these. The objects of science are not less numer-
ous, to say nothing of the vast field which the immense empire of China opens to the speculative
mind. Through the means of her native traders who frequent those seas and are protected by our
flag, we have it in our power to prosecute the most extensive researches, and to communicate as
well as receive information which may be reciprocally useful and acceptable. While, as a manu-
facturing nation, we are compelled to supply this empire with the raw produce of our territories,
we can never want an interest in inquiring into the principles and means by which they are thus
able to supersede us, even with the advantage of our unrivalled machinery. The Chinese mind itself,
the literature and character of this extraordinary people, of whom so little is known, that their
place and rank in the scale of civilization is yet undetermined, are questions which have long at-
tracted the attention of the western world. The current of their ideas, the mould of their minds,
and the whole bent and direction of their powers differ so much from our own, that an estimate of
them is no easy task. We find them dispersing themselves abroad, and carrying with them a spirit
of enterprize and speculation combined with an industry and prudence, that makes them flourish
and acquire opulence wherever they settle.

Such is the range of inquiry open to the philosopher ; but to him who is interested in the
cause of humanity, who thinks that the diffusion of the humanizing arts is as essential to the cha-
racter of our nation as the acquisition of power and wealth, and that wherever our flag is carried
it should confer the benefits of civilization on those whom it protects, it will appear no less im-
portant, that in proportion as we extend the field of our own inquiry and information, we should
apply it to the advantage of those with whom we are connected, and endeavour to diffuse among
them the light of knowledge and the means of moral and intellectual improvement.

The object of our stations being confined to the protection and encouragement of a free and
unrestricted commerce with the whole of these countries, and our establishments being on this
footing and principle, no jealousy can exist where we make our inquiries. When the man of
science inquires for the mineral and vegetable productions of any particular country, or the manner
in which the fields are cultivated, or the mines worked, no motive will exist for withholding infor-
mation ; but if, in return, we are anxious and ready to disseminate the superior knowledge we
ourselves possess, how much shall we increase this readiness and desire on the part of the natives,
and what may not be the extent of the blessings we may in exchange confer on these extensive
regions ? How noble the object, how beneficial the effects to carry with our commerce the lights of
instruction and moral improvement. How much more exalted the character in which we shall ap-
pear, how much more congenial to every British feeling. By collecting the traditions of the coun-
try, and affording the means of instruction to all who visit our stations, we shall give an additional
inducement to general intercourse ; while the merchant will pursue his gain, the representative of
our government will acquire a higher character and more general respect, by devoting a portion of
his time to the diffusion of that knowledge and of those principles, w'hich form the happiness and
basis of all civilized society. The native inhabitant who will be first attracted by commerce, will
imbibe a respect for our institutions, and when he finds that some of these are destined exclusively
for his own benefit, while he applauds and respects the motive he will not fail to profit by them.
Our civil institutions and political influence are calculated to increase the population and wealth
of these countries, and cultivation of mind seems alone wanting to raise them to such a rank among
the nations of the world as their geographical situation and climate may admit. And shall we,
who have been so favoured among other nations, refuse to encourage the growth of intellectual im-

APPENDIX.

proveraent, or rather shall we not consider it one of our first duties to afford the means of educa-
tion to surrounding countries, and thus render our stations not only the seats of commerce but of
literature and the arts ? Will not our best inclinations and feelings be thus gratified, at the same
time that we are contributing to raise millions in the scale of civilization? It may be observed,
that in proportion as the people are civilized, our intercourse wdth the islands will become more
general, more secure, and more advantageous ; that the native riches of the countries which they
inhabit seem inexhaustible, and that the eventual extent of our commerce with them must conse-
quently depend on the gi’owth of intellectual improvement and the extension of moral principles.
A knowledge of the languages of these countries, considered on the most extensive scale, is essen-
tial to all investigation ; and may not the acquisition of these be pursued with most advantage in
connection with some defined plan for educating the higher orders of the inhabitants ? May not one
object mutually aid the other, and the interests of philanthropy and literature be best consulted by
making the advantages reciprocal ?

There is nothing, perhaps, which distinguishes the character of these islanders from the peo-
ple of India more than the absence of inveterate prejudice, and the little influence Mahomedanism
has had over their conduct and mode of thinking. With them neither civil nor religious institu-
tions seem to stand in the way of improvement, while the aptness and solicitude of the people to
receive instruction is remai'kable ; and in the higher classes we often find a disposition to enjoy the
luxuries and comforts of European life and to assimilate to its manners and courtesies. The states
more advanced in civilization have embraced the Mahomedan faith, which still continues to make
a slow progress throughout the Archipelago. This faith was not introduced by conquest, but by
the gradual progress of persuasion exerted by active missionaries on a simple and ingenuous peo-
ple. It is on the Mussulman teachers alone that they are at present dependant for instruction, but
these are now comparatively few and of an inferior order ; many of them little better than manu-
mitted slaves, though assuming the titles of Seids and Sheiks. When we consider that the whole
of the Archipelago is left open to the views and schemes of these men, that they promise the joys
of paradise in recompense for the slight ceremony of circumcision, and in this world exemption
from the pains of slavery to which all unbelievers are liable, we may account for the facility
w’ith which conversion is still effected, and the little impression it makes on the people. Insti-
tutions of the nature of colleges were formerly maintained by the native princes of Bantam and in
the interior of Java and Sumatra, particularly at Menangkabu, to which latter a visit was con-
sidered only less meritorious than a pilgrimage to Mecca. These colleges have disappeared with
the power of the native government which supported them, and their place is very imperfectly
supplied by the inferior and illiterate priests who are settled among them. The want of an insti-
tution of this nature has long been felt and complained of by the higher orders, and a desire has
even been expressed of sending their children to Bengal, but the distance and want of means to
defray the expense has generally prevented them from doing so. In an instance, however, in
which this has taken place, we shall find evidence of the capacity of the people to receive instruc-
tion, and are able to form some estimate of the degree of improvement to which they might
attain if similar advantages were enjoyed by all. Shortly after the conquest of Java, two sons of
the Regent of Samarang were sent to Bengal, where they remained only two years, but returned to
their native country not only with a general knowledge of the English language, but versed in the
elements of general history, science, and literature. The rapid progress made by these youths,
not only in these attainments, but in their manners, habits, and principles, has been the surprize and
admiration of all who have known them. It may be observed generally with regard to Maho-

EDUCATION.

raedanism in the Eastern Islands, that although the more respectable part of the population pay
some attention to its forms as the established religion of the country, they are far more attached
and devoted to their ancient traditions and customs, insomuch that in most of the states the civil
code of the Koran is almost unknown. In many of the countries which have not yet embraced
Mahomedanism, such as those of the Battas and other interior tribes of Sumatra, the Islands along
its Western coasts and the Dayaks of Borneo, it is difficult to say what are their religious tenets.
Faint traces of Hinduism are occasionally discovered, blended with local and original ideas, and it
has even been questioned whether some of them have any religion at all.

The inducements and facilities which are thus afforded, suggest the advantage and necessity
of forming, under the immediate control and superintendence of government, an Institution of the
nature of a native college, which shall embrace not only the object of educating the higher classes
of the native population, but at the same time that of affording instruction to the officers of the
Company in the native languages, and of facilitating our more general researches into the history,
condition, and resources of these countries.

An institution of this kind, formed on a simple but respectable plan, would be hailed with
satisfaction by the native Chiefs, who as far as their immediate means admit may be expected to
contribute to its support ; and a class of intelligent natives, who would be employed as teachers,
would always be at the command and disposal of government. The want of such a class of men
has long been felt, and is perhaps in a considerable degreee owing to the absence of any centre or
seat of learning to which they could resort.

The position and circumstances of Singapura point it out as the most eligible situation for such
an establishment. Its central situation among the Malay states, and the commanding influence of
its commerce, render it a place of general and convenient resort, while in the minds of the natives
it will always be associated with their fondest recollections, as the seat of their ancient government,
before the influence of a foreign faith had shaken those institutions for which they still preserve so
high an attachment and reverence. The advantage of selecting a place thus hallowed by the ideas
of a remote antiquity, and the veneration attached to its ancient line of kings, from whom they are
still proud to trace their descent, must be obvious.

The objects of such an institution may be briefly stated as follows :

First. To educate the sons of the higher order of natives and others.

Secondly. To afford the means of instruction in the native languages to such of the Company’s
servants and others as may desire it.

Thirdly. To collect the scattered literature and traditions of the country, with whatever may
illustrate their laws and customs, and to publish and circulate in a correct form the most important
of these, with such other works as may be calculated to raise the character of the institution and to
be useful or instructive to the people.

In order to embrace these objects, it will be sufficient, in the first instance, that an European
superintendant and assistant, with three native professors or head teachers and a few native assistants,
should be appointed to conduct the duties. Hereafter, as the institution becomes more generally
known and its advantages felt, an extension of this establishment may become necessary. The im-
mediate expenses may be estimated not to exceed a thousand rupees per month, and ten thousand
rupees for the construction of an appropriate building.

In the formation of the establishment the utmost simplicity will be necessary as well with a
view to economy as with reference to the character and cii’cumstances of the people. The rules for
its internal discipline will be few and obvious, and the means of exciting emulation such as may be

APPENDIX.

best suited to the condition of the students. The establishment proposed will include a native
professor in each of the three principal languages, Malay, Bugies and Siamese, with an assistant in
each department, and four extra teachers in the Chinese, Javan, Burman, and Pali languages.
The course of education will be the acquirement of such of the above languages as the students may
select, together with Arabic, to which the same professors will be competent ; and in the higher
classes, the Roman character and English language will be taught, together with such elementary
branches of general knowledge and history, as their capacity and inclination may demand. The
extra number of Moonshees are intended to afford instruction to the Company’s servants and
others ; and it will be the duty of the superintendant and native professors to form the collections,
and carry into effect the third and last object, under such directions as they may from time to
time receive.

The more immediate effects which may be expected to result from an Institution of this nature,
have already been pointed out, and are such as will readily suggest themselves. Native schools on
the Lancasterian plan have already been established at some of our stations, and may be expected
to spread in various directions ; connected with these an Institution of the nature now proposed is
calculated to complete the system, and by affording to the higher classes a participation in the
general progress of improvement, to raise them in a corresponding degree, and thus preserve and
cement the natural relations of society. After what has been said, it is needless to enlarge on the
more obvious and striking advantages which must result from the general diffusion of knowledge
among the people so situated. The natural and certain effect must be the improvement of their
condition, and a consequent advancement in civilization and happiness. The weakness of the
chiefs is an evil which has been long felt and acknowledged in these countries, and to cultivate and
improve their intellectual powers seems to be the most effectual remedy. They will duly appreci-
ate the benefit conferred, and while it must inevitably tend to attach them more closely to us, we
shall find our recompence in the stability of their future authority, and the general security and
good order which must be the result.

There are, however, some results of a more distant and speculative nature, which it is impossi-
ble to pass over unnoticed. These relate more particularly to the eventual abolition of slavery,
the modification of their more objectionable civil institutions, particularly those relating to debts
and marriages, and the discontinuance of the horrid practices of cannibalism and man-hunting, but
too prevalent among some of the more barbarous tribes, as the Battas and Alfoors.

It is almost unnecessary to state, that slavery is not only tolerated and acknowledged by the
Malay law, but until recently it was openly encouraged by the chief European authority in these
seas. Batavia for the last two centuries has been the principal and fatal mart to which the majority
were carried, and the islands of Bali, Celebes, and Nias, are the countries whence the supplies were
principally procured. Many thousands of the victims of this lawless traffic were annually obtained
in much the same manner as on the coast of Africa, and the trade has always been a very profitable
one and the principal support of piracy. While the British were in possession of Java, the act of
Parliament declaring the trade felony on the part of its own subjects was made a colonial law ; this
prohibition does not appear to have been repealed, and much benefit may be anticipated from the
Batavian Government not sanctioning the practice by its authority. But when we consider the
extent and varied interests of the Archipelago, the number of slaves still in Java, and the right
which every Mahomedan exercises, according to his ability, of converting or reducing to slavery
every unbeliever he meets with, the extent of the population still unconverted, and the sanction
given to slavery by the Malay custom, we can only look for the complete remedy of the evil by the

EDUCATION.

3.5

extension of our influence among the native states, and the eflects which a better education may
produce on the Chiefs.

Throughout the greater part of the Eastern states the Mahomedan law has never been
adopted in its full extent. In some it has been blended with the original customs and institutions,
and in others not introduced at all. The laws regarding debts and marriages are peculiarly illus-
trative of this, and however in principle they may have been applicable to a former state of society,
are now in practice found to be in many places highly oppressive and injurious to the increase of
population. The fact is fully exemplified in the vicinity of Bencoolen, where a large portion of the
population is reduced to a state little better than that of actual slavery on account of debts, and fully
one-fourth of the marriageable females remain in a state of celibacy from the obstacles which their
customs oppose to marriage. The former arises from the custom which gives the creditor an un-
limited right over the services of the debtor for any sum however small ; in many cases the family
and relations of the debtor are further liable in the same manner. In the case of marriage it may
be observed that the daughters are considered to form a part of the property of the father, and are
only to be purchased from him by the suitor at a price exceeding the usual means of the men. The
effects of education may be expected to be felt in the gradual modification and improvement of these
institutions, especially if aided by our influence and example. However attached the natives may
be to the principles on which these institutions are founded, experience has proved that they are
by no means unwilling to modify them in practice, on conviction that they are injurious in tendency.
In a recent instance, they readily agreed to lower the price paid for wives, on the advantage of such
a measure being urged and explained to them.

On the subject of the barbarous practices alluded to as common among the wilder tribes, it
may be sufficient for the present purpose to state that the Battas, a numerous people having a lan-
guage and written character peculiar to themselves, and inhabiting a large portion of the northern
part of Sumatra, are universally addicted to the horrid practice of devouring the flesh of their
enemies whom they take in battle ; and that many tribes of the Dayaks of Borneo, and the Alfoors
of the further East, are addicted to the practice of man-hunting, solely for the purpose of presenting
the bleeding head as an offering to their mistresses. A man is considered honourable according to
the number of heads he has thus procured, and by the custom of the country such an offering is an
indispensable preliminary to marriage. It is not to be expected that our schools will have any
direct or immediate influence on people where such practices are prevalent ; but indirectly and
eventually, as the Chiefs of the more civilized states in their neighbourhood acquire power and
stability, they may be expected gradually to be brought under their influence and subjected to the
restraints of a better state of society.

From this it will appear, how much more extensive are the advantages to be obtained from
educating the higher classes, to whom alone we can look for effectually promoting the progress of
improvement among the lower orders, and for extending the benefits of civilization to the barbarous
tribes who would otherwise be entirely beyond the sphere of our influence, than could be obtained
from any scheme which should reverse the order, and commence instruction from the bottom rather
than the top of the scale. In every country the lights of knowledge and improvement have
commenced with the higher orders of society, and have been diffused from thence dowmwards. No
plan can be expected to succeed which shall reverse this order, and attempt to propagate them
in an opposite direction ; and more especially in countries where the influence of the Chiefs, from
the natmre of the government, must always be considerable.

In affording to such of the Chinese as are settled in the islands a participation in the benefits

e 2

APPENDIX.

of this Institution, the richer classes are particularly adverted to. Many of these, if not possessed
of the advantages of birth, have raised themselves by their talents to opulence and a respectable
rank in society. These men at present frequently send their sons to China for education, for want
of an Institution of this nature which would supersede the necessity. A recent establishment of
the kind has been formed at Malacca, under the superintendance of an enlightened missionary, and
a branch of it is already extended to Singapore. It has been attended with considerable success,
but must necessarily be limited in its operation by its more immediate and direct object beino- that
of religious conversion. The rapid acquisition of the Chinese language which has been the conse-
quence of this establishment, and the numerous tracts which have been issued from its press in
that language, give the institution much interest, and the means which have thus been afforded of
opening what may be termed a literary intercourse with this peculiar people are gradually increas-
ing. The advantage of extending the plan on a broader and more general principle is acknowledged
by those under whom it is conducted, and they may be expected, if not to combine their labours
with the plan now proposed, at least to give it all the aid in their power. The expense of this
branch of the Institution will probably be borne principally by the Chinese themselves, who are
w'ealthy enough to do so, and are sufficiently aware of the advantages of education.

Having now shewn the extent and objects of the proposed Institution, the field presented for
its operation, and pointed out some of the advantages which may be expected to result, it will be
sufficient in conclusion to remark, that the progress of every plan of improvement on the basis of
education must be slow and gradual ; its effects are silent and unobtrusive, and the present genera-
tion will probably pass away before they are fully felt and appreciated. Few nations have made
much advance in civilization by their own unassisted endeavours, and none have risen suddenly
from barbarism to refinement. The experience of the world informs us that education affords the
only means of effecting any considerable amelioration, or of expanding the powers of the human
mind. In estimating the results of any scheme of the kind the advantages must always be in a
gi'eat measure speculative, and dependant on the concurrence of a variety of circumstances which
cannot be foreseen. This is admitted to apply with its full force to the Institution in question;
but when it is considered that education affords the only reasonable and efficient means of improv-
ing the condition of those who are so much lower than ourselves in the scale of civilization, that
the want of this improvement is no where more sensibly felt than in the field before us, and that
the proposed plan has the double object of obtaining information ourselves, and affording instruc-
tions to others, it will be allowed to be at least calculated to assist in objects which are not only
important to our national interests, but honourable and consistent with our national character.
The outlay proposed is moderate, when considered even with reference to the immediate advan-
tages, to say nothing of those which are of a more remote and speculative nature. One single
family of rank raised into importance and energy by means of the proposed Institution, may
abundantly repay our labour by the establishment of a better order of society in its neighbourhood,
by the example it may set, and by the resources of the country it may develope. M e are not
plodding on a barren soil, and while the capacity of the people for improvement is acknowledged,
the inexhaustible riches of the country are no less universally admitted.

If we consider, also, that it is in a great measure to the influence of Europeans, and to the
ascendency they have acquired in these seas, that the decline of the people in wealth and civiliza-
tion is to be ascribed, and that the same causes have contributed to take away the means of
instruction they formerly possessed, it is almost an act of duty and justice to endeavour to repair
the injury done them. The British influence in these seas is already hailed as bringing freedom

EDUCATION.

to commerce, and support to the independence of the native states ; and shall we not also afford
them the means of reaping the fruits of these blessings? Of what use will it be to protect the
persons and raise the wealth and independence of these people, if we do not also cultivate and
expand their minds in the same proportion ? Besides the inducements of humanity, besides the
consideration of what is due to our national character, shall we not best preserve the tranquillity of
these countries and the freedom and safety of our own intercourse, by improving their moral and
intellectual condition ? Shall we not bind them to us by the firmest of all ties, and build an empire
on the rock of opinion, where we neither wish nor seek for it on any other principle ?

It may be urged, that the Institution here proposed is too limited in its extent, and too inade-
quate in its means to embrace the vastness of the object contemplated. It may be said, is the
improvement of so many millions of the human race to be effected, and the light of knowledge
diffused over such extensive regions by means so simple ? The objection is in some respects
just: an establishment on a much more extended scale would certainly have been desirable,
but many obstacles have presented themselves to the immediate adoption of any very expensive
plan.

The object has been to bring it to the very lowest scale consistent with efficiency, in order to
avoid the chance of failure were too much attempted in the beginning. Voluntary endowments
are what such institutions must depend on for support ; but it has appeared unadvisable to com-
mence a plan of this kind in a remote quarter of the world, where its advantages are not yet fully
comprehended, on any uncertain calculation which might risk its success. A centre or nucleus is
wanting which shall be placed on a footing beyond the reach of contingencies or accidents ; and
the support of government is necessary, in the first instance, to give stability and security to the
infant institution : this once established, there can be little doubt of its extension in proportion as
the benefits become more and more apparent. The noblest institutions of mankind have arisen
from small beginnings, and where the principles are sound, and the benefits of unequivocal appli-
cation, such a commencement is perhaps better than one of more boastful pretensions.

The object at present has been, with the least pretension to commence an Institution which
shall continue to grow and extend itself in proportion to the benefit it affords. A situation has
been chosen the most advantageous for this purpose, from whence, as a centre, its influence may
be diffused and its sphere gi-adually extended, until it at length embrace even the whole of that
wide field whose nature has already been shewn. That it will spread may be considered almost
beyond a doubt. We know the readiness and aptness of the people to receive instruction ; we
know that they have had similar Institutions of their own in happier and more prosperous times,
and that they now lament the want of them, as not the smallest of the evils that has attended the
fall of their power. It is to Britain alone that they can look for the restoration of these advantages .
she is now called upon to lay the foundation stone, and there is little doubt that this once done,
the people themselves will largely contribute to rearing and completing the edifice.

But it is not to remote and speculative advantages that the effect of such an Institution will be
confined ; while the enlightened philanthropist will dw'ell with pleasure on that part of the pros-
pect, the immediate advantages will be found fully proportionate. To afford the means of instruc-
tion in the native languages to those who are to administer our affairs, and watch over our interests
in such extensive regions, is surely no trifling or unimportant object. In promoting the interests
of literature and science not less will be its effect. To Bengal, where inquiries into the literature,
history, and customs of oriental nations have been prosecuted wdth such success, and attended
with such important results, such an institution will prove a powerful auxiliary in extending these

APPENDIX.

inquiries among the people of the further East. Many of the researches already begun can only
be completed and perfected on this soil ; and they will be forwarded, on the present plan, by
collecting the scattered remains of the literature of these countries, by calling forth the literary
spirit of the people and awakening its dormant energies. The rays of intellect, now divided and
lost, will be concentrated into a focus, from whence they will be again radiated with added lustre,
brightened and strengthened by our superior lights. Thus will our stations not only become the
centres of commerce and its luxuries, but of refinement and the liberal arts. If commerce brings
wealth to our shores, it is the spirit of literature and philanthropy that teaches us how to employ it
for the noblest purposes. It is this that has made Britain go forth among the nations, strong in
her native might, to dispense blessings to all around her. If the time shall come when her empire
shall have passed away, these monuments of her virtue will endure when her triumphs shall have
become an empty name. Let it still be the boast of Britain to write her name in characters of
light ; let her not be remembered as the tempest whose course was desolation, but as the gale of
spring reviving the slumbering seeds of mind, and calling them to life from the winter of ignorance
and oppression. Let the Sun of Britain arise on these islands, not to wither and scorch them in
its fierceness, but like that of her own genial skies, whose mild and benignant influence is hailed
and blessed by all who feel its beams.

SINGAPORE.

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS.

PROCLAMATION,

By the Honourable Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, Lieutenant-Governor of Fort Marlbrd

and its dependencies.

Instances having occurred in which the orders of Government have been misunderstood or not
properly promulgated, and it being desirable that this irregularity should be prevented for the
futm'e, and that a fixed rule be laid down for the mode in which such orders should be publicly
notified, as well as for the promulgation of whatever general Rules and Regulations may hereafter
become necessary for the order and good government of the Settlement ;

NOTICE IS HEREBY GIVEN,

First, That all orders of Government from and after this date, having a general application,
will be printed for public information, and that translations thereof in the Malay language will be
affixed in convenient stations, to be selected for the purpose. It will be the duty of the Registrar
to see that whenever they have reference to the native population, the native officers cause the same
to be truly and correctly explained and made known throughout their respective divisions.

Secondly, That for the present, and until the establishment of a regular court of judicature, all
Rules and Regulations of the nature of legislative provisions, affecting person or property, shall be
drawn out and numbered according to a regular form, to be printed, translated, and published as
above directed ; the originals thereof being deposited in the Registrar’s office, for public reference
when necessary. The mode in which the Resident shall be assisted with advice in the enactment
of such Regulations will be hereafter made known. In the mean time, and during the residence
of the Lieutenant-Governor at Singapore, all general Regulations of this nature will be published
under his signature, and have the force of law from the date of their being registered.

Regulation, No. 1, entitled “a Regulation for the Registry of Land,” will this day be pub-
lished according to the form prescribed.

Dated at Singapore, this 1st day of January, 1823.

(Signed) T. S. RAFFLES.

APPENDIX.

REGULATION, No. I, OF 1823.

A Regulation for the Registry of Land at Singapore.

It being expedient for the protection of property and the prevention of disputes hereafter, that
a general register should be kept of all appropriations of land, as well as of the transfer, mortgage,
or disposal of immoveable property in general, the Honourable the Lieutenant-Governor of Fort
Marlbro’ and its dependencies has this day been pleased to pass the following Rules and Regula-
tions, to have effect from this date.

1. That an office be forthwith established for the registry of land, and conducted by a respon-
sible officer of Government, to be termed Registrar.

2. That all appropriated land in the Island of Singapore, and its immediate dependencies,
whether retained by the Sultan or Tumungung, or ceded to the British Government, be registered
in the said office.

3. That the land retained by their Flighnesses the Sultan and Tumungung be not considered
.as tranferable, or to be appropriated otherwise than for their own benefit or that of their families
and immediate dependants ; and all British subjects are forbidden to have any dealings therein.

4. That all grants by the British Government be made in conformity to public notification,
under the signature of the chief authority, and according to the forms this day approved and esta-
blished for the Registrar’s Office.

5. That all applications for, or relating to land, be made to the Resident through this Office ;
and whenever land is appropriated by Government, it be the duty of the Registrar to issue
the grants.

G. That no title will be admitted to any land which may not be regularly granted, or for which
the party may not have obtained a previous certificate from the Registi-ar’s office, authorizing him
to clear according to the prescribed forms.

7. That no alteration of the original register of any land be made without the express authority
of the Resident, made known by public notification under his signature.

8. That all persons at present in the occupation of land are required to report the particulars of
the same, and apply for a grant thereof on or before the 1st of February next ensuing, in failure
of which they will be considered to have forfeited all claim thereto.

9. That the quit-rents on all grants be payable on the 1st of January in each year, whatever
may have been the date of the grant.

10. That a separate Register be opened in this office for registering all deeds of transfer of
land, houses, &c. whether by sale, mortgage, or otherwise, and no transfers will be recognized
unless they are so registered.

11. That all such deeds of transfer be registered within one month after date, unless the delay
is proved to have been unavoidable.

12. That the Registrar be entitled to demand for his own benefit a fee of one Spanish dollar on
the Registry of each grant and on each subsequent transfer that may pass through his Office.

13. That these Rules and Regulations be considered as provisional, until they may be con-
firmed by the Governor General in Council of Fort William.

Dated and promulgated at Singapore, this 1st day of January, 1823.

(Signed) T. S. RAFFLES.

Registered,

G. Bonham, Registrar.

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS.

REGULATION, No. II. of 1823.

A Regulation for the Port of Singapore.

The port of Singapore is a free port, and the trade thereof is open to ships and vessels of every
nation free of duty, equally and alike to all.

The subsidiary Rules under these Regulations were revised on the 29th August 1823, as follows :

Provisional Regulations for the Port of Singapore.

1 . The arrivals of all ships and vessels shall be immediately reported to the Master-Attendant
in the ordinary Report-Book, and afterwards by the Commander, in person, at the Master-
Attendant’s office, as soon as the vessel shall have anchored.

2. The intended departure of any ship or vessel shall be reported to the Master-Attendant,
twenty-four hours previous to her sailing ; except in cases of emergency, w hich will be deter-
mined by the Resident.

3. Commanders of all vessels are requested to deliver, when boarded by the Master- Attendant’s
boat, all letters, packets, and despatches for the Settlement, and to receive and furnish a receipt
for Post-office packets which may be sent on board on their departure.

4. With a view of affording an authentic record of the progress of the trade of the Settlement,
all Commanders of European or square-rigged vessels, are required to give in, on honour, before
sailing, to the Master-Attendant, an accurate specification of the goods imported and exported by
them ; such statement to be sealed, and not opened until the vessels shall have quitted the port.
To facilitate this operation, the Master- Attendant will supply the Commanders with proper forms.

5. With the same objects in view, a verbal statement of the import and export cargoes of
native vessels shall be given in by their Commanders.

6. After reporting at the Master-Attendant’s office on their arrival, and immediately previous
to their sailing, all Commanders of European or square-rigged vessels are required to wait on the
sitting Magistrate, and supply him with a list of the passengers intend ng to remain at or depart
from this Settlement.

7. All vessels, European and native, will promptly receive a port-clearance on application to the
Master- Attendant’s office, and such port-clearance will be given without fee or charge.

8. All cargo-boats shall be regularly admeasured, numbered, and registered in the Master-
Attendant’s office, and each boat shall have marked upon her bow her number and her tonnage.

9. All cargo-boats shall be supplied with good and sufficient covering, adequate to protect the
goods from damage.

10. The following shall be the maximum for charges taken for boat-hire, wooding, watering,
and ballasting, for ships touching at the port, and whose stay does not exceed forty-eight hours, as
well as in all other cases, where no previous arrangement or contract is made ; —

Boat-hire, 68 cents of a hard Spanish dollar per coyaij of 40 pecul.

For a return boat, 34 cents, do. do.

Firewood per 1000 billets, (of 18 cattin per billet) hard Spanish dollars, with a propor-
tional price if the billet is larger or smaller.

Firewood, boat-hire included, 8J do. do. do.

Ballast (sand) per coyan, including boat-hire, 80 cents,
do. (stone) do. do. 90 cents.

Water if with ship’s casks, 112 cents per ton, including boat-hire,
do. when ship’s casks are not used, 100 cents.

APPENDIX.

11. The business of supplying wood, water, and ballast for ships, and the employment for cargo-
boats, shall not be considered subject to any official restraint or regulation beyond those already
mentioned; and the mediation and assistance of the officers of Government with regard to them is
deemed, in the present advanced state of the trade of the port, no longer necessary.

12. Nothing contained in these regulations shall be construed to operate against the most
perfect liberty to ships to wood, water, and ballast with their own boats.

These Regulations to have effect from the 1st September.

Singapore, 29th August, 1823.

(Signed) T. S. RAFFLES.

Registered,

G. Bonham, Registrar.

REGULATION, No. III. of 1823.

A Regulation for the Establishment of a Provisional Magistracy and the Enforcement of a
due and efficient Police at Singapore, with certain Provisions for the Administration of
Justice in Cases of Emergency.

POLICE.

The extent of population and capital already accumulated at Singapore requiring an immediate
provision for the preservation of order and the protection of person and property, the Lieutenant-
Governor is pleased, with the concurrence of their Highnesses the Sultan and Tumungung, to
establish the following provisional Regulations for the department of Police ; which being conso-
nant with British principles, and adapted, as far as consistent, to the usages of the native settlers,
seem best calculated to meet the existing circumstances cf the Settlement.

MAGISTRATES.

1. The names of the several British inhabitants of interest and respect in the Settlement, and
who may be considered competent to act as Magistrates, shall be enrolled in a list to be formed
for the purpose, from which the chief authority will, on or before the 1st February, 1st ISIay,
1st August, and 1st November in each year, select three gentlemen in rotation, to be commissioned
to act as Magistrates, for the preservation of the peace and the maintenance of an efficient police
during the ensuing quarter.

2. Of the three Magistrates so commissioned for the quarter, each shall in turn act as sitting
Magistrate for the week or month, and the three Magistrates collectively shall, once in the quarter,
at the least, or as often as occasion may require, hold a meeting, of the nature of quarter-sessions,
for the hearing and deciding of cases which may exceed the authority of a single Magistrate, and
doing all such things as are usually done at quarter-sessions in England, as far as the object and
nature of that institution can be considered applicable to the circumstances of this Settlement.

3. The authority of the Magistrates who may be commissioned under this Regulation is to be
considered the same as Justices of the Peace in England ; with this reservation, that whenever it
may become necessary to commit a British-born subject, except in flagrante delictu, or to affect
his person or property, the warrant be countersigned by the chief local Authority.

4. The jurisdiction of the Magistrates will extend over all descriptions of persons resorting
under the British flag ; but for the present, as the military are subject to another tribunal, this
class is not to be considered as falling under their immediate cognizance, unless in cases specially

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS.

referred to them by the Resident or commanding officer : and in all cases where the followers of
their Highnesses the Sultan and Tumungung are concerned, due respect must be paid to those
independent Authorities, and a reference made to the Resident, for advice as to the mode of pro-
cedure to be pursued.

5. In cases where the crews of vessels are concerned, or in which the convenience of the
port or the superintendence of the Master-Attendant is in any way connected, that officer will act
in concert with the Magistrates, taking his seat in his magisterial capacity with the sitting Magis-
tiate or the Magistrates assembled in quarter-sessions, as the case may be.

6. For the adjustment of small debts, the Magistrates are empowered to decide in a summary
manner in all cases of debt that may be brought before them, where the demand may not exceed
fifty dollars, if brought before the sitting Magistrate only, or one hundred dollars if brought before
two or more Magistrates assembled in sessions : the proceedings of the Magistrates, in such cases,
being conformable to the practice of Courts of Conscience or Requests, and an appeal to a higher
Authority being allowed under certain restrictions.

7. The high opinion which the Lieutenant-Governor entertains of the intelligence and respec-
tability of the gentlemen whose names may be first enrolled to serve as Magistrates under this
Regulation, renders it unnecessary for him to frame any detailed instructions for their guidance in
the exercise of the important duty about to be entrusted to them. Such general rules of a local
nature as may appear most important to be attended to on the first establishment of this jurisdic-
tion, and for the Court of Requests, will be this day approved ; and for the rest, the Magistrates
will follow the course of the British magistracy, as far as local circumstances admit, avoiding legal
technicalities and unnecessary forms as much as possible, and executing the duties of their office
with temper and discretion, according to the best of their judgment and conscience, and the prin-
ciples of substantial justice.

NATIVE CHIEFS.

8 Subordinate to the Magistrates there shall further be appointed one Native Captain or
Head-man, with one or more Lieutenants or Assistants, over each principal class of the native
inhabitants, who will be invested with especial authority over such class, and held responsible for
the general conduct of the same.

9. These Captains or Head men, with the assistance of their Lieutenants, when necessary,
will have the power of adjusting and settling all disputes which may happen among the people of
their respective classes, an appeal lying to the Magistrates where the amount of property concerned
may exceed ten dollars.

10. 'I'he Captains or Head-men being held responsible for the police of their respective
classes, they are empowered to call upon the members thereof to keep watch in rotation, and to
exercise such subordinate duties as may be necessary for the establishment of a well organized and
efficient police.

11. General instructions for the guidance of these officers have been this day approved, and it
will be the duty of the Magistrates to see that they are duly and strictly attended to.

12. The Magistrates will be assisted by a moderate establishment, to be paid by Government,
consisting of one head Officer of Police and Clerk to the Magistrates, and a certain number of
Peons ; and all contributions from the inhabitants, whether voluntary or otherwise, for the support
of the Police, are to cease from this date.

f 2

APPENDIX.

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.

1 . For tlie present, and until the establishment of a more regular court for the hearing and
trying of offences and the adjustment of civil suits, where the amount in dispute may exceed one
hundi’ed dollars, the Resident, as chief authority, will hold a court as often as may be necessary,
assisted by their Highnesses the Sultan and Tumungung, where natives may be concerned.

2. The Assistant to the Resident will, for the present, act as Registrar of this court and
preserve the records thereof.

3. The nile to be observed by this court in criminal cases where natives are concerned has
already been laid down, in the case recently tried by the Lieutenant-Governor ; and where Euro-
peans, and more particularly British subjects, are concerned, it is considered that, in the few cases
likely to occur, the pai'ties may be more advantageously transmitted to Penang or Bengal, where
they will be subject to a competent jurisdiction.

4. In civil cases, where the amount in dispute may be considerable, the court will, in the first
instance, recommend the parties to adjust their differences by arbitration, and in the event of their
declining to do so, will adopt such measures as shall ensure to the plaintiff due security for the
trial of the case in a competent court elsewhere, in the event of the defendant failing to come to
a satisfactory adjustment on the spot.

5. In consequence of the absence of legal advice, it w ill be m the power of the court to reject
the consideration of all civil cases which may not have arisen on the spot, or be of an emergent
nature, or which may appear to involve intricate questions of law.

NOTARY PUBLIC.

6. The Assistant to the Resident wdll, in his capacity of Registrar to the court, be authorized
to take down depositions, to certify protests and other legal documents, and to do all such other
things for the public convenience as usually appertain to the office of Notary Public.

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS.

7. It being expedient that an authority should exist for the enactment, from time to time, of
such local law's and regulations as the cii’cumstances of the Settlement may require, the Resident
is empowered, under the proclamation of the 1st ultimo, to pass such Regulations by and with the
advice of the Magistracy, in the following manner.

1st. Such Regulations may either originate with the Resident or the Magistrates for the
quarter. In the former case, the Resident will submit the draft of the same to the Magistrates
previous to the Regulation being passed, for their opinion and observations thereon ; and in the
event of any difference of opinion as to the propriety of any part of the proposed Regulation, the
Resident will have the power to overrule the same, and to pass the Regulation provisionally ; but,
in this case, the objections or observations of the Magistrates are to be forwarded to the Governor-
General in Council with the Regulation so passed.

2d. In cases wherein proposed Regulations may originate with the Magistrates, they will
collectively address the Resident, submitting the same for his consideration, and the Resident w’ill
be required to enter on the immediate consideration thereof. In the event of a difference of
opinion and the Resident declining to enact the proposed Regulation within three months, the
Magistrates may request that their recommendation be transmitted for the consideration of the
Governor-General in Council.

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS.

3d. All general Regulations enacted by the Resident after this manner, and according to the
form prescribed, are to be forwarded (with the objections of the Magistrates where a difference of
opinion may have existed) to Bengal by the first opportunity that offers, and to remain provisionally
in force for six months ; at the expiration of which period, if the Regulation is not confirmed by
the Governor-General in Council, the same is to be void and of no effect.

4th. It is of course to be understood, that the regulations to be enacted under this authority
are to be of a local nature, and in no way inconsistent with any known British law or usage.

5th. This Regulation to have effect from and after the 15th proximo, and to be considered as
provisional until confirmed by the Governor-General in Council, or until such time as a duly con-
stituted Court of Judicature may be established for Singapore.

Dated at Singapore, this 20th day of January, 1823.

(Signed) T. S. RAFFLES.

Registered,

G. Bonham, Registrar.

REGULATION, No. IV. of 1823.

A ^EGVi.x’Vio'ta prohibiting Gaming-Houses and Cockpits, and for suppressing the vice of

Gaming at Singapore.

The practice of gaming being highly destructive to the morals and happiness of the people,
and it being inconsistent with the principles of good government to admit of public gaming-houses
and cockpits, it is hereby declared :

1. That no public gaming-house or cockpit will hereafter be tolerated by Government under
any circumstances, or for any consideration whatever ; and that, from and after this date, all persons
are strictly prohibited from keeping such on any terms or pretence whatsoever.

2. That any persons offending against this Regulation, or who may be proved to have here-
after received money, either directly or indirectly, for conducting a gaming-table or cockpit, shall
be liable, according to the circumstances of the case, to the confiscation of a certain amount or the
whole of his property, and banished from the Settlement with corporal punishment, at the discre-
tion of the court.

3. That the house or building, with the ground on which it stands, in which it may be proved
that such a gaming-table or cockpit has been kept shall also be liable to confiscation.

4. That all persons who may be detected in the act of gaming or cock-fighting, whether at a
gaming-table or not, shall be taken up by the Magistrates, and punished according to the circum-
stances of the case.

5. No gaming debts can be enforced by the winners; but in all cases that may come before
the Magistrates or the Resident Court, the winners will be compelled to restore the amount to the
losers.

6. The Magistrates will adopt such minor regulations in the department of Police, as they
may deem advisable for carrying the object of this Regulation into effect, and for suppressing the
vice of gaming as far as possible, without trespassing on tlie free will of private conduct, as long as
it may not be injurious to society in general.

APPENDIX.

This Regulation to be in force and effect from tliis date, and to be considered as provisional
until confirmed by the Governor-General in Council.

Singapore, the 1st May, 1823.

(Signed) T. S. RAFFLES.

ExTRACxyrow? the Penal Code of China concerning Gambling, 1823.

“ Whosoever games for money or goods shall receive eighty blows with a cudgel on the
“ breech, and all the money or property staked shall be forfeited to Government. He who opens
“ the gaming-house, although he does not gamble, shall suffer the same punishment, and the
“ gaming-house shall be confiscated. If Government Officers gamble, their punishment shall be
“ increased one degree.”

A subsequent clause enacts, that “ whoever gambles, whether soldiers or people, shall
“ wear the broad heavy wooden collar one month, and be cudgelled with one hundred blows.”

“ Those who set up an occasional gambling-house and harbour gamblers, shall, together with
“ the head gamblers (if not numerous), all be punished by wearing the wooden collar three
“ months, &c.”

In some cases the parties are to be transported.

Registered,

G. Bonham, Registrar.

REGULATION, No. V. of 1823.

A Regulation for the Prevention of the Slave Trade at Singapore.

There being reason to apprehend, that, notwithstanding the solemn prohibitions of the Legis-
lature, individuals have been imported into Singapore since the establishment of the British autho-
rity, either as slaves or under the denomination of slave debtors, in both cases bought and sold for
a price ; and it being desirable that all persons resorting to or residing under the protection of the
British flag should be aware of the prohibition and penalties attending such illegal transactions, in
order that the humane and just objects of the British Government may not be lost sight of or
frustrated, either from ignorance or design, the following Regulations, which are to have the effect
of law, are this day passed and published for general information and guidance.

SLAVES.

1. The Act of Parliament prohibiting the slave Kide from being carried on with any British
colony or settlement, or by any British subject, having been passed previously to the establishment
of the British settlement of Singapore, the provisions of the said Act are considered to be in force
in this Settlement, and to apply to all persons who may have obtained a fixed residence aX Singapore
since the establishment of the British Government.

2. As the condition of slavery, under any denomination whatever, cannot be recognized within
the jurisdiction of the British authority, all persons who may have been so imported, transferred, or
sold as slaves or slave debtors, since the 2Gth day of February, 1819, are entitled to claim their
freedom, on application to the Magistrates, as hereafter provided ; and it is hereby declared, that no

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS.

individual can hereafter be imported for sale, transferred or sold as a slave or slave debtor, or having
his or hev fixed residence under the protection of the British authorities at Singapore, can hereafter
be considered or treated as a slave, under any denomination, condition, colour, or pretence
whatever.

3. Hereafter, a continued residence of twelve months at Singapore shall be considered to con-
stitute a fixed residence, and to entitle the party to all the benefits of the British administration.

4. In order to prevent inconvenience or misunderstanding in the emancipation of those who
may have been imported and sold as slaves or slave debtors anterior to this date, and at the
same time to shew every reasonable indulgence to those who may have acted in ignorance of the
prohibitory law, the Magistrates are required to make inquiry into, and record the particular cir-
cumstances attending the case of each individual who may apply for his or her emancipation ; and
in the event of the parties being of tender age, and unable to conduct or maintain themselves, the
Magistrates are empowered to bind them as apprentices to respectable and responsible persons,
giving a preference to their present masters if unobjectionable in this respect, for a period not
exceeding three years, or until they shall attain the age of thirteen years. In the event of the
parties being adults, the Magistrates shall further be empowered to require them to render their
personal services for the benefit of those who may have a just claim to the same, for a period in no
case exceeding three years, should the parties freely consent thereto, which servitude shall be
considered as a complete acquittal for the expense of their passage hither, which is the only legal
demand that can be admitted, and which shall be in full of all demands on their persons whatever ;
but, in both cases, the parties are to be forthivith declared free, subject only to the condition of
personal servitude on contract as free persons for a limited period as aforesaid.

5. There having been few or no slaves at Singapore at the period of its occupation by the
British authorities, and their Highnesses the Sultan and Tumungung having evinced their desire
to aid the benevolent objects of the British Government, these Regulations are considered to apply,
and to have effect upon all persons who are now or may hereafter have their fixed residence at
Singapore : save and except the personal establishments of their Highnesses, who though not being
in a condition to be bought and sold, are nevertheless registered out of deference to their autho"
rity, as not coming under the operation of the slave laws.

6. In order to prevent annoyance or obstruction to the ti'ade of the port, it is to be clearly
understood, that the present Regulations are not intended to apply to the domestic establishments
of native Chiefs, or traders who may occasionally resort to this port and not fix their residence under
the protection of the British flag, nor to the crews of vessels coming from foreign ports, further
than to prohibit them from transferring or selling persons as slaves or slave debtors in this Settle-
ment, and provided the parties, if slaves, may not obtain a fixed residence by residing in the
Settlement for upwards of twelve months. In this latter case, the slaves, though nottrans-
ferred, will have a right, under Article 2, to claim their freedom, and the Magistrates are
required to grant the same, on such conditions as may be mutually convenient and fair between the
parties.

7. As the practice of purchasing slaves from boats as slave debtors under the Mengheering
system, and paying a price for them as such, rendering the party a debtor for the amount, can only
be considered as an evasion of the law, and equally calculated with the purchase of slaves to
encourage the traffic in human beings, such transactions are declared to be illegal ; and the utmost
price which the Noquedah of a vessel is entitled to demand on the landing of any such person shall
in no case exceed the sum of twenty dollars, which may be considered as an equivalent for the

APPENDIX.

passage-money of the party, and who may be bound to repay tlie same by his services under the
rules now passed for bond debtors-

BOND DEBTORS,

8. Experience having proved that the system of slave debtors, as practised in the Malay states,
is inconsistent with that freedom of the subject which it is the desire of the British Government to
introduce, the same will not be recognized after this date, in any case in which both parties may
not be Malays, or native inhabitants of the Malay Aixhipelago. But with the view of providing
for such cases as may occur, in which it may be lawful to give the creditor a right to the services
of his debtor, the following rules are passed, to have effect from this date.

9. As it frequently happens that free labourers and others are brought from China and else-
where as passengers, who have not the means of paying for their passage, and under the expectation
that individuals resident in Singapore will advance the amount of it, on condition of receiving the
sernces of tire parties for a limited period in compensation thereof, such arrangements are not
deemed objectionable, provided the parties are landed as free persons ; but in all such cases, the
amount to be paid on account of passage-money or otherwise is limited to twenty dollars, and the
period of service by an adult, in compensation thereof, shall in no case exceed two years, and every
such engagement shall be entered into with the free consent of the parties, in presence of a Magis-
trate, and duly registered. In cases where the parties may be of tender age, the Magistrates may
apprentice them until they attain the age of puberty ; but in no cases are the parties to be burthened
with a debt exceeding twenty dollars, for which amount their services, during the period above
stated, shall be considered as a full and ample compensation.

10. In all cases of Mengheering or slave debtors which may come before the British courts,
the claim of the creditor is in no case to be considered to exceed the services of the debtor for a
period of five years, the debt being considered as worked out at the rate of twenty per cent, or not
less than ten dollars per annum.

11. Hereafter, all agi’eements for personal services beyond twelve months, are required to be
entered into under a bond to be registered at the Magistrate’s Office ; the bond or contract specify-
ing the services to be rendered, the consideration paid for the same, and the penalty in case of
failure.

D2. Hereafter, no contract shall be legal which stipulates for a longer period of service than
five years, under any circumstances or for any consideration whatever.

13. The parties in all cases who may so contract to render their services for a valuable con-
sideration, shall lose no natural rights to which they may be entitled as subjects during such ser-
vitude, except the value of their services, for wdiich it will be the duty of the Magistrates to see
that they receive a due remuneration ; all persons, whatever may be their condition, being equal in
the eye of the law.

14. In all cases wherein the Magistrates may think proper, on account of the tender age of
parties, to bind them apprentices for a certain period, such period shall in no case exceed five years ;
and it must be an invariable condition in the indenture, that the parties shall receive a moral
education and be sent to a public school, under a pecuniary penalty in case of failure by the
master.

15. No creditor possessing a right to the services of any imlividual, shall be at liberty to
transfer the services of the party to another, except with the consent of the debtor ; nor can the

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS.

debtor change his master at pleasui’e, without proof of ill-usage to be given before the Magistrates :
and in case of the death or bankruptcy of the creditor, it shall remain with the Magistrates to decide
in how far the further services of the debtor can be claimed. If the creditor dies solvent, the
debtor is to be relieved from further servitude ; but if he dies insolvent or becomes bankrupt, the
debtor shall continue to render his services till the end of the contract, for the benefit of the
creditors, he in this case having the liberty of choosing his master.

The Magistrates are required to cause this Regulation to be duly explained in the native
languages, and published by beat of gong throughout the Settlement, and the Master-Attendant
will cause the same to be duly made known to the Noquedahs of all native vessels resorting to the
port.

This Regulation to be in force and have effect from and after this date, and to be considered as
provisional until confirmed by the Governor-General in Council.

Singapore, the 1st May, 1823.
Registered,

G. Bonham, Registi-ar.

(Signed) T. S. RAFFLES.

REGULATION, No. VI. of 1823.

A Regulation in furtherance of the Objects of Regulation, No. III. of 1823, and containing
additional Provisions for the Magistracy and Administration of Justice at Singapore.

The Magistrates shall be appointed annually on the 1st January in each year, instead of quar-
terly, as provided by Regulation, No. III. of 1823.

Twelve Magistrates are now appointed, who are to constitute the acting Magistracy for the
present year ; and to this number it shall be competent to the Resident to appoint supernumeraries,
who are to be borne on the public roll of persons eligible for the Magistracy.

Previous to the appointment of any such supernumerary, the Resident shall intimate his inten-
tion to the twelve acting Magistrates ; and it shall be competent to three-fourths of that body to ob-
ject, wdthm one month, to such nomination, by a written instrument, stating the ground thereof; but
the Resident shall have the power of overruling this objection, pending a reference to the Governor
General in Council.

Vacancies in the acting Magistracy shall be supplied from the supernumeraries or ex-Magis-
trates.

The enactment of local laws and regulations to continue in the manner prescribed under Regu-
lation No. III. of 1823 ; save only by the slight alteration now necessary, in order to suit it to the
change made in the IMagistracy from quarterly appointments of three to annual appointments of twelve.
Hereafter, any proposal for a new law or regulation must originate or be considered by a majority
of the twelve acting Majjistrates.

There shall be two courts : —

1st. The Resident’s Court, in which that officer shall preside and pronounce the decisions.
It shall be formed by the Resident, with the assistance of two Magistrates taken monthly by rota-
tion from the general list of Magistrates.

APPENDIX.

2d. The Magistrates’ Court, where two Magistrates shall jointly preside, and when they
agree pronounce the decision. When they disagree as to the sentence, each shall record that which
he recommends. But a new trial must commence in the Resident’s court.

The business of the Resident’s court will be to try : —

1st. All causes which are beyond the jurisdiction of the Magistrates.

2d. All causes referred to that court by the Magistrates.

The business of the Magistrates’ court will be to try and decide in all cases that may come within
the jurisdiction of the Magistrates, as defined in Regulation, No. III. of 1823.

All men in the settlement are bound to give their aid where required towards the administration
of justice. The cases where this should be done without any pecuniary reward are where the par-
ties are called upon

To inform the court, either by giving evidence of what they know relating to the facts of a
case, or

Furnishing their opinion as to its merits.

To aid the officers of justice, by information, or by physical force, when they are otherwise afraid
of being unable of themselves to carry into effect the orders of the court : that is to say, to give evi-
dence, to serve as jurors, to aid as constables or posse. While employed in the public service in
these capacities, the individuals shall be entitled to peculiar and honourable privileges, such as that
any insult or injury offered to them shall be visited on the offending party with much more severity
than if the offence were committed against private individuals.

The individuals selected for the distinguished duties of constables and jurymen may be of any
nation or religion, but they must be able to read and write. Ex-Magistrates will be special consta-
bles ex officio. Constables and jurymen shall be nominated by the Resident annually.

Causes may be instituted either at the suit of persons claiming private redress, or on the prose-
cution of a public officer for breaches of public regulations, or for wrongs that render it proper to
inflict punishment beyond the exaction of the redress due to the individual.

The jurisdiction of both courts shall extend geographically over the Island of Singapore, and
the islets in its immediate vicinity forming the harbour.

The annexed Rules A and B are this day approved for the two courts :

Appendix A, Rules for the Resident’s Court.

Appendix B, Rules for the Magistrates’ Court.

This Regulation to have effect from this date, and to remain in force until rescinded by a higher
and more competent authority, or until such time as a duly constituted court of judicature may be
established at Singapore.

(Signed) T. S. Raffles.

Singapore, the Gth of June, 1823.

APPENDIX TO REGULATION, No. VI. of 1823.

APPENDIX A.

RULES FOR THE RESIDENT’S COURT.

The Resident’s Court shall be formed by the Resident, with the assistance of two Magistrates,
under the title of Assessors.

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS.

The Resident shall preside and pronounce the decisions ; and the Assessors shall be taken
monthly, by rotation, from the List of Magistrates.

On the death or absence of the Resident, the Assistant Resident, or other persons succeeding
legally to the charge, shall fill his situation in Court : and in the event of emergency, a temporary
arrangement may be adopted, by the addition of a third Assessor from the list of Magistrates,
which three Assessors shall continue to hold courts and administer justice, after the established
practice and form in the Resident’s court, until the chief civil authority is enabled to preside, and
the court thereby restored to its regular and proper form.

For the present, the Resident’s court shall sit once a week (every Monday) at nine o’clock A.M.,
but shall have the power of continuing its sittings a die in diem, or of holding them more frequently,
when the accumulation of business, or other causes, may render the same necessary and advisable.

In cases wherein the Resident may differ in opinion with the two Assessors, in passing a de-
cree, the same, if a civil case, shall be referred to a Jury of five respectable Europeans, impartially
chosen and impannelled, and shall be decided according to their verdict ; but in criminal cases, the
Resident shall always have it in his power to over-rule the opinions of the two Assessors, in so far
as tends to mitigate the sentence, but not to increase its severity : only in the event of his doing so,
the two Assessors will record their opinions, and may report the case to the Governor General in
Council.

When only one of the Assessors may differ in opinion, it is not necessary to record it.

' The Registrar shall be exclusively attached to the Resident’s Court, and shall conduct the
process of it. It will also be his business to execute all warrants, and to be responsible to the
court that its decrees and sentences are legally and duly carried into effect, applying to the Magis-
trates for the aid of the police and posse, when the same may be considered necessary.

The business of the court will be to ti'y

1st. All causes which are beyond the jurisdiction of the Magistrates’ court ; and,

2d. All causes referred to it by that court.

IN CIVIL CASES.

Civil causes may be instituted, either at the suit of persons claiming private redress, or on the
prosecution of a public officer for breaches of public laws and regulations, or for wrongs that render
it proper to inflict punishment, beyond the exaction of the redress actually due to the individual.

When a person has any redress to seek, he will state the circumstances of his complaint in
writing, addressed to the Resident. If he be unable to write, he may apply to the Registrar, or
any other person, to draw it out for him ; and the Resident, or his locum tenens, will, on receiving
the same, transmit it to the Registrar, with necessary instructions for citing witnesses, &c. &c.

The Registrar, immediately on receiving the plaint, will be careful to number and enter it on a
roll ; and every cause shall be heard in court according to its priority of enrolment, unless the court
shall see strong reason for departing from this course.

After having perused the plaint, or having heard it interpreted, the Registrar shall note on it, in
English, the names of the parties, the sum sued for, and the ground of action (the latter to be ex-
pressed by a single word if possible) : and all the plaints so noted shall, on the meeting of the court,
be placed by the Registi'ar, in the order of their enrolment, before the presiding judge.

Summonses for the citation of parties and witnesses, shall be issued by the Registrar according

g ^

APPENDIX.

to the form prescribed in the Appendix, and shall be served by the proper officers in the manner
therein directed ; and in the event of the plaintiff solemnly declaring in his plaint, that he is appre-
hensive of the defendant withdrawing himself or his property from the jurisdiction of the court, the
summons to be served on the defendant shall be made returnable forthwith, and the officer entrusted
wth serving it shall either take the defendant to the Court-house, or take from him money or other
articles in security, fully equal to the sum specified in the summons ; an acknowledgment of which he
shall ^vrite on the back of the summons, and leave with the defendant, whose cause shall then be
brought forward in due course, as stated in the summons.

In any case the plaintiff may compromise his own claim on the defendant, and withdraw his
own suit, when the costs deposited, if any, shall be returned ; but in cases where the allegation, if
proved, would subject the defendant to punishment, the court may, at their discretion, direct him to
be prosecuted at the instance of the public.

When a cause is compromised, it is to be entered in a book kept for that purpose, containing
the names of the parties, the nature of the action, the sum sued for, and the date and number of the
summons.

On proceeding with a cause, an officer of the court shall call loudly the parties by name (three
times ineffectually before he shall be entitled to report their absence), and in the first instance the
parties should present themselves in person ; but the court may, at its discretion, dispense with the
further attendance of either party, and may authorize an attorney to act on his behalf, or may insist
on his remaining present, to answer any question that it may be deemed expedient to put to him.

The first question to be asked of the defendant is, whether he admits the plaintifT s claim in
whole or in part ? If the claim be in the whole or in part denied by the defendant, the original
plaint is read, and, if necessary, interpreted, and the court will then proceed with the examination
and cross-examination of witnesses, shortly noting the matter stated and the result of the examina-
tion. The defendant will also be allowed to adduce evidence to any points he may wish to esta-
blish, and to cross-examine any of the witnesses on the opposite side, after which the court will
take the whole into consideration, and decide accordingly.

In case the defendant does not appear when the cause is called, or any one on his behalf to
give a satisfactory reason for his absence, the plaintiff or peon must be closely examined as to the
mode in which the summons has been disposed of ; and if this appear unobjectionable, the court
will then pronounce judgment in the case on the plaintiff’s shewing, supported by the evidence he
adduces. If the plaintiff be absent when the cause is called, and no satisfactory excuse on his
behalf is stated to the court, he shall be nonsuited ; and the defendant, if he deny the ground of
action, shall be informed by the court that he may proceed against the plaintiff by a new suit for his
unnecessary molestation.

If any of the witnesses who have been subpoened are absent, the Registrar shall inquire and
note down the nature of the evidence the party concerned expects from them ; and if it appear
important to the investigation of the case, the court shall issue a warrant to an officer of the court,
to compel either their immediate attendance, or on a future specified day. In the latter case, the
cause is of course postponed accordingly. When the witness is secured, he shall be required to
make deposit or give bail to the amount of the sum sued for, with costs ; or if he cannot give satis-
factory excuse for his absence, he shall be fined, with warning, that if not present on the day when
the cause is next to come to a hearing, he shall be liable to further fine and imprisonment.

The evidence adduced by either party may suggest the propriety of bringing forward wit-

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS.

nesses on the other side not before thought of ; and, in this case, the court may either send for
such witness to attend forthwith, or order them to be subpoened for a future day, viz. the next
court day.

It is recommended that there shall be one general room in which witnesses assemble in the
first instance, from which they are to be brought up individually for examination, and another room
where they are to remain after examination, until discharged by the court.

Testimony shall not be required on oath, unless where it appear to the court that the evidence
of the witness is of material consequence, that its truth or falsehood cannot be satisfactorily esta-
blished by collateral circumstances.

W hen it appears to the court that a witness is prevaricating, or unwilling to disclose the truth,
he shall be seriously warned of the disgrace that will inevitably attach to his being convicted of
falsehood ; and afterwards all questions put to him, with his replies, must be taken down, as the
ground-work of a criminal process against him.

When a decree has been passed by the court it shall be immediately recorded, and copies
thereof presented to the plaintiff and defendant on their application to the Registrar ; who shall also
cause a list of all causes, with the decree given on each, to be placed in a conspicuous situation in
his office, to be at all times accessible to the public, and to remain there from the date of the decree
until execution shall have passed on it.

In the event of neglect in this respect, the Registrar shall be personally liable to the creditors
of the person against whom the decree has been obtained for the full amount of the same.

On all decrees of the court execution shall pass after an interval of one week : that is, execu-
tion shall pass on Monday on all decrees that have been given on the Monday immediately pre-
ceding ; and during this interval, the court or the Resident may, on the application of the plaintiff
or his agent, direct such steps as they may think advisable to be adopted, towards preventing the
defendant from withdrawing himself or his property from the jurisdiction of the court.

Should the party against whom a decree has been given, be able to satisfy the same, or to make
a satisfactory arrangement with the person who has obtained it, before an execution has been
passed, both parties will come before the Registrar, who will note the satisfaction made, and how
made, immediately under the decree of the court, and shall obtain the signature of both parties to
the same if they can write, or their usual mark before two witnesses if they cannot.

When the arrangement thus made amounts to an indulgence in point of time, or is contingent
on any particular circumstance, the party who has obtained the decree may, on the expiration of the
time agreed upon, or in failure of being able to obtain satisfaction in the manner stipulated, apply
to the Registrar for a warrant for citing the other party to appear in court ; and on his failing to
appear, or being unable to prove that he has already discharged the decree, execution shall imme-
diately pass on the same, without suffering prejudice by the delay that has occurred : only that the
warrant for the above purpose must be obtained from the Registrar within one month from the expi-
ration of the time granted as an indulgence. •;

In the event of more than one month having thus elapsed, the decree shall be cancelled, and
the party must proceed with a new action.

After the court has met, and before it proceeds with any other business, it shall order the Re-
gistrar to give in a list of all the decrees which had been given in the preceding court-day, and to
state how far they have been satisfied or discharged; and on such as have not been legally settled,
an execution shall immediately pass on each, severally, in the form prescribed in the Appendix.

The Registrar will instantly record the execution, which after having been so passed and

APPENDIX.

recorded, will give the decree a preference before all other executions on decrees obtained on
actions instituted subsequent to the date of the said execution, over all acts of subsequent bank-
ruptcy and composition with creditors, and every other ground of claim, not specially entitled to a
preference by a particular law and regulation of this Settlement, duly passed and legally enacted.

Within twenty-four hours from the date of such execution being issued, the Registrar shall
proceed personally, or shall cause some authorized agent, for whose conduct he shall be respon-
sible, to proceed to the dwelling of the person against whom the decree had been obtained ; and
on not receiving satisfaction for the full amount of the same, with all costs due thereon, he shall
execute an attachment, according to the form prescribed in the Appendix, against all his property,
of whatever description, which he shall be able to discover there or elsewhere ; and shall make an
accurate and attested return of the same, within two days from the date of the execution, to the
Resident or the court, who shall direct the same to be published, and advertised for public sale,
within three days of the date of receiving such return.

Such sale shall proceed under the direction of a Magistrate, at the place and hour stated in
the advertisement, which hour shall not be earlier than nine A.M., or later than four P.M., and
shall be continued from day to day, till the IMagistrate shall declare that the amount of the decree,
with costs (if any), has been satisfied ; after w'hich the remainder of the property shall be duly re-
lieved from all restraint.

Previous to the sale the Registrar shall deliver to the Magistrate an authentic statement of
the amount for which the execution has been passed. He shall note, or cause to be noted, during
the sale, an accurate account of all the particulars thereof ; and at its conclusion the Magistrate
will forward the same, countersigned by himself, to the Resident, who will as soon as possible
transmit a copy of it to the person against whom the execution had been issued, and shall cause
the same to be recorded at the office of the Registrar.

The decree of the court shall always be endorsed on the plaint or writing “ statement of the
plaintiff,” and the same shall be carefully preserved by the Registrar among the records of
his office.

If at any time before execution has passed on a decree, the party comes forward and states his
inability to discharge the same without injustice to his other creditors, the court will receive this as
a declaration of insolvency, shall suspend all proceedings on the decree, and will call by advertise-
ment a meeting of all his creditors, to be held within five days, for the purpose of nominating a
trustee, and shall direct the bankrupt to prepare and to present to that meeting a schedule and list,
upon oath, of all his effects, debts due to him, and those debts which he may owe. Should this
meeting fail in appointing a trustee, the court will take that office on themselves ; and the trustee
so appointed shall proceed in the management of the property, in the manner prescribed and
directed by the laws then in force.

When the subject of litigation before the court equals or exceeds one thousand dollars, it shall
be competent to either of the parties, at the commencement of the suit, to demand that the same
shall be decided by the assistance of a jury. Such jury to consist of five respectable Europeans, or
of four Europeans and three respectable natives of other countries, when the court shall consider it
advisable to refer to a jury so composed.

It will also be competent for the court, after having entered upon a case, and having agreed
unanimously on certain points on which it hinges, to record these particular points for reference to
a jury; and on their finding it will be incumbent on the court to ground their decision as to the
general issue.

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS.

The points so referred must be presented in a written form to the jury, and must be signed by
all the members of the court.

In all cases in which Government may be a party, either as plaintiff or defendant, the same
are to be decided by a jury.

The jury will be chosen and empannelled according to the form and manner directed in the
Appendix, and will examine evidence, and deliberate upon the same, in the presence of the Resident
or his representative, to whom they shall deliver their verdict in writing, signed by their foreman.

The court will appoint, in every particular case, such a time for calling together a jury as may
be conducive to the speedy administration of justice, and at the same time not too inconvenient to
the persons called upon to act as jurymen; but it is recommended that some intermediate day be-
tween two court-days shall be fixed upon for this purpose, in order that every opportunity should
be given to the jury to conduct their examination of the evidence with deliberation and calmness,
and that the other business of the court may not be interrupted.

On the first court-day after the jury have given in their decision, or on the same day if it
should happen to be a court-day, the Resident or his representative, will read in court the verdict
of the jury, and cause the same to be duly recorded by the Registrar.

Persons called upon to serve as jurors in civil cases, and witnesses cited to give evidence, are
to be intitled to a rate of pay per day according to the scale fixed in Appendix : and any person
calling for a jury, in such cases must deposit in court the amount that may appear due for jurors
and witnesses, and the same if not accepted by all the parties, or otherwise appropriated by them,
shall be carried in aid of a fund for charitable purposes, under the control of the court.

In cases under one thousand dollars, or when the parties may not claim the assistance of a
jury, and that the court may think it advisable to refer the same to arbitration, it shall call upon
each of the parties to name an arbiter, with which two the court shall nominate a third, to proceed
in arbitrating the case under certain instructions furnished by the court and signed by the Regis-
trar ; and when the arbiters have made a return to the court of their opinion, the same, unless it
shall appear obviously to the court to have been founded on evident misconception or error, shall
be recoi'ded and have effect. When misconception or error appears to the court to have existed,
they will remit the case again to the arbiters, pointing out to them the particular circumstances
which it is supposed may have led the arbiters into error, and the particular error if there should
be any; and if the arbiters should persevere in their original decree, the case will then be referred
to a jury of five respectable Europeans, legally and duly chosen, whose verdict shall be final.

Should one of the parties refuse to name an arbiter, the two other arbiters shall choose a third,
and nominate him to the court for this purpose, after which the arbitration shall proceed as above
directed.

When both parties decline to name arbiters, the court shall not proceed in this manner of
deciding the case.

The court shall direct such forms of warrants, subpoenas, and other instruments to be used, as
may appear to them most suitable, and shall institute such a table of fees in civil cases as may to
them seem most advisable and proper. In criminal cases no fees can be charged.

The court shall possess and exercise such powers for the protection of their privileges and the
exercise of their functions, as are constitutionally attached to the superior courts of law in England;
but they shall not alter essentially any of the fundamental rules now prescribed for their govern-
ment, excepting by and with the consent of the bench of Magistrates, given and obtained in the

APPENDIX.

same manner as at the enactment of general laws for the government of the Settlement, under Re-
gulation No. III. of 1823.

IN CRIMINAL CASES.

In all cases purely criminal, the parties shall be indicted by the authority which has committed
them for trial.

When a prisoner has been committed by the Magistrates, the indictment shall be laid at their
instance, and shall be served by their assistant, who shall appear on their behalf as public prose-
cutor. M’hen it has been laid by the Resident’s court, the Registrar shall undertake these duties ;
only that, in this case, the indictment shall be sent in due time to the sitting Magistrates, who shall
direct their assistant to serve the same on the accu-ed.

All indictments shall be served on the parties at least one week previous to the day of trial,
and after the form prescribed in Appendix, and the person serving the same shall be responsible
that it has been interpreted to the accused in his native language.

In all cases in which an indictment has been laid, the accused may demand to be tried by a
jury ; and in no case where the crime charged in the indictment may, if proved, involve the punish-
ment of death, banishment, removal from the Settlement, imprisonment for more than twelve months,
or a pecuniary fine of more than five hundred dollars, can the court proceed without a jury.

The jury may be purely European or purely native ; and, in this last case, it ought, if practi-
cable, to be of the same nation and religion with the accused.

The jury shall consist of five persons of respectable character who can write and i-ead, and who
have been borne on the roll of jurymen for the settlement at least three months previous to the trial.

Seven names shall be taken from the roll of jurymen (according to the manner prescribed by
the particular Regulation regarding the formation and empannelling of juries in civil and criminal
cases), and from these seven the accused shall have the power of rejecting two : and should he be
able to afford the court reasons which may appear to them satisfactory, for removing from the jury
any of the remaining members, they shall use their discretion in doing so ; but in that case the court
shall have the power of summarily filling up the vacancy so occasioned.

The court will first cause the indictment to be read in English, and intei’preted to the accused,
who is then asked if it had been so interpreted on a former occasion, and how it had been served.

If any thing objectionable should appear in this stage of the proceedings, or that the prisoner
has not been allowed the facilities which the court may have directed for communication with his
friends or his counsel, the trial must be postponed, and a new indictment laid, unless the accused
may urge the court to go on.

Should there, however, be no objections on the above grounds, the jury will be sworn and im-
pannelled, the prisoner put to the bar, and the trial will proceed.

The presiding Judge will then ask the prisoner whether he is guilty or not guilty of the crime
or crimes laid to his charge in the indictment, and his answer, whatever it may be, is to be recorded.

The witnesses for the prosecution will then be heard separately, subject to a cross-examination
by the prisoner.

After they have been severally examined, the witnesses called by the prisoner shall severally
be heard, subject to a cross-examination by the public prosecutor.

When these examinations have been concluded, the court may recall any witness, and may put
directly any questions they may think necessary; but neither the public prosecutor nor the prisoner

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS. 57

shall be allowed to put any questions to such a witness, excepting through the court, and by their
unanimous consent.

The same recommendation that has been made in civil cases, for keeping witnesses that have
been examined separate from those that have not, is here renewed.

The evidence having been gone through, the presiding Judge may recapitulate the chief points
of it to the jury, and refer the same to their consideration and for their verdict, how far the prisoner
may be guilty or not guilty of the crime or crimes charged in the indictment, or that the same has
been proven or not proven.

The jury may then, if they see fit, withdraw, under certain limitations to be prescribed by the
court, and shall be particularly instructed to restrict their verdict to the particular crime charged in
the indictment.

After the evidence has been gone through and the case thus remitted to a jury, the jury will,
on no account, be allowed to separate before they shall have given in their verdict, which shall
either be pronounced audibly in court, in their presence, by the foreman, or shall be signed by
him and handed to the Judge, by whom it shall be read, and in either case shall be instantly
recorded.

The verdict must state whether it has been an unanimous one ; and in the event of its not
being so, by what majority it has been carried : all which circumstances shall also be entered on the
records of the court.

When a jury has not been empannelled, the court will proceed to weigh the evidence which
has been adduced, and shall decide upon the question of guilty or not guilty, proven or not proven;
and in the same manner as has been prescribed in these cases, they shall restrict themselves mi-
nutely to the crime or crimes charged in the indictment.

After the verdict of the jury or of the court (as the case may be) shall have been recorded,
the presiding Judge will pronounce the sentence; and if guilty, shall award the punishment
prescribed by the approved code of punishments and laws of the Settlement for the particular
crime.

In cases where the crime shall have been a bailable offence, the indictment shall be served on
the accused, and the other proceedings adopted in the same manner as when an actual committal
may have taken place.

After sentence has been passed, the chief civil Authority may moderate the same or grant a
reprieve ; and all sentences require his signature before being carried into execution.

A copy of the sentence of the court is to be sent to the sitting Magistrates by the Resident,
with a request that they will afford the Registrar all the aid in their power in carrying the same
into effect.

CONCLUSION.

The rules and regulations now established for the Resident’s court, it is hoped, will be suffi-
cient to enable it to proceed with consistency and uniformity in its duties ; and it is expected that
the constitution given to it will tend to secure and obtain the ends of substantial justice, in as ample
and perfect a manner as can be devised in the present circumstances of the Settlement. These ends,
it is conceived, can be best approached by adopting, as far as may be practicable, some of the lead-
ing means which have been so happily established for this purpose in our mother-country, leaving

APPENDIX.

it to time and experience to facilitate their application in those respects in which a difference of
circumstances may at first appear to interpose some difficulties.

"Whatever diversity of feelings may exist among different tribes, however much the influence
of habit may have perverted their judgment in particular points, there are still certain rights, neces-
sities, and interests, common to all, and which all wdll wish to secure. The measures which tend
to this result they can be easily brought to appreciate, and while they continue to view them in that
light, they will naturally incline to support them.

Nor is it too much to hope, that in framing laws for the future government of the Settlement,
the body to whom this important trust is confided will apply all their zeal, judgment, and experi-
ence, towards rendering them as perfectly and fully conducive to the general benefit as may be
practicable ; and therefore, that while the different courts through which these laws come to be
dispensed to the public, discharge their duties with diligence and purity, they may calculate on
the animating and cheering support of those for whose benefit their labours have been under-
taken.

There is little necessity to point out how much such a feeling, when once generated, will aid
in efiecting and promoting good order and regularity, and in alleviating the labours of all who are
interested in their preservation.

A steady uniform application of the same principles in judicial proceedings, without reference
to the rank, condition, or situation of the parties, will have the effect of establishing a system to
which persons of every description must look with confidence and respect, notwithstanding the very
great variety of those on whom the laws of the Settlement may be called to bear, and the many
obstacles which may be opposed by the force of established habits and prejudices.

To these prejudices it is hoped the Court will always concede a humane and patient considera-
tion ; and that it will endeavour to remove them, by kindly exposing their erroneous tendency on
every proper occasion, pointing out at the same time the superior objects held in view in the system
of legislation which we have adopted, and safely trusting the issue to the result of such a com-
parison.

APPENDIX B.

RULES for the MAGISTRATES’ COURT.

1. The office of the ^Magistrates shall be open for the trial of civil causes within their jurisdic-
tion two days in the week, viz. Tuesdays and Fridays, at ten o’clock A. M.

2. F or the trial of cases not purely of a civil nature, but arising out of the police, it shall be
open every day at the same hour.

3. The office to be kept open daily from ten A. M. to three P. M., for the purpose of afford-
ing to the public an opportunity of entering and enrolling suits ; and it will be incumbent on the
assistant to the Magistrates to give his attendance between those hours, and to enter and enrol all
causes that may be presented.

4. All causes to be heard in the order of their enrolment, and adjourned cases to take prece-
dence of all others.

5. Excepting in such civil cases as the Magistrates may consider a deviation from this course

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS.

particularly advisable, it will be necessary that all citations and summonses to the parties in an
action should be issued in the following manner, viz.

That for such causes as are to be tried on Friday, the citations and summonses shall have
been issued previous to the pi’eceding Tuesday ; and for all causes to be tried on Tuesday, such
citations and summonses to be issued previous to the preceding Friday. The Magistrates, how-
ever, are to have the power of departing from strict attention to this course when they concur in the
necessity of doing so, and to continue their sittings a die in diem in similar circumstances.

G. When any person applies at the office of the Magistrates for the purpose of having a civil
cause entered and enrolled, the Assistant to the Magistrates shall enrol the same in the manner
now in use, receiving at the same time the regular fee approved of for such enrolment ; and he shall
obtain also a list of all the witnesses which the party may consider necessary and useful to his cause,
being careful to warn the party, and to make him well aware of the importance of having all his
witnesses duly and regularly cited.

7. The Assistant to the Magistrates shall issue no warrant for the citation of any person
without first having obtained a warrant for that purpose from one of the Magistrates ; and when
such warrants shall have been duly and regularly issued, he shall put them into the hands of one of
the police, in order to have them served, if possible one of the J emadars.

8. The person entrusted to serve the warrant shall then proceed, in company with the com-
plainant or some person of good character delegated by him for that object, to serve the warrant on
the defendant, and on the different witnesses whose presence may be required, and all warrants shall
be served if possible on the parties personally ; and when that shall not be found practicable,
the warrant is to be left at his usual domicile, in presence of one of his family, to whom the nature
of the warrant shall be duly explained and notified.

9. When there is reason to believe that a person may have absented himself, or may have
taken means to prevent a warrant from being served in the manner prescribed, the Magistrates
shall then issue a warrant for the apprehension of his person and the attachment of his pro-
perty ; and on being taken into custody, he shall not only be obliged to find bail for his appearance
to answer to the action in question, but shall also be liable to punishment and, at the discretion of
the Magistrates, so far as it shall be proved against him that he may have used means for evading
the operation of their warrant.

10. All parties to an action shall be personally present in court at the time appointed for the
hearing of a cause, under the following penalties, viz.

When the defendant shall fail to appear, judgment shall pass in default : and in the case of the
pursuer, he shall be nonsuited, and subjected not only in costs of suit so far as it may have gone,
but also in compensation, at the discretion of the Magistrates, to the parties whose attendance he
may have unnecessarily occasioned.

11. Witnesses failing to attend after being regularly and duly cited, or contumaciously refusing
to give testimony, shall be liable to fine and punishment at the discretion of the Magistrates.

12. The forms of warrants to be such as are at present in use.

1.3. When the Magistrates shall have heard a cause, they shall endorse their decision, au-
thenticated by the signature of one or more of them, on the back of the warrant which may have
been issued for that particular case ; and such warrants shall be filed monthly, and carefully
preserved in the I’ecords of the office. The Assistant to the Magistrates shall, at the same time,
make a short record of the facts of any case which may be considered deserving of such notice, in a

\i2

APPENDIX.

book deposited at the office for this purpose. He shall also keep a regular account of all fees and
fines received at the office, distinguishing each.

14. The form in which appeals shall be made to the Resident’s court shall be hereafter fixed
by the court with the concurrence of the Resident.

15. The annexed table of fees is approved, the amount to be carried to account of Go-
vernment.

Table of Fees provisionallij authorized for the Magistrates' Court.

Entering complaint and granting summons 0 50 Cents

Subpoena 0 20

Warrant and attachment 0 30

In actions for debt, after judgment has been passed, such an additional sum to be levied for the
decree, as shall not cause the whole amount of fees for summons, subpoena, warrant and attachment,
and decree, to exceed a total of five per cent on the amount at issue.

An arbitration bond 1 0 Rupees

A bail bond for keeping the peace 1 0

Persons incompetent to pay the first costs of instituting a suit, may plead in forma pauperis,
the court afterwards deciding how far the party may have been justified in availing himself of this
indulgence, and awarding a sufficient fine where it may be unduly taken advantage of.

COMMISSION for the MAGISTRACY.

Whereas it having become indispensible, in consequence of the extent of population and
capital already accumulated at Singapore, that immediate provision should be made for the pre-
servation of order and the protection of person and property, and it having been provided by
Regulation No. III. of 1823*, entitled, “a Regulation for the establishment of a Provisional
“ Magistracy and the enforcement of an efficient Police at Singapore, with certain provisions for
“ the administration of justices in cases of emergency and also by Regulation No. VI. of 1823,
passed on this day, entitled a Regulation in furtherance of the objects of Regulation No. III. of
“ 1823, and containing additional provisions for the Magistracy and administration of Justice at
“ Singapore,” that a certain number of gentlemen resident at Singapore should be constituted and
appointed to act as Magistrates, for the preservation of the peace and the establishment of due
regulation and domestic order within the said Settlement :

Be it known, that in conformity with the provisions of the aforesaid Regulations, and by
virtue “ of the full power and authority” vested in me, as Lieutenant-Governor of Fort
Marlbro’ and its dependencies, by especial commission under the common seal of the Honourable
the United Company of Merchants of England trading to the East Indies, bearing date the 14th
October, 1817, “ from time to time to rule and govern, and to do and perform all such acts and
“ things, and to use and exercise all such powers and authorities as are incidental to, and neces-
“ sary for, the government of the said Settlement, and of all places subordinate to, or annexed

Passed on the 20th January, 1823.

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS.

“ thereto, and of the servants and soldiers of the East India Company there, and the people and
“ inhabitants thereof:”

I, the Honourable Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, Lieutenant-Governor of Fort Marlbro’ and
its dependencies, do hereby nominate, constitute, and appoint the undermentioned twelve gentle-
men, jointly and severally, to be Magistrates of Singapore for the current year 1823, hereby giving
unto them full and ample authority, under this commission, to act in the same manner as justices
of the peace in England, and to perform and execute the duties required of them in the capacity of
Magistrates, to the best of their judgment and conscience, and according to the provisions in the
said Regulations made and provided, to such rules and orders as are now or may hereafter be laid
down by Government for their guidance ; for which this shall be their warrant.

A. L. Johnston,
I. A. Maxwell,
D. S. Napier,

A. Morgan,

I. Purvis,

A. Guthrie,

Graham Mackenzie,
William Montgomerie,
Charles Scott,

John Morgan,

C. R. Read, and
Alexander Hay, Esqs.

And I do hereby order, require and command all persons now resident, or who may hereafter
come within the jurisdiction of Singapore, to shew due respect and obedience to the said A. L.
Johnson, I. A. Maxwell, D. S. Napiei’, A. Morgan, I. Purvis, A. Guthrie, G. Mackenzie,
W. Montgomerie, C. Scott, J. Morgan, C. R. Read, and A. Hay, Esqs., in the execution of the
duties of their office accordingly.

And whereas a provision having been made by Regulation No. VI. of 1823, that the Magis-
trates shall in future be appointed annually on the 1st July in each year ; and that to the number
of twelve Magistrates, now appointed to constitute the acting Magistracy for the present year, the
Resident should be competent, from time to time, to appoint supernumeraries, who are to be borne
on the public roll of persons eligible for the Magistracy.

Be it known, that I, the Honourable Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, Lieutenant-Governor of
Fort Malbro’ and its dependencies, do hereby empower and authorize the Resident or chief local
authority of Singapore for the time being, hereafter to nominate such supernumeraries accordingly,
in the manner provided by the said Regulation, and further to select, constitute, and appoint annu-
ally, on the 1st January on each year, from the roll of persons eligible for the Magistracy (which
will include those now appointed, as well as all such supernumeraries as may be hereafter
appointed by the Resident), twelve gentlemen to act as Magistrates for the ensuing year, with the
same powers and authority as are now conferred on the acting Magistracy for the present year ; for
which this also shall be his warrant.

This commission to be in force and full effect from the present date, and to remain in force
until the establishment of a regular court of judicature, unless previously revoked by the Governor-
General in Council of Fort William, or other equally competent authority.

In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and the seal of the East India Com-
pany at Singapore, on the 6th of J une in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and
twenty-three.

(Signed)

T. S. RAFFLES.

APPEN DIX.

Form of Oath administered to the Magistrates of Singapore.

We, the undersigned, being appointed and commissioned to act as hlagistrates of Singapore,
under Regulation No. III. of 1823, entitled a “ Regulation for the establishment of a provisional
“ Magistracy and the enforcement of an efficient Police at Singapore, with certain provisions for
“ the administration of Justice in cases of emergency,” and also under Regulation No. II. of 1823,
entitled, a “ Regulation in furtherance of the objects of Regulation No. III. of 1823, and con-
“ taining additional provisions for the administration of Justice at Singapoi-e,” do hereby make
oath and swear, that in the execution of the duties thereof, \ve will do equal right to the poor and
to the rich, without favour or partiality to any one, to the best of our judgment and conscience, and
according to such rules and regulations as are now, or may hereafter, be laid down for the guidance
of the Magistrates of Singapore.

So help us God.

REPORT

ON THE

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.

To Holt Machenzie, Esq., Secretary to Government, Fort William.

SIR:

1. I have the honour to report, for the information of the honourable the Governor-General
in Council, that the appointment of the provisional Magistracy at Singapore, as reported in my
letter to your address of the 10th January last, has been attended with the most beneficial effects,
in providing for the domestic order and economy of the Settlement, and that the establishment of
an authority so constituted, in aid of the local administration, while it has added strength and
respectability to the Government, has, at the same time, given universal satisfaction and confidence
to the community.

2. The experience, indeed, which I have obtained during the last five months in which the
system has been in operation under my own eye, has not only convinced me of its peculiar fitness
in principle to the existing circumstances of Singapore, but at the same time enabled me to form
some opinion of what remains to be done hereafter, with a view to a more permanent provision for
the police and administration of justice. I proceed, however, in the first instance, to submit, for
the consideration of the Honourable the Governor-General in Council, the more immediate provi-
sions which have called for my attention in furtherance of these objects, some of which I have
deemed it advisable to adopt at once, as indispensible for the guidance of the constituted authori-
ties, and essential for the regularity of their proceedings.

3. These consist.

First, In a revision of that part of Regulation No. III. of 1823, which provides for the

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS.

quarterly appointment of three Magistrates, by the substitution of an annual appointment of twelve
Magistrates in lieu thereof.

4. Under this revision, I have appointed twelve Magistrates, who are to constitute the acting
Magistracy for the present year ; and to this number it will be competent to the Resident hereafter
to appoint supernumeraries, who are to be borne on the public roll of persons eligible for the Ma-
gistracy, from whom and the ex-Magistrates the twelve Magistrates will in future be annually
appointed by him. The enactment of local laws and regulations will, of course, continue in the
manner as heretofore prescribed ; save only the slight alternation to suit the change made in the
Magisti’acy, from quarterly appointments of three to annual appointments of twelve.

5. This change in the nomination of the Magistrates became necessary, in order to provide
for the duties now required of them in the Resident’s Court, as well as with a view to the accom-
modation of the gentlemen appointed to the office, to whom it affords the means of making such
arrangements amongst themselves for the tour of duty as best suits their convenience. It has, at
the same time, the advantage of affording a more appropriate channel for the communication of
public opinion, and of giving to the Magistrates, in their legislative capacity, a just weight and
importance.

6. I am satisfied that nothing has tended more to the discomfort and constant jarrings which
have hitherto occurred in our remote Settlements, than the policy which has dictated the exclusion
of the European merchants from all share, much less credit, in the domestic regulation of the
Settlement of which they are frequently its most important members. Some degree of legislative
power must necessarily exist in every distant dependency. The laws of the mother country cannot
be commensurate with the wants of the dependency : she has wants of which a remote legislature
can very imperfectly judge, and which are sometimes too urgent to admit the delay of reference*
Circumstanced as Singapore is, even the Governor-General in Council, with whom the legislative
power will probably rest, is hardly competent to legislate for such a state without the assistance of
local advice. The administration of the Settlement is necessarily limited to one individual, who,
having no council, could not be entrusted with the enactment of laws, which require deliberation
and advice, and the mode which I have provided seems at once the most congenial to our national
institutions, the most simple in its adoption and application, and the most promising in its advan-
tages ; at the same time that neither the Supreme Government as the higher legislative authority,
nor the local Resident, as the Governor and executive officer of the state, loses any of the powers
or attributes properly vested in him. The nomination of Magistrates is vested in him ; and as the
appointment is a mark of respect to the individual, inasmuch as the exclusion is a disgrace, it may
be considered as rather extending his patronage and authority than otherwise.

7. Secondly. In defining the jurisdiction and laying down rules for the Resident’s and Ma-
gistrates’ courts, aitd in apprizing the public in how far they are bound to give their aid, when
required, towards the administration of justice.

8. In the constitution of the Resident’s court, it became necessary to consider how that officer
was to be aided with advice, as well in civil as in criminal cases, and in what cases it would be
advisable to have recourse to a jury : and it having appeared to me advisable that this court should
be formed by the Resident, who should preside and pass the decisions, with the assistance of two
Magistrates as assessors, taken monthly by rotation from the general list of Magistrates, and that
juries should be allowed in all civil cases where the amount in dispute exceeded a certain amount,
or when Government might be concerned, as also in all criminal cases whatever, the rules for that
court have been framed on this principle.

APPENDIX.

9. The rules for the Magistrates’ Court, at which two Magistrates will jointly preside for
the adjustment of small debts, are intended to provide for a more summary jurisdiction, and require
no particular remark.

10. Enclosed I have the honour to transmit a copy of Regulation No. VI. of 1823, this day
passed, which, with its Appendices A. and B. contain the particulars of the provisions which I
have thus made ; and I respectfully submit the same for the approbation and confirmation of the
Governor-General in Council, as essential for the government of the Settlement, and the best
calculated, as far as my local experience and information enables me to form a judgment, to suit its
convenience and wants.

11. For the information of the Governor-General in Council, I have also, at the same time,
the honour to ti-ansmit a copy of the commission under which I have appointed and established the
Magistracy, together with the form of oath which has been administered on the occasion.

12. In adopting these Regulations, I have felt that I have been going no further than what
was indispensably requisite, in furtherance of the principle laid down by Regulation No. III.
of 1823; but I thought it right to delay them until the arrival of Mr. Crawfurd, in the hope
of receiving the sentiments of the Supreme Government in reply to my former I’eference.

13. Another, and more serious question, has however arisen, namely. What law is to be
administered? Is it to be English or Malay, or both? and how far are the laws of China, of
Hindustan, and of each particular state in the Eastern Seas, to be recognized?

14. The population of Singapore will probably consist of a mixture in various proportions
of strangers from all parts of the world, having commercial concerns at the port, though chiefly of
Malays, and Chinese ; and it would be impracticable for any judicial authority to become perfectly
acquainted with the laws, and customs having the force of law, acknowledged in their own
countries respectively, by the varied classes of so mixed a population ; and it would be still more
so to attempt to administer these in such a manner as to preserve them inviolate, even in the mutual
intercourse of those classes severally amongst themselves, much less where justice is to be admi-
nistered between two persons of different classes.

15. It is, I believe, generally admitted, that in colonies formed entirely by Englishmen,
they naturally carry the laws of their country with them, subject only to such local modifications
as the constitution of the colony may require ; .but nine-tenths of the population of Singapore will
most probably consist of Chinese and iMalays, and the restrictions of the legislature may for many
years operate against any considerable extension in the number of Englishmen.

16. A case has occurred during the period I have presided in the court, wherein a Chinese,
whose relation was killed in an affray, refused any satisfaction short of the life of another individual
as an atonement. The deceased was without doubt killed by accident, and circumstancs did not
admit of tracing the fact to the party who inflicted the blow. But the constant and only argument
of the Chinese was, “ what proof do you want ? It is proved my relation was killed, no matter
“ how : and if you won’t give me the life of another in satisfaction, I must take one.” Again,
according to the Malay law, a man who has been purloined of his property may follow the thief, and
kill him wherever he finds him, provided it is within twenty-four hours after the deed was com-
mitted, otherwise he must bring him to the Rajah.

IT. These and other cases, which may be readily conceived as arising out of the long want
of government in these Islands, will be sufficient to shew that there could be no security of person
or property in a settlement like Singapore, were the administration of the laws to remain in the
hands of the native authorities.

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS.

18. The view which I have been induced to take of the subject, inclines me to think that,
under the peculiar circumstances of the establishment of the Settlement, the manner in which
nearly the whole of the population has accumulated under the protection of our flag, and the real
character and interests of the people who are likely to resort to it, we cannot do better than apply
the general principles of British law to all, equally and alike, without distinction of tribe or
nation, under such modifications only as local circumstances and peculiarities, and a due con-
sideration for the weakness and prejudices of the native part of the population, may from time
to time suggest.

19. Precautionary measures for the prevention of crime are, of course, the first to be attended
to ; but something like a code, which shall explain in few words what is considered a crime, and
what is the punishment attached to it, seems indispensable, even in this respect.

20. This subject has attracted my most serious attention : and I regret exceedingly that cir-
cumstances have not admitted of my communicating with the Governor-General in Council upon
it previously to delivering over charge of Singapore. All that I have felt myself authorized in
doing, has been to give publicity to a Minute which it was my intention to have submitted to the
Supreme Government, in which I have endeavoured to point out the principles and objects to be
kept in view in framing local Regulations, and to suggest a scale of some of the leading crimes and
punishments for the consideration and revision of the Magistracy.

21. A copy of this proclamation, together with the scale of crimes and jmnishments therein
refeiTed to, I have the honour to enclose, for the information of the Governor-General in Council ;
and I trust that the principles on which I have proceeded, will be found to be such as may merit
the approbation and support of his high authority.

22. It may be expected that I should explain the grounds on which I have felt myself autho-
rized to go even as far as I have done, in legislating and constituting a power of legislating pro-
visionally for Singapore, and at the same time state the mode in which I consider the legislative and
judicial branch of the public administration can be best provided for, in any permanent arrangement
to be made by the authorities at home.

23. On the first point, I shall briefly state, that an actual and urgent necessity existed for
some immediate and provisional arrangements ; and that, in adopting those which I have esta-
blished, it has been ray endeavour, while I gave all due weight to local considerations, to adhere as
closely as possible to those principles, which from immemorial usage have ever been considered
the most essential and sacred parts of the British constitution. Independently of the authority with
which ray commission vests me as Lieutenant-Governor of Fort Malborough and its dependencies,
(whereof Singapore for the time being is one,) of giving all such orders, and from time to time
doing all such things as are “ necessary, and are incidental to the government of the said Settle-
“ ment, and its dependencies, and the inhabitants thereof,” the peculiar tenure on which Singapore
is at present politically held, the unusual degree of responsibility still resting on me personally,
and the actual circumstances under which a large population and extensive capital has accumulated
under my administi'ation, without any provision having been made by higher and more competent
authority for the judicial administration, naturally called upon me to adopt all such provisional
measures as necessity might dictate. More than this I have not attempted ; and I should have but
ill fulfilled the high and important trust reposed in me, if, after having congregated so large a por-
tion of our fellow-creatures, I had left them without something like law and regulation for their
security and comfort.

24. With regard to more permanent arrangements hereafter, it appears to me, that all that is

APPENDIX.

wanting to the progressive improvement and completion of the system so advantageously com-
menced, is an act of the Crown or Legislature, which may acknowledge and legalize what has been
done, and provide for the future on the same principle, or on such other as its wisdom, with a
knowledge of actual circumstances, may suggest. As the population and opulence of the Settle-
ment increases, professional aid may be required in the Resident’s court, by the addition of a legal
assessor or judge, to relieve the Resident from the more severe duties ; and probably the Recorder
of Penang might perform this duty by an occasional circuit. For the police and judicial duties,
under the present circumstances of the Settlement, ample provision is already made by the existing
establishments, which are at once economical and efficient.

'^5. Having the future prosperity of Singapore deeply at heart, I trust I may be excused in
making a respectful request, that the sentiments of the Supreme Government regarding the principles
I have laid down, with its opinion on the best mode of providing for the police and judicial administra-
tion in future, may be communicated to the Honourable Court of Directors by an early opportunity, in
order that, on my arrival in England, should my services be accepted for the purpose, I may afford
all assistance in my power towards the attainment of such a charter or warrant from the Crown, as
may be suitable to the local circumstances of the place, and regarding which the Authorities at home
must necessarily refer to those who possess local information, and have attended to the subject.

I have the honour to be. Sir,

Your most obedient humble servant.

Singapore, June 6ih, 1823.

(Signed) T. S. RAFFLES.

PROCLAMATION.

Provision having been made by Regulations No. III. and VI. of 1823, for the establishment
of an efficient Magistracy at Singapore, and for the mode in which local Regulations, having the
force of law, should be enacted, and by whom such laws should be administered, it now becomes
necessary to state the principles and objects which should be kept in view in framing such Regula-
tions, and as far as circumstances may admit, to apprize all parties of their respective rights and
duties, in order that ignorance thereof may not hereafter be pleaded on the part of any individual or
class of people.

The Lieutenant-Governor is in consequence induced to give publicity to the following Minute,
containing the leading principles and objects to be attended to.

MINUTE b// the LIEUTENANT GOVERNOR.

1. As the population of Singapore will necessarily consist of a mixture, in various proportions,
of strangers from all parts of the world, having commercial concerns at this port, though chiefly of
Chinese and Malays, it would be impracticable for any judicial authority to become perfectly ac-
quainted with the laws, and customs having the force of law, which are acknowledged in their own
countries respectively, by the varied classes of so mixed a population, and to administer these in
such a manner as to preserve them inviolate, even in the mutual intercourse of those classes

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS..

severally amongst themselves ; far more so, when justice is to be done between the Englishman
and Chinese, the Bugguese and Hindoo, and the like. On the other hand, to apply the law of
Europe direct, with all its accumulated processes and penalties, to a people of whom more than
nine-tenths will probably be natives of China and the Malay archipelago, would be as repugnant
to natural justice, as it would be inconsistent with the benevolence and liberality which has ever
marked the British rule in India.

2. Under these circumstances, nothing seems to be left but to have recourse to first principles,
to use every precaution against the existence of temptation to crime, that is found consistent with
the perfect liberty of those who have no evil intentions ; and when these precautions fail, to secure
redress to the injured party, if possible, and such punishment as will be most likely to prevent a
repetition of the crime, either by the party himself offending, or by those who may be inclined to
follow his example. Nothing should be endured in the Settlement, however sanctioned by the
local usage of particular tribes who resort to it, that has either a dii’ect effect, or notoriously strong
tendency to endanger the safety or liberty of person, or the security of property : and, in the same
manner, no want of what are considered legal formalities in any country should debar a person
from having substantial justice rendered to him, so that legal and moral obligation may never be
at variance.

3. Taking this as the fundamental principle for the laws of the Settlement, it may be presumed
that no local Regulation would be enacted which the society, if left to themselves, would not desire
to see carried into effect ; no public institution or source of expense would exist, of which the benefit
was not obvious, to the enlightened part at least, who would therefore soon feel that the Govern-
ment was not made to tyrannize over the people, but for their protection and happiness.

4. Under such a system of administration, it is not um'easonable to expect that every facility
would be afforded by the mass of the population to the executive authority in carrying the laws
into effect ; for even the midnight robber and swindler have no desire that their own persons or
property should be liable to those evils which they inflict on the rest of the community, and will
readily join in their suppression, when other delinquents are the objects of the terrors of the law.

5. In caiTying such a system into effect, it ought to be fully understood, and maintained on
all occasions, that while individuals are allowed to protect themselves, as far as possible, against
wrongs, the redress of wi'ongs cannot be left to the resentment or the revenge of the parties con-
ceiving themselves injured. That must be done solely by Government, through the instrumentality
of the judicial and executive officers whom it appoints for that purpose.

6. No one, therefore, being allowed to be a judge in his own case, ought to revenge his own
quarrel, arms or weapons capable of inflicting instant death, as habitually worn by the Malays,
become unnecessary; and by dispensing with them, the greatest temptation to, and power of doing
to others the greatest and most irremediable wTong in depriving them of life, is in a gi'eat measure
removed. If a man takes another’s horse or cow by robbery or theft, or under a mistaken idea
that he has a right to the property in question, redress can be afforded to him as soon as the
ofiTender is convicted of his crime, or the party discovers his error ; but if from revenge, or under
false impressions, a man is suddenly excited to take the life of a fellow-creature, it is in vain that
he afterwards discovers that he was misled by passion or had been deceived by appearances. It
often happens, too, in these countries, that a man who considers himself aggrieved by a particular
individual, and finding himself in possession of a sharp weapon, attempts the life of every one he
meets indiscriminately, and without having any wrong at their hands to complain of. It is impos-
sible to see who may, or may not be guilty of such acts of inhuman cruelty, and therefore all should

i 2

APPENDIX.

agi-ee to lay aside the use of the weapon, that is commonly employed by persons who thus transform
themselves into wild beasts by giving way to brutal passion.

7. On the same principle it has been found by experience, that those who indulge frequently
in gaming and cock-fighting, are not only liable to engage in quarrels with those who have won
their money, but also that they are incited to acts of fraud and robbery, in order to obtain the
means of amusement or of attempting to retrieve their losses ; it is, therefore, the duty of Govern-
ment to suppress both gaming and cock-fighting as far as possible, without trespassing on the free-
will of private conduct. No man should be allowed to receive any money, either directly or indi-
rectly, for conducting a gaming-table or cock-pit, and winners of money at such places should be
compelled to restore the amount to the losers, and should on no account be permitted to enforce
payment from those with whom they have gambled on credit.

8. Intoxication being a source of personal danger to the community, and the indulgence in
that vice being a frequent cause of betraying those who are addicted to it to the commission of acts
of dishonesty, it is the duty of a good Magistracy to throw every obstacle in its way. In the first
place, the officers of police should be required to place in constraint any person seen in public in a
state of intoxication until he becomes sober ; and, in the next place, the vender of intoxicating
articles, who supplied him with the means of inebriety, should be visited with reproof, and fined,
and be liable to make good the amount of any oss which the person so intoxicated can prove he
suffered during his inebriety, from being unable to take care of himself. The extent of this fine
must necessarily be discretionary on the part of the Magistrate, depending principally on the degree
of inebriety produced. It should always be of such an amount, that the fear of being subject to it
may be sufficient to outweigh in the mind of the vender the temptation of profit in the sale of his
goods ; of course if it should appear in evidence, that the individual was supplied with the means
of intoxication for the purpose of taking advantage of him in that state, the object converts the
simple misdemeanor into a crime, according to the particular purpose contemplated ; and further
punishment to the guilty, as well as redress to the individual injured, must be awarded accordingly.
The use of spirituous liquors, though innocent in moderation, becomes vicious when indulged in to
excess. The consumption may be diminished by the enhancement of price, and in this way the
indulgence may be made so extensive, as to be only attainable, beyond the bounds of moderation,
by those whose means give them a station in society that induces them to be guarded in their
conduct, for the sake of preserving the respect of those whose eyes are turned upon them. Thus
while gaming as practised by the Chinese, and cock-fighting by the Malays, are absolutely per-
nicious in every degree in which they come under public cognizance, the use of opium and spirituous
liquors may be repressed, by exacting a heavy tax in the way of license from the venders.

9. There are many important considerations that stand in the way of enacting laws against
prostitution : indeed it would, in a country where concubinage is not forbidden, be difficult to
draw aline between the concubine and the common prostitute. It is practicable, however, in some
degree, and highly desirable, that the temptation to profit should not exist, to induce the seduction
of women into this course of life by others of their sex. The unfortunate prostitute should be
treated with compassion, but every obstacle should be thrown in the way of her services being a
source of profit to any one but herself. It should, therefore, be declared unlawful for any person
whatever, to share the hire or wages of prostitution, or to derive any profit or emolument, either
directly or indirectly, for bestowing a female in prostitution, any custom, law, or usage of the
country such female or her parents or her guardians were born in notwithstanding ; reserving only
for a jury to advise what constitutes a legal obligation on the man to support the woman thus

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS.

bestowed, or in other words, what a contract of marriage by local usage, and what a connection of
prostitution. The penalty must here also be modified by circumstances. It is much more criminal
to induct a girl into prostitution, than to facilitate her pursuit of vice after she has entered upon it
as a profession.

10. It may be necessary to make specific regulations for the protection of the community ge-
nerally against fire, both with regard to the construction of buildings, the storing of gunpowder and
combustibles, the manufacture of arrack, &c., and the power of infringing on a neighbour’s property
after a fire has broken out, either for the purpose of access to the means of extinguishing it, or to
prevent its spreading to a greater distance.

11. Boatmen, and parties offering themselves publicly for hire, may also be subjected to
regulation, with the view of facilitating the attainment of redress when they are guilty of fraud and
negligence.

12. Weights and measures of the acknowledged standard should be accessible to all, and
those used in purchases and sales ought to be in strict conformity with such standards. Certain
magisterial officers, therefore, should be employed to examine those used by persons who openly
keep goods exposed for sale. When found defective, the person in whose behoof they are used
should be liable to fine, proportioned to his supposed means and the apparent degree of fraud
resorted to.

13. Fraud with respect to the quality of articles is a crime more readily detected, and may be
left to private prosecution. In giving redress to the individual, punishment ought to be annexed,
in proportion as the fraud is of an injurious nature.

14. As a great check to fraud and falsehood, a general registry office for all written agree-
ments or engagements, which are liable to be made the ground of dispute before a court of justice,
should be opened for the public. Regulations should be made for the authenticity of the document,
in the first instance ; and either party, or any party interested, should be entitled to a copy, paying
for the same a moderate fee, as a compensation for the trouble given to the Registrar and his esta-
blishment. Precaution must, of course, be taken against the falsification or abstraction of such
documents from the Registrar’s office. All deeds which may be so registered should have an
avowed preference over one that is not so registered ; unless the holder of the latter can shew a
clear, distinct, and satisfactory cause, why he has not been able to have his deed registered, and the
onus of establishing this ought decidedly to rest on him.

15. Nuisances, generally speaking, may be safely left to the complaint of individuals, in each
particular instance, where the cause of nuisance is not obvious to all, or directly injurious to parti-
cular individuals, as crowding the river with vessels, &c., when it may be made subject of special
regulation.

16. All householders should be registered, and all houses numbered. Auctioneers and pawn-
brokers should be placed under specific regulations, and none allowed to act as such without giving
security for complying with the same, and taking out a license for the purpose.

17. With respect to the employment of informers, it may be observed that Magistrates must
have information ; but no bad passion should be elicited in the procuring of it : no temptation to
lead others to vice, for the sake of reward for informing ; no inducement to beti’ay confidence ; and
the act of giving information should be treated as a public and honourable duty.

18. Precautionary measures being taken, on the above principles, for preserving the peace and
good order of society, and removing, as far as practicable, the immediate temptations to crime and

APPENDIX.

violence, it next becomes necessary to define what shall be considered crimes, what lawful punish-
ments, and how injuries shall be redressed.

19. By the constitution of England, the absolute rights of the subject are defined as follows :

1. The right of personal security; which consists in a person’s legal uninterrupted enjoyment
of his life, his limbs, his body, his health, and his reputation.

2. The right of personal liberty ; which consists in the power of locomotion, of changing situa-
tion, or removing one’s person to whatever place one’s own inclination may direct, without imprison-
ment or restraint, unless by due course of law.

3. The right of property ; which consists in the use, enjoyment, and disposal of all acquisitions,
without any controul or diminution, save only by the laws of the land.

20. There seems no reason for denying corresponding rights to all classes of people residing
under the protection of the British flag at Singapore, the laws of the land being such as are or may
be enacted under the provisions of Regulation No. III. of 1823, dated the 20th January last, with
such others, of a more general nature, as may be directed by a higher authority, or which may
necessarily accrue under the provisions of the Legislature, and the political circumstances of the
settlement, as a dependency of Great Britain. — Admitting these rights to exist, it follows that all
acts by which they are invaded are wrongs : that is to say, crimes or injuries.

21. In the enactment of laws for securing these rights, legal obligation must never supersede
or take place of, or be inconsistent with, or more or less onerous than, moral obligation. The
English practice of teaching prisoners to plead not guilty, that they may thus have a chance of
escaping from punishment, is inconsistent with this, and consequently objectionable. It is, indeed,
right and proper, that the court should inform itself of all the circumstances of a crime, from wit-
nesses as well as from the declaration of the prisoner himself. Denial is, in fact, an aggravation of
a crime, according to every idea of common sense : it disarms punishment of one of its most bene-
ficial objects, by casting a shade of doubt over its justice.

22. The sanctity of oaths should also be more upheld than in the English courts. This may
be done by never administering them except as a dernier resort. If they are not frequently ad-
ministered, not only will their sanction be more regarded, and in this way their breach be less pro-
portionately frequent, but of necessity much more absolutely uncommon, and consequently much
more certainly visited with due punishment. Truth, however, must be required, under pain of
punishment, in all cases of evidence given before a court of justice.

23. The imprisonment of an unfortunate debtor at the pleasure of the creditor, by which the
services of the individual are lost to all parties, seems objectionable in this Settlement ; and it is
considered that the rights of property may be sufficiently protected, by giving to the creditor a
right to the value of the debtor’s services for a limited period, in no case exceeding five years, and
that the debtor should only be liable to imprisonment in case of fraud, and as far as may be
necessary for the security of his person, in the event of his not being able to find bail during the
process of the court, and for the performance of the decree after judgment may be passed.

24. It is well known, that the Malay race are sensibly alive to shame, and that, in many
instances, they would prefer death to ignominy. This is a high and honourable feeling, and ought
to be cherished. Let great care be taken to avoid all punishments which are unnecessarily de-
grading. Both the Malays and Chinese are a reasoning people, and though each may reason in a
way peculiar to itself, and different in some respects from our own way of reasoning, this germ of
civilization should not be checked. Let no man be punished without a reason assigned. Let the

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS.

principles of British law be applied, not only with mildness, and a patriarchal kindness and indul-
gent consideration for the prejudices of each tribe, as far as substantial justice will allow, but also
with reference to their reasoning powers, however weak, and that moral principle, which however
often disregarded, still exists in the consciences of all men.

Let native institutions, as far as regards religious observances, marriage, and inheritance, be re-
spected, when the same may not be inconsistent with justice and humanity, or injurious to the peace
and morals of society.

Let all men be considered equal in the eye of the law.

Let no man be banished the country without a trial by his peers or by due course of law.

Let no man be deprived of his liberty without a cause, and no man be detained in confinement
beyond forty-eight hours, without a right to demand a hearing and trial according to due course
of law.

Let the public have a voice through the magistracy, by which their sentiments may at all times
be freely expressed.

25. In fixing a scale of punishments, the first principle to be attended to is, that they should be
graduated, as far as practicable, so as to attach to each particular crime its due and relative punish-
ment according to its enormity ; and with regard to the nature of the punishments to be inflicted,
let them be as mild and humane as the general security of person and property will admit. Severity
of punishment defeats its own end; and the laws should, in all cases, be so mild, that no one should
be deterred from prosecuting a criminal by considerations of humanity. No feeling interferes with
justice in behalf of a murderer : let this crime be punished by death, and no other. Banishment is
the next in order. Solitary confinement, proportioned to the degree of the offence, or pertinacity of
the offender in his criminal course, seems the least objectionable of all sorts of punishment. Shame
and obloquy may likewise be safely resorted to ; but much caution is required in this respect, lest
a too frequent enforcement of the punishment destroy the feeling which can alone make it a punish-
ment. Personal chastisement is only for the lower orders, who are incapable of feeling the shame
of disgrace, and may properly be had recourse to in cases of wilful perjury, where the falsehood of
the witness is palpable, and his object particularly mischievous. In all cases, let it be considered
as no less an object of the law to afford redress to the party injured, than to punish the offender.
Compensation should in all cases, where it is possible, be made to the injured party, to the extent
of the means of the offender : as in the case of the Malay Bangoon, where, when the father is mur-
dered, the family are entitled to pecuniary compensation for his loss.

(Signed) T. S. Raffles.

With these views and principles, the Lieutenant Governor has this day transmitted to the
acting Magistrates such a graduated scale of crimes and punishments, as appears to him sufficient
to meet the existing circumstances of the Settlement, and to answer the ends of substantial justice,
with instructions that they will duly deliberate on the subject ; and after such revision as their local
knowledge and experience may suggest, submit the same to the chief local authority with their
opinion, and in the form of a code of laws to be established for the Settlement, and to be in force
after publication by the Resident, until rescinded by a higher authority, or altered under the pro-
visions laid down for the enactment of local Laws and Regulations.

The Magistrates have further been required to frame, in the form of a Police Regulation, to
be approved and published by Government, such further Regulations as may be necessary in that
department.

APPENDIX.

It is to be hoped, that the provision thus made will be found sufficient for the public peace,
and the protection of person and property, until circumstances may admit of the establishment of
a more regular court of J udicature, all Regulations now made being necessarily of a provisional
nature.

Dated at Singapore on the 6th of June, 1823.

By the Lieutenant-Governor of Fort Marlborough and its dependencies.

(Signed) T. S. Raffles.

SCALE OF CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS,

Submitted by the Lieutenant-Governor for the consideration of the Magistrates, and referred to

in his Minute of the Qth of June, 1823.

It is hereby enacted and ordained, that if any person within the territory of Singapore, or
jurisdiction thereof, who after a solemn, legal, and deliberate trial, according to the forms, usages,
and laws at the time in force, shall be fully and fairly convicted of any of the crimes hereafter
stated, he shall be condemned to suffer for the same the particular punishment specially annexed to
such crimes in the underwritten scheme and scale, vh.

For Murder.

By Amok

To suffer death, with confiscation of property;
and the body to be ignominiously exposed on a
gibbet for twenty-four hours- When not taken
alive, the ignominious exposure of the body to
take place as above directed ; and, in both cases,
the confiscated property to be divided, at the dis-
cretion of the court, among the relatives of those
whom he may have injured.

and Piracy

By whatever other causes it may have ensued. . .

Punishment the same as the preceding.
Death.

and enslaving of captives

Without aggravating circumstances

Piracy,

, . . . . Death.

( Imprisonment and hard labour, for a period
^ to be fixed at the discretion of the court.

Simple . .
Culpable

Homicide.

Solitary confinement.

f Solitary confinement, and a fine for the benefit
\ of the family of the deceased.

LOCAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS.

Wounding or Maiming.

With dangerous weapons, wantonly used . . . . / Banishment and confiscation of property, with

(redress to the wounded person.

Assaidt.

Assaulting the chief authority Banishment and stripes.

In lesser cases / imprisonment, at the discretion of

(the court.

Riotous and disorderly Conduct.

( Hard labour or banishment, according to cir-
“ (cumstances.

For exciting and conspiring with others to op- J Banishment in the higher cases, with solitary

pose Government or injure individuals i confinement, and sti’ipes in the lowest.

r Compensation for injury, with fine and impri-
( sonment.

For forcible seizure of person or property
F or detention of person or property

( Compensation for injury, with fine and impri-

( sonment in a less degree.

For extortion Compensation for the injury, or hard labour.

rpij,.. r. . ( Compensation for the injury, with fine and

Ihe destruction and iniury oi property < . j

j r IT j ^ Ignominy.

Slave Dealing.

To incur the penalties of the several Acts of

In the case of a British-born subject the British Parliament now in force on this

head.

Loss of property in the slave ; fine and impri-
sonment at the discretion of the court.

In the case of other persons

Gambling | Confiscation of property ; banishment and

( stripes, according to circumstances.

For

Stealing | Compensation for injury, stripes,

* labour.

bonds, hard

„ . 1 r 1 • 1 i Imprisonment and stripes in the more fla-

Perjury and lalse evidence 3 ^ . , .

( grant cases, and fine and ignominy in tfie lesser.

r Compensation to the injured party when prac-

Defrauding ticable, with imprisonment and stripes at the

V discretion of the court.

„ , „ . ( Fine and imprisonment, with privation of na-

For deiaraation J , ^

( tural rights, according to circumstances.

For receiving or offering bribes Ignominy, with fine and loss of suit.

And for all other crimes not specially mentioned, such punishment as the court shall, at its discre-
tion, see fit to inflict.

(Signed) T. S. Raffles.

Singapore, June 6, 1823.

SINGAPORE INSTITUTION,

At a Meeting of the principal Inhabitants of Singapore, held at the Residency-House on the
1st of April, 1823. The Honourable Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, Lieutenant-Go-
vernor of Fort Malborough and its Dependencies presiding.

Sir Stamford Raffles stated, that he had convened the present meeting for the purpose of laying
before the public the arrangements which he had adopted for the establishment of an Institution
at Singapore, having for its object the cultivation of the languages of China, Siam, and the Ma-
layan Archipelago ; and the improvement of the moral and intellectual condition of the inhabitants
of those counti’ies.

He observed, that he had for many years contemplated the advantages which might arise from
affording the means of education to the inhabitants of the IMalayan Archipelago, and that shortly after
the establishment of the British Government in Singapore, he had suggested a plan for attaining
this object by the establishment of an Institution of the nature of a Native College; but that from
political and other circumstances, the establishment of the proposed Institution had been delayed
till the present period. That providence however had recently brought to these shores that ex-
cellent and good man Dr. Morrison, the founder and president of the Anglo-Chinese College at
Malacca ; and that, in concert with him, a plan had now been adopted and decided upon, for re-
moving that College to Singapore, and uniting it with the proposed Malayan College, under the
general designation of the “ Singapore Institution.”

Sir Stamford Raffles then submitted, in the form of a Minute, which he was desirous of placing
on the records of the Institution, his ideas on the advantages of a Malayan College, as first con-
templated by him, together with a paper containing the suggestions of Dr. Morrison, for uniting
the two Colleges in one general Institution, observing that as these documents would shew, not
only the objects and views of the founders of the Singapore Institution, as now adopted, but the pro-
gress by which its establishment was brought about, it became unnecessary for him to detain them
by further observations.

SINGAPORE INSTITUTION.

THE

SINGAPORE INSTITUTION

Shall consist of three departments.

I. A scientific department for the common advantage of the several Colleges that may be
established.

II. A literary and moral department for die Chinese, which the Anglo-Chinese College affords,

and

III. A literary and moral department for the Siamese, Malay, &c., which will be provided for
by the Malayan College.

The first department shall be provided with funds from individual contributions ; and such
sums as the two Colleges shall see fit to devote to this object ; and it shall be managed by a Com-
mittee of Trustees of the Institution. The appointment of Professors in this department shall be
made by the Institution Trustees.

The form of all the buildings, their site, and their annual repair, shall be made under the direc-
tion of this Committee ; but each College may make such ^additions to its own buildings, for its
own convenience, as, in the opinion of the Trustees, do not interfere with the symmetry and ge-
neral appearance of the Institution.

The report annually made to the public, after the examination of the students, and official visit
paid to the Institution, shall be drawn up by the Committee of Trustees, and shall embrace the
scientific department, and such paragraphs of the College reports, as this Committee shall choose
to adopt; and for this report alone, thus constructed, shall the Committee of Trustees consider
themselves responsible.

The Colleges shall be permitted to print their own reports, on their own responsibility, accord-
ing as their Bye-Laws may direct.

A certain portion of the ground granted by Government will be allotted to each College defini-
tively, that they may employ it as the benefit of the particular College may require, for erecting
printing-offices in their particular departments, affording such accommodation for their students as
circumstances may require, &c.

The officers of the Institution hereby nominated are as follow ;

Patrons, the Hon. SirjThos. Stamford Raffles, F.R.S. and A.S., &c. &c. — W. Wilberforce, Esq.,
M.P. — C. Grant, Esq., M.P.

President of the Institution, the Resident of Singapore, Lieutenant Colonel Farquhar.
Vice-President, Robert Morrison, D.D.

Trustees, the Hon. Sir Thos. Stamford Raffles — Lieutenant-Colonel Farquhar — W. Wilberforce
and C. Grant, Esqrs. — Rev. T. Raffles, D.D. — A. L. Johnston, Esq. — D. Napier, Esq. —
A. Maxwell, Esq. — Nathaniel Wallich, Esq. M.D. K.D. &c. — Lieutenant-Colonel M'Innes —
Captain Flint, R. N. — Captain Davies — Rev. R. Morrison, D.D. — Rev. J. Humphreys — Rev.
D. Collie — Rev. R. S. Hutchings — Rev. G. H. Thompson — Rev. J. Milton.

Treasurers, Messrs. Johnston and Co.

k 2

APPENDIX.

Secretary, J. Maxwell, Esq.

Librarian of the General Library, Rev. R. Morrison, D.D.

Professor of Natural Philosophy, William Montgomery, M.D. (Chemistry *.)
Professor of Natural History, G. Finlayson, Esq.

Printer, Samuel Roberts.

OFFICERS OF THE ANGLO-CHINESE COLLEGE.

President, Rev. R. Morrison, D.D.

Principal, J. Humphreys.

Professor of Chinese, D. Collie.

Chinese Master, Le Seen Sang.

Treasurer, J. Humphreys.

Librarian, D. Collie.

Patrons, Lieutenant-Colonel Farquhar — Hon. E. Phillips — Hon. J. Erskine.

Trustees, Rev. R. Morrison — Rev. G. Burder — W. A. Hankey, Esq. — C. W. Crommelin, Esq.
— Lieutenant-Colonel Farquhar — D. S. Napier, Esq. — and Officers of the College.

OFFICERS OF THE MALAYAN COLLEGE.

President, Rev. R. S. Hutchings.

Principal, Rev. G. H. Thomson, Autg.

Professor of Malayan Languages, Rev. G. H. Thompson.

Professor of Siamese, Rev. J. Milton.

Native Siamese Masters, John Leyden and Nunsid.

Native Malay Masters, Shaik Alla Adin and Hassin.

Treasurer, Rev. G. H. Thompson.

Patron, Sir Stamford Raffles.

Trustees, Sir Stamford Raffles, the Resident of Singapore for the time being — Rev. Doctor
Morrison — William Marsden, Esq. — Lieutenant-Colonel MTnnes — Captain Flint — Captain
Davies — A. L. Johnston, Esq. — D. S. Napier, Esq. — J. Maxwell — and Officers of the
College.

CHINESE PREPARATORY SCHOOLS.

Superintendent, the Rev. S. Milton.
Native Master,

Provisionally.

SINGAPORE INSTITUTION.

MALAYAN PREPARATORY SCHOOLS.

Superintendent, Rev. G. H. Thompson.
Native Master, Shaik Alla Adin.

RULES

FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE INSTITUTION.

The scientific department shall be managed by its own Trustees, one half of whom shall be officers
of the Colleges, and one half not officers of the Colleges. There shall be three from each Col-
lege, which will make six Trustees unconnected with the Colleges, and resident in Singapore. In
a full meeting of the resident Trustees, and when their votes are equal, the casting vote shall be
with the President of the Institution.

Of these twelve Trustees there shall be an acting Committee of three annually appointed ;
who shall once a year report to the general meeting of resident Trustees; and in difficult, or ex-
traordinary cases, not provided for by previously-enacted regulations, the acting Committee may
request a general meeting of the resident Trustees.

Of the twelve resident Trustees, (having all been summoned to a general meeting by the
Secretary of the Institution,) seven shall constitute a quorum.

The Trustees shall be nominated for life ; and shall endeavour to promote the welfare of the
Institution in whatever part of the world they may be.

On the demise of any Trustee, his place shall be filled up by a general vote of the Pati’on or
Patrons ; the President ; Vice-President, and Trustees of the Institution. On the removal of any
of the resident Trustees, his place shall be filled up in a similar manner.

Of the Patrons and Trustees resident in the United Kingdom there shall be formed a Com-
mittee OF Co-operation, to correspond with, and assist the efforts of, the acting Committee of
resident Trustees.

The home Committee of co-operation shall equal in number the resident Trustees, and
extraordinary cases, not provided for by previous statutes, shall be decided by a majority of these
two constituted bodies : but neither these nor any other authority shall have the power of altering
in any future time the fundamental laws, or the declared objects of the Institution ; nor shall these
tw'o bodies have the power of violating the integrity and independence of either of the existing Col-
leges, or any other that may hereafter be united to them.

The resident Trustees shall not have the power to vote away more than £500 of the property
of the Institution, without the concurrence of the home Committee of co-operation.

Hereafter in cases of any alleged departure from the principles of the Institution, or other
circumstance affecting the vital interests of it, the Patron or Patrons, and the home Committee,
may appoint gentlemen to visit and investigate the state of the Institution in all its departments.

The affairs of each of the Colleges shall be managed by their own Trustees, and other officers,
as the laws and statutes of each College may direct.

In case of any misunderstanding or dispute arising amongst the three departments of the

APPENDIX.

Institution, oi*any two of them, the subject may be referred to the resident Trustees ; and if their
decision be satisfactory to the parties, the question shall be settled ; but if not, the subject must be
referred to the home Committee of co-operation, together with the home Patrons and Trustees of
each College ; of all of whom the decision of the majority shall be final.

The annual general meeting of the resident Trustees of the Institution shall take place on
the 6th day of February.

At that meeting the acting Committee of the scientific department shall present its Report for
the year preceding. And the Colleges shall also submit their Students to an examination, in pre-
sence of a general meeting of resident Trustees, and such visitors as they shall see fit to invite.
The Colleges shall moreover lay before the meeting a report of their proceedings ; stating the
number of their pupils, the state of their funds, with such suggestions as they may think likely to
promote the general good of the Institution.

The general meeting shall, on the same day, visit the Institution. The Students and Officers
of the College shall on this occasion wear their college gowns and caps, and the President of the
Institution shall give a dinner to the Trustees and Officers of the Institution, and to such other
ladies and gentlemen of the Settlement as he shall be pleased to invite.

On this and other occasions, the senior clergyman connected with the Institution shall be
considered the Institution Chaplain.

OFFICERS OF THE SCIENTIFIC DEPARTMENT.

Of this department the Vice-President shall have the general management, and shall rank

first.

The Professor of natural philosophy shall be expected to teach, in the English language, to
native Students and others sent from each College, the principles of the Newtonian system of
astronomy ; the mechanical and^chemical properties of matter ; and illustrate them by experiments.

Whilst this statement expresses generally his duties, it is expected that he will also teach such
other branches of knowledge as he may happen to be qualified for; as in the case of Dr. Mont-
gomery, who having taken charge, pro tempoi’e, of the chemical chair, is also willing to give Lec-
tures in anatomy and medical science.

The Professor of natural history shall be expected to be versed in whatever concerns the
animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms; and shall not only teach zoology, botany, and mineralogy
to the Students, but shall exert himself to procure new information on these subjects from the
surrounding countries, to be transmitted to the home Committee of co-operation : and shall do his
utmost to procure satisfactory answers to such questions as may be sent out, by scientific indivi-
duals or bodies, through the medium of the home Committee.

Should the scientific department of the Singapore Institution be liberably supported, more
Professorships vvnll be made to ensure a greater division of labour.

And it is expected that the Professor in each department will pay attention to the native lan-
guages, with the view of eventually translating scientific books into those languages.

The Professors in the scientific department shall take precedence according to the date of their
connection with the Institution: and in any general meeting of all the officers of the Institution,
seniority of service shall be the rule of precedence, if it shall be necessary or expedient to advert
to the circumstance.

When the funds can afford it, there shall be an observatory on Institution Hill, and a good
1

SINGAPORE INSTITUTION.

astronomical clock under the charge of such of the Professors as the Trustees shall appoint ; and it
shall be made as serviceable as possible to the ships in the Roads for regulating or ascertaining the
rates of the chronometers.

THE

MALAYAN COLLEGE

Established at Singapore, 1823.

Patron, Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles.

Trustees, Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, the Resident of Singapore for the time being — William
Marsden,Esq. — Rev. Dr. Momson, D.D. — Lieutenant-Colonel M'Innes — Captain Flint, R.N.
— Captain Davis — A. L. Johnston, Esq. — D. S. Napier, Esq. — J. A. Maxwell, Esq. — Rev.
R. S. Hutchings — Rev. G. H. Thompson — Rev. S. Milton.

The objects of the Institution are — First, to educate the sons of the higher order of natives
and others.

Secondly, to afford the means of instruction in the native languages to such of the Company’s
servants and other as may desire it. And

Thirdly, to collect the scattered literature and traditions of the country, with whatever may
illustrate their laws and customs, and to publish and circulate in a correct form the most important
of these, with such other works as may be calculated to raise the character of the Institution, and to
be useful and instructive to the people.

The College will be supported by voluntary subscriptions and endowments, by the fees which
it will derive from students, and by the profits from the press, and the cultivation of the College
lands.

OFFICERS OF THE COLLEGE

A PRESIDENT,

Who may or may not be resident at the College, but whether present or absent, he is to be
considered as the head of the Institution. His duty is to promote the general welfare of the College
in every department.

A PRINCIPAL.

A PROFESSOR IN THE MALAYAN LANGUAGES.

A PROFESSOR OF SIAMESE.

Native Masters in the Siamese, Malayan, Bugguese, Javanese, and other languages of the
Archipelago.

A treasurer.

Any immorality, generally condemned by Christian Churches, shall incapacitate Europeans
from holding offices in the Malayan College.

And Native Masters and Teachers shall be, when practicable, correct moral men, according to
the opinions of their own nation.

APPENDIX.

President, the Rev. R. S. Hutchings.

Principal, the Rev. G. H. Thompson, Actg.

Professor of the Malayan Languages, the Rev. G. H. Thompson.

Professor of Siamese, the Rev. S. Milton.

Native Masters in Malayan, Shaik Allah Adin and Hassan.

IN Javanese, in Bugguese, in Bali, in Tegala .

IN Siamese, John Leyden Siami and Nunsid.

IN Arabic, in Pali, .

Treasurer, the Rev. G. H. Thompson.

The duty of the President is to promote the general welfare of the College, and when present
to act as chairman of the council.

THE PRINCIPAL

Has the ordinary general superintendence of the College concerns ; and is to teach native students
the English language, geography, the use of the globes, arithmetic, history, and such other branches
of knowledge as circumstances may direct.

THE PROFESSORS

Are with the aid of the native masters to teach the Malayan and Siamese languages to European
students ; also, to teach the natives history, logic, theology, natural and revealed, ethics or moral
philosophy, and to assist the principal, as circumstances may require.

THE NATIVE MASTERS

Are to teach the correct reading and understanding of the most approved works and translations in
the native languages, and to assist foreign students in learning these languages and their characters.

LAWS AND STATUTES.

I. The College Council shall consist of the President (when present) the Principal, and Pro-
fessors, and in the President’s absence of the Principal and Professors only.

It is understood that the Principal has the direction of the ordinary daily concerns of the
College, but in any affair of importance to the Institution ; or in any new case that may arise, not
provided for by previously existing laws ; or in such cases as may be hereafter specified, the Prin-
cipal is required, by this statute, to confer on the subject with the Professors.

II. In any case of serious misconduct on the part of any student, the measures to be adopted
shall be considered by the College council, and their decision carried into effect by the Principal in
ordinary cases ; and in particular cases by such member of the council as may be appointed.

III. When a difference of opinion shall arise amongst the members of the council on any sub-
ject, the case shall be referred to the Resident Trustees, whose decision shall be final.

SINGAPORE INSTITUTION.

IV. The Principal may at any time require a meeting of the council, and each of the other
members is always allowed to request one. If denied, the reason must be minuted by the Prin-
cipal, and referred to the Resident Trustees.

V. Should the Principal insist on the immediate decision of a case, when another member
thinks it right to defer, the other member, by this statute, is permitted to enter a protest on the
minutes of the Council.

VI. The appointment of European officers shall be made by the Trustees of the College
generally. The appointment of Native Masters shall be made by the College Council.

VII. As often as practicable, those who have been students in the College shall be appointed
Masters ; and whenever they are equally well qualified for the vacant office, they shall be preferred
to other candidates.

Vm. Students shall be admitted by the consent of the College Council. When a difference
of opinion exists, the Council shall come to a decision in the manner above directed.

IX. The consent of the College Council shall be necessary to authorize the Principal to expel
any student.

X. Gross and open immorality persisted in, shall be a sufficient cause for expelling a student.

XI. A continued and obstinate neglect of prescribed studies shall be a sufficient cause to expel
a student.

XII. A wilful pertinacious disobedience to the rules of the College, shall be a sufficient cause
for expulsion.

XIII. One of the European officers of the College shall act as Treasurer.

XI One of the European officers of the College shall always be present at morning and
evening prayers.

XV. It shall be the duty of the officers of the College to cherish, at all times, a paternal feeling
of kindness to the students; to set an example of patience, moderation, good temper, and assiduity;
and to avail themselves of every opportunity to inculcate lessons of morality and true piety, con-
sidering the religious and moral instruction of the students as no less intended by the Malayan
College, than their intellectual education.

XVI. The general government of the College will be vested in Trustees, under the above pro-
visions, and the President, Principal, and Professors will be Trustees by virtue of their office. In
cases of emergency, the Resident Trustees may be referred to ; but in all cases where an immediate
decision may not be necessary, the opinions of all the Trustees should be obtained, as far as practi-
cable, wdthin twelve months.

XVII. The Resident of Singapore is requested to preside at the meetings of the Trustees.

XVIII. In case of the demise of any Trustee, his place shall be filled up by a general vote of

the Trustees ; and on the removal of any of the Resident Trustees, his place shall be filled up in a
similar manner.

BYE-LAWS OF THE MALAYAN COLLEGE.

I. All students who enter the College must have a good character. Pagans, Christians, and
Mahomedans are all admissible as students.

II. Native students must remain three months before they are regularly received into the
College.

APPENDIX.

III. If after a trial of three months, they are considered suitable persons, they shall be
received, on condition that they remain three years.

IV. A certain number of native students will be received on the foundation, and supported at
the expense of the College : this number is at present limited to six, but it may be increased on the
enlargement of the funds.

V. Any person desirous of educating a native youth, from the age of twelve to eighteen, may
support him at the Malayan College for 100 dollars a year, clothes and a servant, if one is required,
not being included.

VI. An European youth may be supported at the College for £100 per annum. For this
sum he will be supplied with food, lodging, washing, and education.

\ II. The College will engage to board, lodge, clothe, and educate a destitute Malayan or
Siamese youth, or a fatherless or orphan lad, for sixty dollars per annum.

Vni. The Malayan Schools intended to be established at Singapore, are to be visited by the
officers of the College, and to be considered under the immediate superintendence of the Malayan
Professor.

IX. The students shall be taught to read and tmderstand the best books in their own lan-
guage, and particularly such as may be translated into it from European languages ; to read and
write the English language ; history, geography, the use of the globes, logic, moral philosophy,
theology, &c.

X. All moveable property belonging to the College is to be considered under the charge of
the Principal ; but the Professors in the Malayan and Siamese languages are expected, each in his
department, to take due care of all manuscripts or books in those languages respectively.

XI. The general good behaviour of the students, and observation of the rules of the College,
shall be superintended by the Principal and Professors by rotation ; that is to say, each shall take
this duty for a week, when he is to be relieved by another.

XII. The officers of the College shall have a choice of apartments, according to the rank
they hold. The students may have a choice according to seniority of connection with the College.
In special cases, the Council shall have the power of allotting what apartments they please.

XIII. The forms of Protestant worship will be observed, and strict moral decorum required ;
but neither native students nor Native Masters are compelled to attend Christian worship. The
European officers of the Institution will all be Protestant Christians, but the Native Masters may
or may not be Christians.

XIV. The Principal for the time being shall act as Treasurer, and keep the accounts of the
College. The accounts to be closed annually ; on which occasion, a report on the state and
condition of the Institution must be drawn up by the Council, and submitted to the Singapore
Institution.

XV. The College Council may from time to time pass such new bye-laws as may be neces-
sary ; but such bye-laws are not to have effect till approved by the Trustees.

X\T. During the life of the present Patron, he shall possess such a general control over
the affairs of the College as may be found necessary for enforcing the fundamental laws and statues,
and promoting its general object. He may, when he sees occasion, appoint visitors to examine into
any particular department of the Institution, or into its affairs generally ; and on any stated com-
plaint or representation being made to him, if considered sufficiently important, he is empowered to
appoint visitors for the special purpose of examining into the same ; and it shall be incumbent on
every individual connected with the Institution to concur in giving effect to the wishes of the Patron

SINGAPORE INSTITUTION.

on this head. His decision on all cases submitted to him by the Resident Trustees, or in which he
may direct a visitation, shall be final.

AT A MEETING OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE SINGAPORE INSTITUTION,

Held on the \5th of Aprils 1823.

The Secretary lays before the Meeting an account of the subscriptions up to the present date,
shewing a balance of dollars 17,495 in favour of the Institution and Colleges.

Besides a monthly subscription of 300 dollars per month for the schools, and of twenty-five
dollars per annum on account of the library.

Ordered that the above account be transmitted to the Treasurers of the Institution and the
Colleges respectively, in order that the amount may be duly collected and carried to account
accordingly.

It appearing from the above statement that the funds of the Institution are already sufficient to
authorize the commencement of the necessary buildings, an advantageous site for the same is fixed
upon, and the Lieutenant-Governor intimates his intention of authorizing a grant of ground with-
out delay.

A plan and estimate of the expense of the proposed buildings, drawn up by Lieutenant Jackson,
being submitted to the Meeting, the same are approved, and Lieutenant J ackson having offered his
services to superintend the same, an arrangement is made with that officer for the construction of
the buildings in twelve months.

The sum of 15,000 dollars is, in consequence, voted for the buildings in question, to be dis-
bursed by the Treasurers, agreeably to the arrangement with Lieutenant Jackson now entered
into.

Sir Stamford Raffles and Dr. Morrison propose to the Reverend Mr. Milton to purchase, on
account of the Institution, the presses ; English, Malayan, and Siamese founts of types, with their
furniture, paper, &c., which Mr. Milton has recently brought from Calcutta ; and also to employ,
on account of the Institution, the Printer whom Mr. Milton has brought down to Singapore ; but it
is expected that Mr. Milton will take charge of the presses, &c. for the time being; and if it be
determined to print, on account of the Institution, a dictionary in the Fuh-keen dialect by the Rev.
Mr. Medhurst of Batavia, that Mr. Milton will correct the press, and superintend the printing of
the work.

Mr. Milton having assented to this arrangement, the prime-cost of the presses, &c., the freight
and expense of setting up the Institution-press, is, in consequence, to be borne by the Institution,
and the Treasurers are authorized to disburse the amount accordingly.

Dr. Morrison begs leave to lay the following circumstance before the Patron, the President,
and the Trustees of the Institution.

The dialect of the Chinese from Fuh-keen province, including Chin-cheu, Amoy, and other
ports of that province, is very peculiar, and so different from the general language of the empire, as
to be unintelligible to those who speak the Mandarin tongue. Of this dialect the Rev. Mr. Med-
hurst of Batavia has made a dictionary, which will probably be contained, when printed, in two
volumes octavo. He is desirous of resigning his claim to the MS., and to have the work printed,
to promote the general intercourse with the Chinese in the Archipelago, on condition of receiving a
few printed copies for his friends.

1 2

APPENDIX.

It is submitted whether it would be proper and expedient for the Institution to undertake the
printing of 300 copies of this work, giving one hundred to the Author, one hundred to the Cor-
rector of the press, (for as it contains the Chinese characters and the accents of the dialect, correct-
ing the press and superintending the printing w'ould be a considerable task,) and the Institution
retain one hundred copies, to be appropriated as it may deem fit.

The Trustees concurring with the Rev. Dr. Morrison on the advantage of the printing of the
w'ork in question, being undertaken by the Institution, it is

Resolved, that the said work be printed at the expense of the Institution, and under the super-
intendence of the Rev. Mr. Milton ; but that 500 copies instead of 300 be struck off; 200 on Euro-
pean paper, and 300 on Chinese; the copies to be distributed, 150 to the Author, 150 to Mr.
Milton, and the remaining 200 to the Institution, to appropriate as it may see fit.

A Committee, consisting of the Rev. Mr. Morrison, the Rev. Mr. Thompson, Captain Flint,
and D. S. Napier, Esq., with the Resident of Singapore as President, and J. Maxw'ell, Esq. as
Secretrary, is appointed for conducting the general affairs of the Institution during the ensuing
twelve months.

The superintendence of the Malayan Schools is entrusted to the Rev. Mr. Thompson, and
those of the Chinese to the Rev. Mr. Milton.

Mr. Maxwell, as Secretary to the Institution, is requested to take charge of the Library and
Museum of the Institution, until suitable buildings may be erected, and to act as Librarian during
the absence of Dr. Morrison.

John Palmer, and G. Gordon, Esqrs., are requested to act as agents for the Institution in
Calcutta.

The following establishments are provisionally authorized, viz.

SCHOOL DEPARTMENT.

The Rev. Mr. Milton is authorized to engage three native Siamese Masters and Assistants, at
from fifteen to thirty dollars per month each, and one Chinese Schoolmaster, at twelve dollars per
month.

The Rev. Mr. Thompson is authorized to engage iMalayan Masters and Assistants to the
extent of thirty dollars per month; also Masters of the Javanese and Bugguese languages, when
procurable.

INSTITUTION GENERALLY.

A bookbinder at fifteen dollars per month, and a printer (Samuel Roberts) at thirty-five dollars
per month.

The Treasurers to be requested to discharge the monthly bills for the same.

It is agreed that the proceedings of the general meeting of the 1st ultimo and of this day be
printed for general information, and that the formation and objects of the Institution be communi-
cated to the several public Institutions of a similar nature in Europe and India, with a view to
opening a correspondence with them.

Sir Stamford Raffles is requested to take the necessary measures in Europe for forming the
Committee of Co-operation, and appointing an agent to the Institution in London.

Sir Stamford Raffles intimates his intention to endow each of the Colleges with an appropria-

SINGAPORE INSTITUTION.

tion of land at Singapore to the extent of 500 acres, independently of one hundred acres attached
to Institution-hill, already allotted to them ; and the officers of the Chinese and Malayan Colleges
respectively are requested to select and define the bounds of the same as early as may be convenient.
— Adjourned.

SUBSCRIPTIONS

FOR THE

SINGAPORE INSTITUTION GENERALLY.

Lady Raffles ...........

Sp. Dolls.
200

Anglo-Chinese College-House to be sold, say for four or five

. 4000

To assist removal of Anglo-Chinese College from the Company

. 2000

For the same purpose a subscription from Dr. Morrison

. 1000

Alexander L. Johnson .........

100

Lieutenant-Colonel Farquhar ........

. 1000

W. IMontgomerie, Esq. .........

D. S. Napier, Esq. .........

100

G. A. Bonham, Esq. .........

100

Captain Davies ..........

100

Lieutenant L. N. Hull .........

100

Lieutenant P. Jackson .........

100

J. A. Maxwell, Esq. .........

120

D. A. Fraser, Esq. .........

100

G. Mackenzie, Esq. .........

100

Thomas Howard, Esq. .........

F. J. Bernard, Esq. .........

100

Mrs. Napier ...........

100

Charles Scott, Esq. .........

100

A Friend to the Institution, through Messrs. Napier and Scott

G. Gordon, Esq. ..........

100

FOR THE SCIENTIFIC DEPARTMENT.

The Anglo-Chinese College ........

400

Dr. Morrison ..........

200

Malay College ..........

400

W. Montgomerie, Esq. .........

D. Napier, Esq. for the Library annually

Spanish dollars 1075

APPENDIX.

FOR THE MALAYAN COLLEGE.

Sp. Dolls.

The Company ........... ,5000

Sir Stamford Raffles .......... 2000

The Sultan ............ 1000

The Toomoongoong 1000

Dr. Morrison to the Malay College ....... 200

Lady Raffles 200

Rev. R. S. Hutchings .......... 200

Captain Flint ........... 100

Rev. G. H. Thompson 50

Spanish dollars 6750

ABSTRACT ACCOUNT OF SUBSCRIPTIONS.

For the Institution generally ........ 9670

For the Scientific Department ........ 1075

For the Malayan College 9750

Spanish dollars 17,495

FOR THE CHINESE AND MALAYAN SCHOOLS.

The Honourable Company provisionally subject to confirmation of the higher authorities.

MALAYAN.

Monthly ............ 150

A Donation by Dr. Morrison ......... 50

Sir T. S. Raffles ........... 100

CHINESE.

Monthly 150

.-\ Donation by Dr. Morrison ......... 50

Sir T. S. Raffles ......... . 100

TRADE OF SINGAPORE

ABSTRACT OF IMPORTS AT SINGAPORE

for the last official Year 1827-28.

Names of Places.

1827-28.

Names of Places.

1827-28. ♦

From Calcutta

Sicca Rupees.

2,316,4661

414,697|

376,889^

1,920,126|

541,673

l,792,674i

883,015|

278,627i

8,524, 169i

Brought forward* •

Sicca Rupees.

8,524,169i

2,284,627^

155,951

19,355i

275,819|

108,449f

2,8964

3,514,7204

Bombay

England

Foreign Europe

America

r;Kinq

Isle of France

Ceylon

Siam

Cochin China

Prince of Wales’ Island • •

Other Native Ports

Total

Carried forward • •

14,885,9894

ABSTRACT OF EXPORTS
for Official Year 1827-28.

Names of Places.

1827-28.

To Calcutta

Sicca Rupees.

1,631,3491

Madras

1,138,099

Bombay

188,012

England

2,789,5134

Foreign Europe

272,230|

China

1,519,897

Malacca

480,556

Penang

646,122|.

Carried forward • •

8,665,7804-

Names of Places.

1827-28.

Brought forward • •

Sicca Rupees.

8,665,7804

To Java

1,026,379

Mauritius, &c

119,1224

Siam

457,7134

Cochin China

85,576

Acheen

• • • •

Other Native Ports

3,517,4384

Total

13,872,010

APPENDIX.

EXPORTS TO ENGLAND.

Names of Articles.

In 1827-28. j

Sicca Rupees.
109,7464
205,770
2,620|
249,7604
41,527| '
11,809
15,833|
30,322|
783,7101
5,649|

Spices

Tin

Rattans

SaffO

PnflPpp ....

T^pnjamln

Sillf

339,803| :

India ditto

318,2824 ,

Carried forward • •

2,115,0364

Names of Articles.

In 1826-7.

Brought forward • •

China ditto

Straits ditto

Spanish dollars

Cotton

China camphor

E. P. goods

I. P. goods

Oils

Saltpetre

Tobacco

Woollens

Java sundries . .

Gold-dust

Total sicca rupees. . . .

Sicca rupees.

2,115,0364

141,155

8,257|

65,2064.

17,3704

121,8204

32,6274

237,8944

30,5394

7,4284

2,105‘

6,315

2,7364

1,220|

2,789,7131

IMPORTS FROM ENGLAND.

Names of Articles.

1827-28.

i Brought forward. .

Sicca Rupees.

1,353,237

1 Woollens

131,5263

' European sundries

410,4244

Copper cash

Salt

3,641-3

Spanish dollars

21,296^

1,920,126-4

Names of Articles.

Brandy, &c

Beer

Piece goods, Europe

Gold thread

Iron

Opium

Wines

Carried forward

1827-28.

Sicca Rupees.

1,705

19,1974

1,062,587

6734

66,901

186,503

15,669|

1,353,237

ABSTRACT OF AMOUNT OF IMPORTS AND EXPORTS AT SINGAPORE

for the last Five Years.

Amount of Imports.

Amount of Exports.

Excess of Imports.

Excess of
Exports.

Total of Imports
and Exports.

1 822.23

Sicca Rupees.

7,746,833

13,807,072

13,488,456

13,159,193

13,619,793

Sicca Rupees.

6,677,758

10,222,222

12,360,120

11,270,311

13,883,062

Sicca Rupees.

1,069,075

3,584,850

1,128,336

1,888,882

Sicca Rupees.

14,424,591

24,029,294

25,848,576

24,429,504

27,502,855

} • V

1 kOA OK ........

X o -c *± • ••••••••

• • • •

1820.27

1,263,269

7,671,143

Total 5 years • • • •

61,821,347

54,413,473

116,234,820

1,917,785
average of 4 yrs.

•Average of 5 years.

12,364,269

10,882,694

Average of 5 yrs. 23,246,964

INDEX.

Account of the Eastern Islands, 60.

Acheen, a Malay state, its laws 16 ; described, 56 ;
king, 57 ; right to the crown decided, 379 ; teak
forests, Hindu images, 384 ; its distracted condi-
tion, 396.

Achmuty, Sir Samuel, 23; eulogised by lord
Minto, 91 ; recollected by Napoleon, 277.

Acland, Sir Thomas Dyke, 590.

Action of the Upas poison, 108.

Addat, or immemorial customs, 16.

Addenbroke, Col., letter to, 379.

Address of the Singapore merchants, 544.

Adi Saka, 176 ; his era, 177 ; his writings, 179.

Administration of the Eastern Islands in 1819, Ap-
pendix, 3.

Advantages of possessing Java, 83 ; of Sumatra over
the West Indies, 466.

Adultery, how punished, 432, 3.

Affection of a Chief, 321.

African Institution, 409. 417.

Agriculture, 61 ; in France, 288 ; in the Menang-
kabu country, 388 ; endeavours to improve it in
Sumatra, 471.

Agricultural Society, Report of the Sumatran, 473 ;
its President, 513.

Ahmed Shah, Sultan of Malacca, 17.

Ainslie, Dr., English secretary to the Batavian
Society, 147 : his communication, 170 ; residence
dX Japan, 182.

Akal Malaya, or annals and traditions of the Ma-
lays, 16.

Alberti, General, 92.

Alexander the Great, 177.

Alfur, or Arafura, aborigines of Celebes, 145.

Anr, Rajah, 46.

Alphabets, 236.

Amboyna, natives of, 8 ; Dutch transactions at re-
probated, 69.

America, customs in, similar to those of the Eastern
Isles, 175.

American captain, generosity of a, 403.

Americans, 67 ; their intercourse with Japan, 68 ;
regTilation of trade in the East, 74 ; vessels at
Sumatra, 295.

Amiens, peace of, 305 ; treaty of, 390.

Amphictyonic council, 25.

Ancient temples, 106 ; MS. of the signs of the Zo-
diac, 166; characters on stones, 206; sculpture
and remains, 262.

Anderson, Dr., 2.

Antiquities, 158. 207.

Appeal of the native Chiefs against the Dutch, 341.

Arabian chronology, 9.

Arabs in the Malay states, 73.

Arbitrary distinctions in language, 163.

Archipelago, the Eastern, 8 ; its chieftains, 23 ; cus-
toms, 174; language, origin of the natives, 176 ;
its beautiful scenery, 403.

Arnold, Dr. death of, Introd. vii. 365, 522.

Arrows, poisoned, custom of discharging, 38.

Ascent of the sacred mountain, 325.

Ascent of Gunung Dingin mountain, 346 ; of the
Sambung mountain, 362.

Asiatic Researches, 14.

Asiatic Society, 11 ; its rapid progress, 140; its ex-
tensive researches, 141.

Assey, Mr. private Secretary, 211.

Atrocious act of piracy, 46.

Attack of the Dutch on Malacca, 19.

Auber, Captain, 512.

Ava, 50,

Badong, Rajah of, 32.

Bagilen, a strong hill country, 37.

Baker, Captain, his observations on ruins, 158;
describes the thousand temples, 159.

Balabac, 39.

Balambangan Island, 60.

Bali Island, first visited by the English, 32 ; dialpct,
164; population, government, 170 ; Hindu reli-
gion prevalent, 171; burning wives, language,
people, slavery, 172; marriage, punishments,
173; domestic relations, 174; four castes of na-
tives, 240 ; independence of the Chiefs, 307 ;
proposed mission to, 536.

Bali Baliling, Rajah of, friendly to the English, 31 ;
alluded to, 240.

Banca Island, its importance to the English, 43 ;
resources, 44; tin mines, 149. 255; process of
mining, 150; botany, 151; government, 170;
its prosperity, 226. 268 ; object of the English in
obtaining, 309 ; ceded to the Dutch, 394.

INDEX.

Banda Isles, 60 ; nutmegs, 254.

Banjar Masing, Dutch settlement at, 59 ; appoint-
ment of Resident at, (see Errata,) 99 ; Hindu an-
tiquities, 143 ; abandoned by the English, 392.

Ban, of Burgundy, 25.

Banks, Sir Joseph, 440; extract of his letter to
Dr. Horsfield, 449 ; his death, 485.

Bannersian, Colonel, 395 ; again, 397 ; his death,
412.

Bantam, a Malay state, 19; again, 33; language,
162 ; fertility, 217 ; tenure of land, 221.

Banyuwangi, volcanic phenomena at, 243.

Barlow, Sir George Hilars, 88.

Barrett, Captain, 8.

Barrow, John, Esq., Introd. p. viii.

Barrto, Mr. 136.

Bassick, Rajah, 46.

Batavia, Dutch transactions at, 69 ; Chinese op-
pression in, 72 ; British expedition to, 86; cap-
tured, 91; European courts of Justice in, 208;
effects of British establishments in, 257.

Batavian Researches, 21 ; additional volume of, 133.

Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences, its re-esta-
blishment, 133; Mr. Raffles’ Addresses to, 134.
147 ; first literary institution formed by Europeans
in the East ; 135; its objects, 136; exertions of
the directors, 137 ; contents of the Transactions,
138; knowledge of the Javanese language re-
quired by its members, 139; its supporters, 141 ;
its records, 146 ; death of its patron announced,
147 ; Mr. Raffles delivers an account of the East-
ern Archipelago, 149 — 184 ; success of the Insti-
tution, 206.

Baths, 486.

Bathurst, Earl, 559.

Battas, cannibalism of the, 426 ; laws of inheritance,
435 ; excursion into their country, 436.

Beech wood, 580.

Bencoolen, Sir Stamford’s appointment to, 290 ; de-
scription of the settlement, 293 ; earthquakes,
294 ; trade, 295 ; pernicious system at, 296. 405 :
emancipation of slaves, 300 ; improvement in the
feelings of the inhabitants, 367 ; Bible Society
and schools established, 400 ; their progress, 416 ;
condition of society, 407 ; improvements at, 449.
495.

Beneficial effects of change of scene, 530.

Benevolent Society, establishment of, 228.

Bengal Government, 23 ; their resolutions, 540.

Bengal, bay of, 69.

Bengalee Vocabulary, 11.

Berapi, a volcanic mountain, 355.

Bertrand, Marshal, 276.

Billiton Island, 45; ceded to the English, 309;
position, extent, population, 418 ; its advantages,
419.

Births, ceremonies performed at, 168.

Bitara, a king’s title, 71.

Bloom farms, 217.

Blow-pipe, its use, 38.

Blue IMountains, 36.

Boeckholtz, Van, 138.
i Boni, bay of, 153.

’ Bonzes, a religious sect, 68.

Boraiig, batteries taken at, 115.

Borneo, natives, 8 ; Malay states on, 16; its coast,

I 39 ; productions, 59 ; Dutch and English posses-
i sions in, 60 ; agriculture, 61 ; interior unknown,

j ib. ; divided into three empires ; 142; human sa-

crifices, 144 ; gold mines worked by the Chinese,
151.255; customs, language, 175 ; independent
I of the native states, 305.

I Boro Bodo, its ruins described, 159.
i Bourbon, Island, 22.

I Bowdich, Mr. his mission to Ashantee, 459.

I Bowen, Captain, 116.

I Brahma, images of, 160.
j Brahmins, of whom held in veneration, 171.

I Bramanas, described, 240.
i Brambana, antiquities of, 207.

; Brand, J. E. Esq., Resident of Batavia, his letter
to Captain Flint, 441 ; letter to, from Captain
Flint, 442 ; his reply, 443.

Brata Yudha, a poem, 235 ; quoted, 358.
i Brazil, 78.

British, plans of the Government, 22 ; their influence
in the Eastern seas, 23 ; habits of the Malays not
understood by, 42 ; shipping, 43 ; government in
Prince of Wales’ Island, 56 ; inhabitants of Ce-
lebes attached to, 65 ; their policy, 70 ; neglect
of the Government, 76. 271 ; courage of the army,
95 ; importance of Java to their interests, 83, 98 ;
Residents appointed at native courts, 101 ; pro-
clamation to the people of Java, 103; language
cultivated by the Japanese, 184 ; their equal dis-
tribution of justice, 220 ; their intercourse with
Japan, 226 ; act on the slave trade, 227 ; neces-
sity of having their agent in the Eastern seas,
306 ; economy in the service, 308 ; effects of their
administration at Java, 310; necessity of their
opposition to Dutch power, 370 ; their interests
and policy opposed to those of the Dutch, 389.
j British Government in Java, letter from Dr. Horsfield
I on Sir Stamford’s efforts for the promotion of
j science during that period, 602.

I British and Foreign Bible Society, Sir Stamford’s
1 letter to the Committee, 585.

; Broughton, Commodore, 95.
i Bruchnor, Mr. 588.

Buckinghamshire, Earl of, letter to, on Eastern
j affairs, 252.

I Buddha, images of, 159.

I Bugguese alphabet, 12.

I Bugis, trade with Bali and Lombok, 32 ; natives
1 driven to piracy by Dutch monopoly, 65. 145 ; em-
ployed as the Swiss in Europe, their language, 155.

Buitenzorg, description of, 36 ; well situated for
procuring supplies, 38 ; Mr. Raffles removes there,
101; his occupations, 210 ; again 235.

Buonaparte, 33; his re-appearance in France,
251 ; Mr. Raffles’ interview with him at St. He-
lena, 276.

INDEX.

Burial-ground, description of a, 351.

Burnians, 50; language, 163; customs, 175.

Burn, Captain, 40.

Burning of Queda, 507 ; of the Fame, 566.

Burton, Mr. 437.

Butler, Major, 116.

C;esars, Twelve, busts of, 188.

Calfres in the Malay states described, 10.

Calcutta, 7 ; Asiatic Society in, 11. 14. 140; Mr.
Raffles’ visit to, 22.

Camboja, 62 ; singular customs in, 175; language,
176.

Campbell, Mr. agent to Acheen, 25 ; again, 56.

Camphor-tree described, 432.

Cannibalism of the Battas, 426. 432.

Canning, Mr., 385; his expected arrival in the
East, 515.

Canning, Captain, 421.

Canton, Dutch factory at, 67 ; fire at, 527.

Capabilities of Sumatra, 480.

Capellen, Baron Van Der, 552.

Capital punishments, 432.

Capture of Batavia, 91.

Caramata passage, 87.

Carnegie, Mr., 402.

Casas, Las, 277.

Castlereagh, Lord, 559.

Castes, their customs described, 240.

Catalogue of Zoological Specimens, 633 — 697.

Cathcart, Lord, 311.

Cattle, docility of, 352.

Causes of the deterioration of Malay character, 77.

Cawoor, 313; again, 320; Dr. Arnold ill at, 322.

Celebes, natives, 8. 145 ; well affected to the Eng-
lish, 65; Dutch establishments at, 64; popula-
tion, 152 ; constitution of society in, 153 ; enter-
prising character of the people, 239.

Ceram island, 70 ; frequented by the Americans, 74.

Ceremony on going to war, 154; at births, mar-
riages, funerals, 168.

Cession of Java to the English, 95.

Champa, 62 ; languages, 176 ; connected with the
Archipelago, 237.

Chandi Sewo, or Thousand Temples described, 159.

Chapman, Captain, 47.

Character of the Malays, 235.

Charlotte, the Princess, distinguishes Sir Stam-
ford, 287 ; her death alluded to, 291.

Cheribon, MSS. discovered in, 161 ; language of,
162.

Chess, game of, 11.

Children, Sir Stamford’s, named Charlotte and Leo-
pold, 380 ; their death, 500. 506.

Chili, language of, 175.

China Proper, natives of, 8 ; price of tin in, 44 ; con-
trasted with Japan, 232.

Chinese, their chronology, 1 0 ; junks attacked by
pirates, 47 ; trade with Nangasaki, 67 ; their mo-
nopoly in Java,72; market, 84; miners in Banca,
151; in Borneo, 255; their extensive specula-

tions, 535 ; plan for promoting the study of the
language, 592.

Cholera morbus, its dreadful effects, 370. 431. 499.

Christianity, its diffusion, 80 ; its propagation in the
Eastern Isles, 82.

Chronology of the Malays, 9.

Chuliahs, or men of the Kaling country, 1 1 .

Circumcision practised, 336.

Clayton, Colonel, 323.

Clove trees, 475.

Clubley, Mr., 28.

Cobra de Capello, 352.

Cochin China, natives of, 8 ; King of, 62.

CocKBURN, Sir George, 276.

Coffee, that of Java, compared, 84 ; its cultivation
encouraged, 217.

College for the natives, 408.

Colonies, difficulties attendant upon, 61.

Colonization, sources of, 176.

Colossal statue, account of a, 160.

Compositions, historical, 165.

Condia, 116.

Conditions of Java and Sumatra contrasted, 479.

Conquest of Malacca by the Portuguese, 18.

Constitution of society, singular feature in the, 153.

Conversion of the natives. Sir Stamford’s opinion on
the, 585.

Commerce, ship, 46.

COLEBROOKE, Mr., 25.

Coolie, resuscitation of a, 344.

Coombs, Captain, 397.

Copper, not a native Malay production, 83 ; mines,
282.

Cornells, its situation described, 36 ; battle of, 93 ;
bogs at, 94.

Coromandel co2&t, dialects on the, 11 ; ship, 198.

Correspondence with the Dutch government, 441.

CouPERUs, Mr., 138. 140.

Court of Directors appoint Mr. Raffles Deputy Se-
cretary to Penang, 5 ; Lieutenant Governor of
Java, 98 ; their decision on the charges brought
against him by General Gillespie, 204 ; approve
of Mr. R.’s plans for the opening of trade with
Japan, 233 ; his letter to them on the revenue and
government of Java, 266 ; he appeals to them on
his return to England, 284 ; their opinion of his
services, 286 ; appoint him Lieutenant Governor
of Bencoolen, 290 ; Sir Stamford’s letter on the
state of that settlement, 297 ; Sir Stamford’s letter
on the burning of the Fame, 569; their decision
on his government, 598.

Court, Captain, 226.

Cransen, Mr., 100. 102. 228.

Cransend, Mr., 270.

Crawfurd, Mr., 515 ; mission to AS'iamand Cochin
China, 528. 531 ; letter to, 545.

Criminal, description of eating a, 426.

Crisp, Captain, 320.

Curious growth of the Krabut flower, 330.

Curious method of irrigation, 356.

Cycle, adopted by the Malays, 69.

INDEX

Daexdels, Marshal, 26; his operations, 33; ex-
ertions to secure his defences, 34 ; forces, 35 ;
military works, 36 ; threatens the Sultan of Pa-
lembang, 42 ; abandons Bangar Masing to the
Rajah, 59 ; remarks on his administration in Java,
198. 213.

Dalgairns, Capt., Aide-de-Camp., Introd. vi.

Dalrymple, Mr., on the Sulu Islands, 146.

Day, Mr., 563.

Davaks, aborigines of Borneo, 83. 145 ; veneration
for their ancestors, 152.

Davy, Sir Humphry, 589.

Deficiencies of an early education deplored, 2.

Depreciated state of paper currency, 191.

Description of the Tapir, 373.

Diard and Duvaucel, Messrs., letters to, 372. 703.

Diarrhoea occasioned by a volcano, 249.

Difficulties of Sir Stamford’s public life, 597.

Djocjocarta, disturbances at, 123 ; Mr. Raffles’ in-
terview with the Sultan, 125 ; confederacy of the
native states, 126 ; assault and capture of the city,
127, 128.

Dompo, dreadful effects of a volcano at, 248.

Drummoxd, Mr., 563.

Drury, Admiral, 88.

Duxdas, Hon. Philip, appointed Governor of
Penang, 5 ; writes to iMr. Raffles, 8 ; letter to, on
Malayan literature, 9; instructions to, 61.

Dutch, obtain possession of Malacca, 19; territories
on the island of Borneo, 60 ; traffic in slaves, 64 ;
factories at Japan and Canton, 66, 67 ; policy of
the government, 69. 99 ; monopoly in the East,
75 ; views of colonies, 77 ; garrison massacred,
119; system in Java, 213; its debasing effects,
219 ; that island transferred to them, 228 ; inter-
course with Japan, 229 ; annul the leases of lands,
273; system in the Eastern seas, 304; Mr.
Raffles’ views on their proceedings, 305 ; native
chiefs appeal against them, 341 ; necessity of
opposing their power, 370; no factory at Singa-
pore, 376; opposition to the British, 391 ; their
treaty with Rachmet Shah, 496 ; their defeat,
511.

Early Greece compared with the Malavan Islands,
180.

Earthquakes, 294.

Eastern Archipelago, 8 ; its chieftains, 23 ; customs,
174; language, origin of the native, 176; its
beautiful scenery, 403.

Eastern Isles, account of the, 60 ; territorial right in
the, 69 ; IMoslem religion very partial in the, 80 ;
commercial views on the, 413.

East India House, 2.

East India Company, /aua confirmed to the, 125;
importance of the connection between that Island
and China to their interests, 185 ; consequence of
a King’s government upon their monopoly, 186;
their regulations adverse to colonization, 476.

Economy of Sir Stamford’s government, 501.

Edex, Colonel, 95.

Edgou river, 52.

Edmonstoxe, N. B. Esq., 30 ; his view of Mr.
Raffles’ conduct, 205 ; letter to him from Mr. R.
on leaving Java, 273.

Education of Caffre children, 406.

Elephants, two kinds of, 315.

Elliott, Captain, 87; reconciles Mr. Raffles to
General Gillespie, 203.

Ende, or Manggerai Island, 82.

Enemy, cruelty to a slain, 154.

Engleiiart, Mr., 140.

English, the, plans of the government, 22 ; their in-
fluence in the Eastern seas, 23 ; habits of the
Malays not understood by, 42 ; shipping, 43 ; go-
vernment in Prince of Wales’ Island, 56 ; inhabi-
tants of Celebes attached to, 65 ; their policy, 70 ;
neglect of the government, 76.271 ; courage of
the army, 95 ; importance of Java to their inte-
rests, 83. 98 ; residents appointed at native courts,
101 ; proclamation to the people of Java, 103;
language cultivated by Japanese, 184; their
equal distribution of justice, 220; intercourse with
Japan, 226 ; acts on the slave trade, 227 ; neces-
sity of having their agent in the Eastern seas, 306;
economy in the service, 308 ; effects of their ad-
ministration at Java, 310; necessity of their op-
position to Dutch power, 370 ; interests and policy
opposed to those of the Dutch, 389.

Erskine, Lord, 448.

Essay on the Malayan nation, 14.

Establishment of a Malay College at Singapore, mi-
nutes by Sir S. on the, (Appendix), 23.

Ethiopia, traces of intercourse with, 178.

European power first paramount, 129.

Excursion in the Malay peninsula, 28.

Extension of the Eastern trade, 505.

Extract from Sir Stamford’s memorandum book,
576.

Factories of the Dutch, 66, 67.

Falcoxer, Captain, 275.

Farquhar, Mr., his Report on Pulo Penang, 51 ;
on Prince of Wales' Island, 54; again, 56 ; again,
76.

F.arquhar, Col., letter to Sir Stamford on the
state of Singapore, 443.

Fexdall, Mr., appointed to succeed Mr. Raffles in
the government of J ava, 269 ; his arrival there,
270.

Feudal wars in the Malay states, 77.

Fixlaysox, Mr. 509.

Fire at Canton, 527.

First excursion to the Hill of Mists, 314.

Flower of gold and silver, 49.

Flixt, Captain, letter to, from IMr. Brand, Resi-
dent of Batavia, refusing permission to allow him
to proceed to Samarang, 441.

Forest, Lieutenant, 16.

Forster’s Bengalee Vocabulary, 11.

Fort i\Iarlboro’, Residency of, 187 : Mr. Raffles’ ap-
pointment to, 188.

INDEX.

France, Holland annexed to, 22 ; supplies from in
the East, 33; agriculture, 288.

French flag in Java, 34.

Galangore, 8.

Game of chess, 1 1.

Gappam, musquitoes of, 29.

Garniiam, Captain, Introd. vi. 277.

Generosity of an American captain, 403.

Geography of Java, 148.

Gibbs, Colonel, 93 ; Cornells

Gigantic flower described, 316.

Gillespie, Colonel, commands the advance at the
capture of Batavia, 92 ; distinguishes himself at
the battle of Cornelis, 93 ; commands the expedi-
tion to 112; communicates with the

Sultan, 114; takes possession of the batteries at
Berang, 115; his intrepidity, 116; takes posses-
sion of the fort, 117 ; letter to Mr. Raffles on the
deposed Sultan, 118; congratulated on his suc-
cess by the Governor, 122 ; his unexpected and
fortunate return, 126 ; his bravery at the assault
and capture of Djocjocarta, 127, 8 ; letter to Mr.
Raffles on the distribution of the prize-money, 129 ;
brings charges against Mr. R., 202 ; decision of
the Court on them, 204.

Goa, 153; language, 155; founder of the empire,
156.

Goitres, natives affected with, 323.

Gold, Borneo productive in, 59 ; mines, 151. 255.

Gold and silver flower, 49.

Golden tortoise, discovery of the, 143.

Goram Island, frequented by the Americans, 74.

Gordon, Mr. 26.

Gourgaud, General, 276.

Graham, Mr. 281.

Grant, Mr. Charles

Greigh, Captain, placed under Mr. Raflies’ com-
mand, 26, 27 ; his report on returning from Bali
Baliling, 31 ; Mr. R’s instructions to him, 40.

Grammar, plan for a Javanese, 262.

Gressie, port of, 24 ; town of, 36 ; explosion at, 242.

Gunung Besi, or hill of iron, 354.

Dempo, 331.

Dingin, ascent o 46.

Gerai, 52.

Prahu, 160.

Haliied, Mr. 563.

Hall, Captain Basil, R. N. Introd. viii.

Hamed, Rajah, 4G.

Hamilton, Duke of, 183 ; Mr., 597.

Hammond, Elton, Esq., letter from Mr. Raffles to,
on Colonial affairs, 190,

Hankey, T. a.. Esq., Treasurer to the London
Missionary Society, letter from Sir S. to, 536.

Hanson, Mr., 129.

Harcourt,' Countess, 596.

Hare, Mr., Alexander, founder of a colony at
Borneo, 152.

Hardwicke, General, 538.

Harrington, Captain, 5.

Hastings, Marquis of, letter to Sir S. permitting
him to proceed to Bengal, 368 ; change in his
policy, 369 ; his support solicited, 409 ; letter to
Sir S. on our Eastern possessions, 420.

Hayes, Commodore, 27.

Hegira, epoch of the, 9.

Height of mountains, 157.

Helena, St. 577.

Herbert, Captain, 578.

Heyland, Lieut., his observations on ascending
Sindoro, 157.

Hill of Mists, first excursion to the, 314.

Hindu mythology, 143. 319; worshippers, 167;
religion, 171 ; deities, 262 ; images, 369. 384.

Hinduism, remains of, 158 ; tenets of, 171.

Historical compositions of Java, 165 ; account of
the same, 263.

Hogendorp, Van, 138.

Holloway, Mr., 293,

Home, Sir Everard, 579.

Homer, his Iliad and Odyssey, 165.

Hong merchants, 67.

Hooyman, 138.

Hope, Mr. 26.

Hopkins, Mr. quoted, 219.

Horrors of a battle, 117.

Horsburgh, 402.

Horse eaten by natives, 323.

Horsfield, Dr.,Introd.vii.; on the natural history of
Java, 105; again, 133; again, 140; botanical disco-
veries, 106 ; his account of the upas poison-tree,
107 ; contributes to the Batavian Society, 138;
exertions on Banca, 149 ; mineralogical details,
157 ; collection for the Oriental Museum, 206 ;
botanical pursuits, 342 ; sends an express to Sir
Stamford, 343 ; discovers several plants, 345 ;
collects minerals, 357. 363 ; materials for an ac-
count of his journey, 422; extract of a letter from
Sii Joseph Banks to him, 449 ; letter on Sir Stam-
ford’s efforts for the promotion of science during
the period of the British government in Java, 602.

Horticultural Society, 509; alluded to, 592.

Hull, Robert, Esq., 481.

Hull, Nelson, 551.

Human sacrifices, 144.

Hunter, Lieut., 128.

Hunter, Dr., 138.

Humanity of a native chief to his slaves, 411.

Humboldt, referred to, 177.

Hunter, Dr., 138.

Hypocrisy of the Arabs, 73.

Iber, Captain, 19.

Impolicy of transferring Java to the Dutch, 369.

Importance of Banca to the English, 44.

Importance of Singapore to the English, 459. 513.

Indee, Rajah, 46.

India, trade of, 83 ; customs of the Southern Penin-
sula, 174.

Infecundity, 470.

INDEX.

IxGLis, Sir Hugh, appoints Mr. Raffles to Penang,
5; letter from Mr. R. to, on the fate of Java,
226.

IxGLis, Sir Robert Harry, Introd. viii. ; letters
from Sir Stamford to, on his occupations in the
East, 384 ; on the Bible Society and schools esta-
blished at Bencoolen, 411 ; on the establishment
of the Zoological Society, 590 ; on the magis-
tracy, 591 .

Inheritance, laws of, 435.

Instruction to residents, 214.

Intercepted letter from Gen. Jansens, 96.

Interesting account of a singular people, 167.

Interview with Buonaparte, account of an, 276.

Invisible men, 337.

Ionian Islands, 81.

IpEREN, Van, 138.

Irrigation, curious method of, 356.

Isa, Rajah, 46.

Jack, Dr., 372 ; his botanical pursuits, 400 ; eulo-
gized by Sir Stamford, 407 ; his death, 512.

Jahui, the term explained, 20.

Jansen, General, at Cornells, 93; flies to Buiten-
zorg, 94 ; intercepted letter from, 96.

Japan, Dutch factory at, 66; trade of, 67; Russian
embassy to, 68; its pre-eminence, 181; people
described, 182 ; reception of Count Kreusenstern
at, 183; massacre of Samebarra, 183 ; inquisitive
character of the natives, 184; intercourse with,
important to the English, 229; their mission to,
230 ; letter on that subject, 231 ; contrasted with
China, 232.

Java, religion, 11 ; language, 12. 162. 239. 262;
British communication with, 23 ; French flag
hoisted in, 34; precautions respecting the natives,
38 ; Chinese residents, 72 ; advantages derived
from its possession, 83 ; sugar and coffee, 84 ; its
capitulation to the English, 95 ; importance of its
acquisition, 98 ; laws, 104; feudal tenure of land,
105; ancient temples, 106; European power first
paramount, 129; its constitution volcanic, 156;
fertility, 157. 180 ; monuments of antiquity, 158 ;
literature, 164 ; astronomy, 166; connection with
Siam diad China, 177. 185; colonies of foreign-
ers, 178; civilization, 179; English trade with,
186; government, 187; paper currency, 191;
revenue, 194; proposed literary work on, 195;
sale of lands, 198 ; ancient characters on stones,
206 ; improved system of government, 208 ; in-
structions to residents, 214; Dutch system in,
213 ; its disturbed state, 218 ; feudal service, 222;
land rental, 223 ; transferred to the Dutch, 228.
252 ; new government proposed, 259 ; ancient
sculpture and remains, 262 ; contrasted with Su-
matra, 479.

Java, letter from Dr. Horsfield on Sir Stamford’s
efforts for the promotion of science during the pe-
riod of the British government in, 607.

.lavanese, communications with the chieftains, 31 ;
manuscripts, 140.

Jeddo, court of, 182.

Jelolo, alias Celebes, 65; natives, 146.
Johore,a. Malay state, 16; Rajah of, 19. 398.
Johnson, Major, remains discovered by, 161.
Jokong, tribe, 17.

Jones, Sir William, 141 ; quoted, 181.

Jong’golo, antiquities at, 161.

Junks, Chinese, attacked, 47.

Kjempfer, his account of Japan, 181.

Ksempfer, 183.

Kali Raiar village, riches of, 161.

Haling, language of, 11; Chuliahs of, 20.
Kasumha, stupendous mountain of, 355.

Kawi character, inscriptions in the, 161. 342. 358.

361 ; language, 163.

Kiomanis river, N. W. of Borneo, 60.

Klerk, Major General, 135.

Kock, Mr., 28.

Koran, laws of the, 15 ; in Java, 220 ; read at Pas-
sumah, 336 ; its tenets, 430.

Krabut flower, curious growth of the, 330.
Kreusenstern, Count, his mission to Japan, 183.
Kurile Islands, aggressions of the Russians on the,
69.

Lakes, 469.

Lanuns, or pirates, 45.

Laos, customs of, 175 ; language, 176 ; connected
with the Archipelago, 237.

Las Casas, Count, 276.

Lawrence, Mr., Malay translator at Penang, 56.
Leading principles of the Dutch government, 99.
Lebu Tappu, tracts of elephants at, 315.

Leeches, 316.

Leith, Sir George, 52.

Leman Manis, village, 343 ; situation described, 344.
Leopold, Prince, distinguishes Sir Stamford, 287.
L’Etoile, a half-caste native, 57.

Letter from Dr. Horsfield on Sir Stamford’s efforts
for the promotion of science during the period of
the British government in Java, 602.

Leyden, Dr., becomes acquainted with Mr. Raffles
at Penang, 7 ; his letter to Mr. R. from Calcutta,
21 ; again, on Eastern affairs, 25; again, announc-
ing Lord Minto’s arrival, and on his excursion in
the Malay Peninsula, 28 ; his death, 97 ; that
event deplored, 98.

Light, Mr., extract from his report on Queda and
Siam, 50.

Ligore kingdom, 50.

Lin DEMAN, Rev. 2.

Lingen, Sultan of, 45.

Lives of eminent men useful and interesting, 1.

Local laws and regulations at •S'tJt^apore (Appendix 1,
39.

Lomblim Island, 82.

Lombok Island, Rajah of, 33.

Loubec, his embassy to Siam, 10.

Love of animals, 4.

Lowe, Sir Hudson, 276.

INDEX.

Ludoivick fort, 36.

Luhu state, 153.

Maba, 66.

M ACALisTEK, Colofiel, 856.

Macao, 57. 62.

Macassar, trade of, with Bali and Lombok, 32 ;
straits of, 39 ; principal settlement of Celebes, 64 ;
natives driven to piracy by Dutch monopoly, 65 ;
described, 145; tribes employed as the Swiss in
Europe, 153; expedition to, 240; effects of vol-
canic phenomena at, 245.

Mackenzie, Lieutenant Colonel, 39; his works
alluded to, 138; his exertions, 139; visit to Maja-
pahit, 206 ; in the Moluccas, 47 1 .

Maclean, Lieutenant, 128. 516.

Macquveil, Mr., 552.

M'Leod, Lieutenant Colonel, 93 ; Cornelis

Madras, 21 ; British force at, 26 ; tedious passage
to, 28 ; act of the governor quoted, 79.

Madura Island, 25; natives, 32. 34; dialect, 164;
inscription, 207.

Mahomet, his religion, 9. 430 ; its intolerant spirit,
78 ; causes of its success, 135 ; in Borneo, 144 ;
established in Java, 179.

Mahometan calendar, 10.

Mahratta village, resemblance to a, 171.

Maitland, General, 186.

Majapahit, state of, 71 ; princes, 170; antiquities,
206 ; division of society into classes, 207.

Malabar, 20.

Malacca, visit to, 7 ; orders for its destruction, 12 ;
productions, 13; decline of trade at, 14; con-
quered by the Portuguese, 18 ; by the Dutch, 20 ;
safest passage from, to Java, 39 ; superior to Pe-
nang, 41 ; piracies in the Straits, 45.

Malatj States, chronology of the, 9 ; game of chess,
11; manuscripts, 16; language, laws, 20; 239;
habits little understood by the English, 42; troupes
of states, 70 ; Arab and American adventurers in,
73, 74 ; feudal wars in, 77 ; prevalence of piracy
on the coasts, 78 ; sources of slavery, 79 ; causes
of deterioration of character among the natives,
80; monopoly by the chiefs, 81 ; propagation of
Christianity, 82 ; productions, 84 ; islands com-
pared with Greece, 180; character, 235 ; litera-
ture, 236 ; origin, 237 ; resemblance of the creeses
to duelling, 256 ; natives misrepresented, 358 ;
version of the Gospel of St. John in their language,
502.

Malayan nation, Mr. Raffles’ paper on the, 13.

Malluda, 60.

Mampawa, 60.

Mandhar State, contraband trade with, 65.

Manes, sacrifice to the, 338.

Manilla, wars with the Spaniards of, 63 ; sugar of, 84.

Manna village, 313 ; 320.

Mansel, Colonel, 275.

Manuscripts, discovery of, 161.

Manuscript, ancient, 166.

Maps of Sumatra and Singapore, 584.

Margauette, Seignor, 147.

Marriages, ceremonies at, 168; 173.

Marsden, Mr. author of the History of Sumatra,
9 ; his Semary vocabulary, 10; on the Malay game
of chess, 1 1 ; letters from Mr. Raffles to, on the
Malays, 13 ; on his appointment to Java, 98 ; on
its natural history, 106; on the Malayan lan-
guage, 176 ; on the transfer of Java to the Dutch,
205 ; on the Malays, 235 ; on the expedition to
Bali and Macassar, 239 ; on his tour of Java, 250;
on literature and science, 261 ; on his visit to the
continent, 289 ; on his arrival at Bencoolen, 293 ;
on the state of that settlement, 299 ; on his jour-
ney in Sumatra, 339; again, 364; on the Mar-
quess of Hastings’ policy, 369 ; on the indifference
of the Government to his views on Sumatra, 371 ;
on the Tapir, 373; on his mission to the Eastern
Isles, 374; on Acheen, 383; on his views and
plans, 421 ; on the Padries, 429 ; on natural his-
tory, 439 ; again, 446 ; again, 452 ; on the Nia
language, 449; on Sumatra, 469; again, 477 ; on
the improvements at Bencoolen, 495 ; again, 519;
from St. Helena, 579 ; from Cheltenham, 582.

Martinez de Tuniga on the Philippine Islands,
quoted, 175.

Masquerier, Captain, 64.

Massacre of the Dutch garrison, 119.

Mataram, sultan of, 31.

Mauritius, island of, 22. 30.

Meares, Captain, Malay interpreter, 115.

Memorandum book, extract from Sir Stamford’s,
576.

Memorandum of an intended work by the same, 600.

Menangkabu, origin of the people, 14 ; produc-
tions, 341. 363; city described, 359; agriculture,
388.

Merambung, penance at, 315 ; Lady Raffles rests
at, 321.

Method of acquiring the Japanese language, 163.

Methven, Capt. aide-de-camp, Introd. vii.

Military preparations of the enemy, 35 ; force of
Java, 133.

Milne, Rev. Dr. 533.

Milton, Rev. Mr. 533.

Mindanawi island, 45 ; described, 63 ; little known,
146.

Mineralogy, 150. 157.

Minto, population of, 43 ; murder of Captain Ross
at, 46.

Minto, Earl of, receives Mr. Raffles at Calcutta, 22 ;
appoints him agent, 23 ; his indecision, 25 ; letter
to Mr. R. on the expedition to Java, 26; arrives
at Malacca, 29; Mr. R.’s reports to his Lordship
to facilitate the conquest of Java, 30; anxiety
respecting the passage thither, 86 ; confides in
Mr. R. 87 ; letter from Sir S. Achmuty to his
Lordship on the capture of Batavia, 91 ; an-
nounces that event to the English authorities, 96 ;
letter from Mr. R. on the capture of Djocjocarta,
127 ; letter to the same approving of his measures,
130; again, on the transfer of Java, 187; ap-
1

INDEX.

points Mr. R. to Bencoolen, 188 ; letter to Mr. R.
on his departure from Calcutta, 195 ; again, 201 :
letter from Mr. R. on the settlement of Java, 224 ;
his Lordship’s popularity there, 228; letter from
Mr. R. on the mission to Japan, 231 ; his death
announced, 147 ; review of his services, 148.

Minute by Sir Stamford on the Establishment of a
Malay college at Singapore, 1819. App. 23.

Mission to Japan, 230.

Missionaries at Singapore, 536.

Mitford’s History of Greece quoted, 180.

Mocha coffee, 84.

Mode of preparing the Upas poison, 108.

Mode of descending rivers on rafts, 321.

Moira, Earl of, arrives in Calcutta, 197 ; mentioned,
279.

Moluccas, natives of the, 8 ; government, 22 ; gar-
risons, 35 ; states, 70; natural history, 146 ; cus-
toms, 175 ; highest Malay spoken in the, 237 ;
productions, 254.

Money, Wm. Taylor, Esq. 539. 547.

Monopoly of the Dutch in the East, 75 ; by the
Malay chiefs, 81.

Moore’s Melodies, ready translation of one, 4.

Morrison, Rev. Dr. his labours, 589 ; his objects in
the study of the Chinese language, 592.

Muntingiie, Mr. contributes to the Batavian So-
ciety, 140 ; assists the British government in Java,
229.

Murder expiated by fine, 77.

Murder of Mr. Parr, 301.

Murdoch, Thomas, Esq. letters from Sir Stamford,
on Sumatra, 461. 477 ; on Mr. Crawford’s mission
to Siam, 530 ; on his return to England, 567 ;
again, 594.

Muscat, 74.

Musquitoes, 29.

Nairs, 20.

Naersen, Van, 140.

Nangasaki, port of, 67.

Narrow escape, 322.

Nassau islands, 498.

National schools at Bencoolen, 406.

Native account of the Portuguese airival at Malacca,
17.

Native chief, a, his humanity to his slaves, 41 1.

Natives, anecdotes of the, 363.

Native woman, anecdote of a, 500.

Natural history of Java, 106; collections in Suma-
tra, 439.

Nearciius, 189.

Necessity of a British agent on the Eastern Seas,
306.

Negociation with the sultan of Palembang, 42.

Negrais expedition, letter on the, quoted, 54. 61.

Negritos del Monte, Caffres so called, 11.

Nepenthes, new species of, 382.

Netherlands, treaty of Great Britain with the go-
vernment, 13 ; the king, 289.

New Holland, 69.

Nias, Pulo, 448.

Nightingale, General, relieves General Gillespie
in the command at Java, 201. 209 ; supports Mr.
Raffles, 210. 226.

Nugent, Sir George, 201.

Nutmeg trees, culture of, 471.

Objects of Sir Stamford’s government appreciated,
367.

Oliphant, Mr. John, first member of council at
Penang, 5.

Ombai Island, 82.

Oppression of the Chinese in Java, 72.

Oriental Museum, collection for the, 206.

Origin of the Malay nations, 237.

Owen, Captain, 114.

Oxen used in agriculture, 349.

Padang, effects of an earthquake at, 294 ; Sir S.’s
visit to, 340.

Padries, account of the, 429 ; Dutch punishment of
a chief, 512 ; their progress, 561.

Pageruyong city described, 359 ; beautiful scenery,
360 ; population, 363. 365 ; its situation, 425.

Pahang, a Malay state, 16.

Palembang , a Malay state, 16 ; its importance to
the Dutch, 42 ; British expedition to, under Gil-
lespie, 110; difficulties attending the passage,
113; arrival of the troops, 114; batteries at
Borang taken, 115; gallantry of the attack, 1 16 ;
horrors of the scene, 117 ; fort, palaces, and bat-
teries taken, 118 ; account of the deposed sultan,
119; measures adopted by Gillespie on the suc-
cess of the British troops, 121.

Pangerang Ratoo, Sultan of Palembang, 118.

Pang LI MO, a guide, account of, 325 ; his terrors,
328.

Paper currency, 191.

Papua, or New Guinea, natives, 8 ; states, 70.

Parr, Mr. murder of, 301.

Parker, Mr. resident of Bencoolen, 187.

Parry, Edward, Esq. 598.

Passumah, journey to, 315; productions, 332;
costume, 333 ; origin, manners, and customs, 334 ;
articles of food, language, 335 ; religion, 336 ;
popular superstitions, 337 ; description of the
country, 386.

Patani, a Malay state, 16.

Pattany, cruelty of the Siamese General at, 51.

Paul, Lieutenant, 128.

Pearson, Mr. appointed Secretary to Penang, 5 ;
his illness, 6.

Pegu, singular custom of, 175.

Pellew, Hon. Captain, at Nangasaki, 68. 184.

Penance, 315.

Penang, new government of, 5 ; Mr. Raffles’ duties
at, 6 ; letter of the governor, 8 ; Lord Minto’s
arrival, 29 ; its cession alluded to, 55 ; advantage
of its connection with the Malay peninsula, 56 ;
our right to found a settlement at, 390.

People, account of a singular, 167.

INDEX.

Pepper, its demand for the Chinese market, 84 ; its
cultivation, 296 ; declared free, 301 ; consequence
of freighting a vessel with, 519.

Pernicious system at Bencoolen, 296.

Persia, 80.

Peru, language of, 175.

Peter the Great, 188.

Petrie, Governor, letter from Mr. Raffles to,
227.

Phaeton, Frigate, 228.

Philippines, Caffres of the, 1 1 ; language of the,
175.

Phillips, Captain, 146.

Pinto Mendez, his account of Java, 560.

Piracies in the Eastern Seas, 44 ; suggestions for
their suppression, 227.

Pitt, Mr. quoted, 78.

Place of death, 322.

Plan for a History of Java, 264.

Plate, presentation of, 270.

Policy of the Dutch and English, 69, 70.

Politeness of a Malay girl, 321.

Pontiana, Sultan of, 40 ; duped by the Arabs, 73.

Popularity of Sir Stamford in the Eastern Seas, 311.

Popular superstitions, 337.

Portuguese, their conquest of Malacca, 1 8 ; slaugh-
tered by the Malays, 20 ; intercourse with Cochin-
China, 62.

Prambana, ancient monuments at, 158.

Presgrave, Mr. his journal of a visit to the Sacred
Mountain quoted, 323.

Printed cotton, English trade in, 186.

Process of mining, 150.

Proclamations of the British government, 103. 216.

Pulo Chepada, village, 345.

Lehar, 315. 317.

Nias island, 448 ; language, 449 ; population,

458. 475; ceded to the East India Company,
483 ; fertility, 484 ; houses, baths, 486 ; slave
trade, 487 ; villages, cultivation of rice, 488 ;
exports, 489 ; tribes, laws, 490 ; circumstances
attending the traffic in slaves, 49 1 ; means to
effect its suppression, 492 ; religion, 493 ; Sir
Stamford’s anxiety to improve its condition, 494.

Pulo Penang, settlement of, 53.

Pulo Percha, 10.

Punishments for crimes, 173.

Queda, a Malay state, excursion to, 9 ; its supplies
to Penang cut off by piiates, 48; annals, 49;
connection with Siam, 50 ; consequences of the
king’s negociations with the Siamese, 51 ; acquire-
ment of lands in, neglected by the East India
Company, 52 ; remarks on the event of its cession
to the English, 55 ; importance of its supplies to
Prince of Wales’ island, 56.

Rachmet Shah of Lingin, Dutch treaty with,496.

Ra DERM A CHER, Mr. founder of the Batavian So-
ciety, 135; his liberality, 136; eulogized, 206.

Raffles, Mr. early life, 1 ; school, 2; enters the

India House, 3 ; walks into Wales, 4 ; appointed
deputy-secretary to Penang, 5; Capt. 'Travers’s
description of him whilst there ; his labors ; suc-
ceeds as secretary ; goes to Malacca, 7 ; inter-
course with the natives, 8 ; writes to the Governor
of Penang on the Malays, 9; proceeds to Calcutta,
22 ; collects information on the expedition to
Java, 23 ; reports to Lord Minto on that subject,

30 ; communicates with the Javanese chieftains,

31 ; observations on the state of the Archipelago,

32 ; on the military preparations of the enemy, 34 ;
discovers a new passage for the expedition, 39 ;
remarks on Banca, its mines, 44 ; pirate states,
45. 48 ; Queda, 49 ; Penang, 53 ; Borneo, 59 ;
Mindanawi, 63 ; Celebes, 64; Jelolo, 65 ; Japan,
66 ; contrasts Dutch and English policy, 69, 70 ;
observations on the Chinese, 72 ; Arabs, 73 ;
Americans, 74 ; on Dutch monopoly, 75 ; neg-
lect of the British Government, 76; piracy and
slavery, 78 ; propagation of Christianity, 82 ; on
the advantages of the possession of Java and the
Eastern isles to the British nation, 83 ; obtains
Lord Minto’s confidence, 87 ; appointed Lieut.
Governor of Java and its dependencies, 98 ; dif-
ficulties of the situation, 99 ; projects a change of
system, 100; appoints English residents at native
courts, 101 ; news connected with his government,
102 ; writes on the antiquities and natural history
of Java, 106; visits the Eastern districts, 108;
writes to the Governor-general on the expedition
to Palembang, 110; proceeds to Samarang, 120 ;
returns to Batavia, 124; concludes a treaty with
the sultan of Djocjocarta, 125 ; gives an account
of the assault and capture of Djocjocarta, 127 ;
expostulates with the military on their appropria-
tion of the plunder, 129; receives the approbation
of Lord Minto, 130 ; differs with Colonel Gilles-
pie, 132; re-establishes the Batavian Literary
Society and addresses that institution, 134. 147 ;
occupations, 184 ; views of the importance of con-
nection between Java and China to the East India
Company’s interests, 185; writes on the condition
of Java, 190; projects a history of that island,
195 ; charges brought against him by Gen. Gil-
lespie, 200 ; decision of the Court of Directors on
them, 204 ; writes on various subjects, 205 ; es-
tablishes an improved system of government, 208 ;
Capt. Travers’s description of him at that difficult
period, 209 ; reasons for introducing the change
m the tenure of land, 2 12. 221 ; gives instructions
to residents, 214; proclamation, 216; observa-
tions on the effects of the English system of go-
vernment, 220 ; forced to act in every measure of
importance on his own responsibility, 224 ; sug-
gests measures for the suppression of piracy, 227 ;
declares the slave trade to be felony, by a colonial
law, 228 ; sends a mission to Japan, 229 ; domes-
tic affliction, 234 ; tour of the island, 235; writes
to Lord Buckinghamshire on the advantages of
retaining Java, 252; proposes a new government
for it, 257 ; laborious duties, 260 ; gives an ac-

INDEX.

count of his discoveries in Java, 261 ; reviews of
his administration there, 266 ; relieved in the go-
vernment, 269 ; presentation of plate from the in-
habitants, 270; endeavours to secure justice to
the natives before his departure, 271 ; embarks for
England, 272; account of the voyage, 274 ; in-
terview with Buonaparte at St. Helena, 276 ; ar-
rival in London, 283 ; appeals to the Court of
Directors, 284; their approval of his conduct, 286 ;
writes his history of Java, marries, receives the
honor of knighthood, 286 ; distinguished by the
Princess Charlotte, visits the continent, 287 ;
meditates the establishment of a society on the
principles of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, 290 ;
appointed Lieut. Governor of Bencoolen and its
dependencies, 290; embarks, 291; arrives in
Sumatra, 292 ; describes the settlement, 293 ;
opinion of the effects of forced labour, 297 ;
emancipates the slaves, 300 ; views on the pro-
ceedings of the Dutch, 305 ; appeals in favour of
the native population, 310; popularity in the
Eastern seas, 311; determines to visit the inte-
rior, 313 ; goes to Passumah, 315; discovers a
gigantic flower, 316 ; proceeds to Cawoor, 320 ;
returns to Manna, 322 ; visits the Sacred Moun-
tain, 324 ; visits Padang, 340 ; anxious to go to
Menangkabu, 341 ; considered impracticable, 342 ;
determines to make the attempt, ibid.; ascends
Gunung Dingin, 346; arrives in the Tiga-Blas,
347; reception by the natives, 348; in the coun-
try, 349; conference with the chiefs, 350; de-
scribes the lake of Sincara, 354 ; arrives at Saruasa,
358 ; desribes Pageruyong, 359 ; Menangkabu,
363 ; objects of his government appreciated at
Bencoolen, 367 ; w’recked on the passage to Ben-
gal, 368 ; appearance in Calcutta creates a sensa-
tion, 370; appointed agent for the Eastern seas,
372 ; describes the Tapir, 373; hoists the British
flag at Singapore, 375 ; gives an account of that
settlement, 376 ; decides on the right to the j
crown at Acheen, 379 ; occupation and views, j
381. 447. 451 ; general view of his proceedings >
in the East in a letter to Sir Robert Harry Inglis,
384 ; arrives at Bencoolen, 404 ; anxiogs to im-
prove the condition of the inhabitants, 405 ; es-
tablishes national schools, 406 ; proposes a col-
lege for the natives, 408 ; anxiety for Mr. Wil-
berforce’s assistance, 409 ; resolves to proceed
again to Calcutta, 412; commercial views, 413 ;
describes the island of Billiton, 418 ; approval of
his plans, 422 ; illness, 425 ; describes the Battas,
426 ; the Padries, 429 ; favourite pursuits, 438 ;
sends home his collecticns in Natural History,
439 ; domestic habits, 452; attention to Natural
History, 453; defends his conduct, 455 ; describes
his children, 461 ; endeavours to improve Sumatra,
462 ; observations on British commerce with the
East, 464 ; on the progress of civilization in Su-
matra, 477 ; forms an establishment at Pulo Nias
for the suppression of slavery, 483 ; reasons for
returning to England, 497 ; death of his eldest

boy, 499 ; economy of his government, 501 ; in-
disposition, 503 ; illness of another child, 504 ;
death of his eldest child, 506 ; consigns spices
from Bencoolen, 510; agricultural exertions, 514;
opinion of the state of England, 515 ; responsible
situation, 517 ; departure for Singapore, 522 ;
arrival, 524 ; describes the settlement, 525 ; re-

, marks on Crawfurd’s mission, 528 ; endows a col-
lege at Singapore, 533 ; resolution of the Bengal
government at his leaving that settlement, 540 ;
report on his government there, 541 ; supreme
government approve of his regulations, 543 ; ad-
dress of the merchants on his departure, 544 ; re-
ply, 545 ; embarks for Bencoolen, 548 ; arrives at
Batavia, 551 ; correspondence with Baron van der
Capellen, 552 ; arrives at Bencoolen, 555 ; plans
for the future, 557 ; death of his youngest child,
564 ; anxiety to return to England, 565 ; embarks
in the Fame, 566 ; loss on that occasion, 568 ;
conflagration on board that vessel, ibid. ; writes to
the Court of Directors on that subject, 569 ; ex-
tract from his memorandum book, 576 ; arrives at
Plymouth, 581; intended occupations, 582; ill
health, 583 ; writes to the Bible Society, 585 ;
plans for establishing the Zoological Society, 590;
requested to act in the magistracy, 591 ; illness,
594 ; difficulties of his public life, 597 ; decision
of the Court of Directors on his government, 592 ;
his death, 600.

Raffles, Rev. Dr., Letters from Sir Stamford to
his cousin, on his early education, 2; the events
which led to his appointment in the East, 89 ;
the Bible Society and African Institution, 416,
417 ; the importance of Singapore, 458. 513 ; his
departure for Singapore, 522 ; returning to Ben-
coolen, 549 ; the Padries, 560 ; the Chinese lan-
guage, 592 ; the Zoological Society, 593, 594 ;
596.

Rafts, their use, 321,

Rama, fabulous history of, 177.

Ramsay, Wm. Esq., recommends Mr. Raffles, 5 ; let-
ters from Mr. R. to, on his government at Java, 102;
its military force, 132 : its unsettled tenure, 185.

Ramsay, W. B. Esq., Introd. viii.; letters to, on the
expedition to Java, 88; on its prosperity, 190 ; his
diferences with General Gillespie, 202 ; his ad-
ministration, 251 ; the revenue and government
of Java, 265 ; on his voyage to England, 279.

Ratch, settlement of pirates at, 45.

Ravages of the cholera morbus, 370. 431. 499.

Region of tigers, 325.

Remhan, a Malay state, 17.

Reply, Sir S.’s, to the Address of the merchants of
Singapore, 647.

Report of the Sumatran Agricultural Society, 473 ;
on the administration of justice at Singapore, Ap-
pendix, 62.

Responsibilities of Sir Stamford, 224.517.

Rhio, 40 ; Rajah Mudah of, 45 ; inferior to Singa-
pore, 377.

Rice, cultivation of, 471. 488.

INDEX.

Robinson, Lieutenant, 128; Mr., 517.

Ross, Professor, 140.

Ross, Captain, murder of, 46.

Rumbo, a Malay kingdom, 14.

Rumphius, original work of, 146.

Russian embassy to Japan, 68. 183 ; aggressions on
the Kurile islands, 69.

Ryswick, 101.

Ryotwar system, 224.

Sacadana empire, 60. 142.

Sadrayas, customs of the, 240.

Safest passage from Malacca to Java, 39.

Sailing fish, 526.

Salang, attack of the Burmans on, 51.

Salmond Captain, quoted, 339; made prisoner
by the Dutch, 395 ; his death, 563.

Salt prohibited by the Dutch, 333.

Samanap, Panambuhan of, 32. 411 ; explosions at,
243.

Samarang, 24. 123; European courts of justice in,
208 ; proposed as the new seat of government,
257.

Sambas, settlement of pirates at, 45 ; propagation
of Christianity, 82 ; expedition to, 198.

Sambawa island, volcanic phenomena on, 178.

Sambung mountain, ascent of, 362.

Samebarra, massacre of, 183.

Sandal-wood in demand for the Chinese market, 84.

Sanggir island, 82.

Sangora, 54.

Sanscrit Vocabulary, 11; compared, 163; terms
explained, 177 ; higher language in Java, 239.

Saugar, Rajah of, describes the eruption from Tom-
boro, 249.

Sawira Gading, first chief on Celebes, 153. 155.

Sayer, Captain, 94.

Scott, Mr. his communication respecting the Cara-
mata passage, 41 ; Queda and Siam, 51.

Scriptures, Malay version of the, 147. 237.

Sejarat Malaya, or annals and traditions of the Ma-
lays, 16.

Nmawgr vocabulary, 10; tribe, 17.

Searaw, 47.

Seton, Mr. 26.

Siak, a Malay state, 8 ; Dutch factory at, 14 ; laws,
16.

Siam, Loubec’s embassy to, 9; its connexion with
Queda, 49 ; productions, 54 ; singular customs,
175; connexion with Java, 177 ; with the Archi-
pelago, 237.

Siamese chronology, 9 ; hostilities with the Burmans,
50 ; their hatred of that nation, 54 ; language,
163 ; trade, 529.

Simawang described, 356; minerals, 357.

Sincara, lake of, 353 ; described, 354, 355.

Singapore, Malay government at, 16; British sta-
tion established, 370; its favourable situation,
375 ; importance of the settlement, 377. 459 ; in-
crease of population, 383; opinions on its advan-
tages, 401 ; expenses of the government, 446.

457 ; arrival of missionaries, 458. 536 ; settle-
ment described, 525 ; value of land, 532 ; endow-
ment of a college, 533. 539 ; trade, 534 ; aboli-
tion of slavery, 538 ; principles of the government,
542 ; local laws and regulations. Appendix, 39 ;
report on the administration of justice. Appendix,
62.

Singapura island, 378.

Slavery, evils of, 78; sources, 79; abolished, 228;
establishment for its suppression, 483 ; horrible
circumstances attending it, 491 ; abolished, 538.

Slaves, Dutch traffic in, 64 ; employed at Bencoolen,
296 ; plan to capture a family, 492.

Small-pox, 319.

Solo Solaya, 349 ; costume, gold mines, burial-
ground, 351.

Smith, Lieut. 31.

Somerset, Duchess of, letters from Sir Stamford,
to her Grace, on his visit to the continent, 287 ;
his arrival at Bencoolen, 294; his excursion in
Sumatra, 314. 342. 365; his visit to Bengal, 371;
from Penang, 377 ; on Singapore, 383 ; his voy-
age to Bengal, 415; from Calcutta, 420; the
manners and customs of the Battas, 425; his oc-
cupations, 447. 450. 476; his return to England,
497. 557 ; the loss of his child, 504. 521 ; his ar-
rival at Singapore, 525 ; the burning of the Fame,
574; from St. Helena, 578; from Cheltenham,
581 ; his intended occupations, 582 ; his ill health,
583, 584.

Somerset, Duke of, letter from Sir S. to his Grace
on Eastern affairs, 464. 509.

Souracarta, court of, 123.

South America, 76 ; customs and language, 175.

Southern Peninsula of India, 174.

South Sea islands, 15; supplied with fire arms by
the Americans, 74.

Spice islands, 234.

Spice gardens, 475.

St. Helena, interview with Napoleon at, 276.

Storm off the Cape of Good Hope, 578.

Stewart, Mr., 41.

Stopford, Admiral, 95.

Stuge, Vander, 138.

Sugar, comparison of, 84 ; its cultivation, 466. 514.

Suggestions for the suppression of piracy, 227 ;
of slavery, 483.

Sulu Archipelago, 39. 63.

Sumatra, 293 ; state of the country, 295 ; first ex-
cursion to the Hill of Mists, 304 ; journey to
Passumah, 315; gigantic flower discovered, 316;
mode of descending rivers on rafts, 321 ; sacred
mountain described, 324 ; sketch of the country,
330 ; popular superstitions, 336 ; Padang, 340 ;
appeal of the native chiefs against the Dutch, 340 ;
account of a journey into the interior, 342 ; beau-
tiful scenery, 344 ; course of the river, 345 ; cattle,
clothing of the people, 349; gold mines, 351 ;
anecdotes of the natives, 363 ; animals, 440 ; ad-
vantages over the West Indies, 466 ; lakes, 469 ;
infecundity of the people, 470 ; progress of civili-

100

INDEX.

zation, 477 ; contrasted with Java, 479; capabi- I
lities, 480 ; general survey, 520.

Sunda, straits of, 36 ; isles, 70 ; language, 162.
Supernatural beings, 336.

Surat, 62.

Surabaga, 36 ; European courts of justice in, 208.
Suruasa, 357.

Susa, Pangulu of, 57.

Tagala, its language traced, 175.

T.mt, Captain, his escape from pirates, 46.

Taman, Rajah of, 33.

Tamul nation, 20.

Tapir, description of the, 273.

Tappanooly, 425. 436.

Taprobane of the ancients, 178. 255.

Taylor, Captain, 26.

Taylor, Mr., 54.

Telinga nation, 20.

mountains, 167.

Ter, term of, 11.

Thory, Major, 114.

Tidore, Sultan of, an old ally of the English, 66.

Tiga Bias, 347 ; population, 354.

Tiger, met by coolies, 322.

Tigers, regarded as sacred, 314.

Timor Island, 70 ; propagation of Christianity in,
82.

Tin mines, 149. 255.

Titsing, Mr., 138.

Tomboro mountain, account of the eruption from the,
249 ; heard at Macassar, 245 ; felt through the
IMoluccas, 247 ; its ravages, 249.

Tonnage, amount of, arrived at Singapore, 509.
Towson Abia, bay of, 60.

Tradition of Celebes, 238.

Trangaro, 52.

Transactions of the Batavian Society, 138.

Transfer of Java to the Dutch, 248.

Transmigration, 338.

Travers, Captain, Introd. vii ; his description of
Mr. Raffles while at Penang, 6 ; at Java, 209 ;
account of his voyage to England, 274.

Travelling, fatigues of, 387.

Tree, gold and silver, 50.

Tringano, a Malay slate, 16.

Tuanku Pasaman, a religious reformer, 342. 349.
Tuanku Pau Erang, 56.

I Tumugung Lonong, villanies of, 120,

Tuniga, Martiner de, 175.

Twelve Caesars, busts of the, 188.

‘ Undang Undang,’ or Malay code of laws, 15. 28.
79.

Upas poison, mode of preparing, 107.

Value of land, 533.

Van der Capellen, Sir S.’s correspondence with,
552.

Vegetation of Malayan forests, 317.

VicKENS, Mons. 96.

Vienna, declaration of the Allied Sovereigns at, 252.

ViLLNERUIIY, Mr., 116.

Visit to the Sacred Mountain, 324.

Volcanic phenomena, 178, 241.

"Voyage from Java, 274.

Wallicii, Dr., Introd. vii; Sir Stamford’s letter to,
on Singapore, 382. 537 ; on the establishment of
a college there, 539 ; his return to Bencoolen, 550 ;
his arrival at Batavia, 5.51 ; his plans for the future,
563 ; the burning of the Fame, 575.

Wellesley, Marquess, 78.

Weltevreeden,ZQ\ Dutch cantonment at, 92; public
ball at, 124.

West Indies, advantages of Sumatra compared with
the, 467.

Wetiierall, Major General, 93; Cornelis.

WiLBERFORCE, W. Esq., Sir Stamford’s letter to,
on various subjects, 405.

Winter, Rev. Charles, 406.

Wives, burning of, 172.

Wood, Colonel, 93 ; Cornelis.

Wooden images, or household gods, 493.

WuRMB, Van, Baron, 138.

York, Duke of. Island of Banca, called after, 122.

Young, Captain, 128.

Yule, Major, his spirited attack at Cornelis, 94.

Zodiac, ancient MS. of the, 166.

Zoological Society, plans for its establishment, 290 ;
Sir Stamford’s letters on the subject, 590. 593 ;
its prospectus, 595.

Zoological specimens, catalogue of, 633. — 697.

THE END.

GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, PRINTERS,

ST. JOHN’S SQUARE, LONDON.

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Full text of "Memoir of the life and public services of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles : particularly in the government of Java, 1811-1816, and of Bencoolen and its dependencies, 1817-1824 : with details of the commerce and resources of the Eastern archipelago, and selections from his correspondence"

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